1
|
Conceicao* C, Thakur* N, Human S, Kelly JT, Logan L, Bialy D, Bhat S, Stevenson-Leggett P, Zagrajek AK, Hollinghurst P, Varga M, Tsirigoti C, Tully M, Chiu C, Moffat K, Silesian AP, Hammond JA, Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Shelton H, Dietrich I, Graham SC, Bailey D. SARS-CoV-2 Spike has broad tropism for mammalian ACE2 proteins yet exhibits a distinct pattern of receptor usage when compared to other β-coronavirus Spike proteins. Access Microbiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1099/acmi.ac2021.po0441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by SARS Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), continues to cause significant mortality in human populations worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 has high sequence similarity to SARS-CoV and other related coronaviruses circulating in bats. It is still unclear whether transmission occurred directly from bats to humans, or through an intermediate host, bringing into question the broader host range of SARS-CoV-2. Using a combination of low biocontainment entry assays as well as live virus, we explored the receptor usage of SARS-CoV-2 using angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors from 22 different species. We demonstrated that in addition to human ACE2, the Spike of SARS-CoV-2 has broad tropism for other mammalian ACE2s, including dog, cat and cattle. However, comparison of SARS-CoV-2 receptor usage to the related SARS-CoV and bat coronavirus, RaTG13, identified distinct patterns of receptor usage, with the two human viruses being more closely aligned. Finally, using bioinformatics, structure analysis and targeted mutagenesis, we identified key residues at the Spike-ACE2 interface which may have played a pivotal role in the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in humans, some of which are also mutated in newly circulating variants of the virus. To summarise, the broad tropism of SARS-CoV-2 at the point of viral entry identifies the potential risk of infection of a wide range of companion animals, livestock and wildlife.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Philippa Hollinghurst
- Department of Microbial Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
- The Pirbright Institute, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Stephen C Graham
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Elrefaey AME, Hollinghurst P, Reitmayer CM, Alphey L, Maringer K. Innate Immune Antagonism of Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses in Humans and Mosquitoes. Viruses 2021; 13:2116. [PMID: 34834923 PMCID: PMC8624719 DOI: 10.3390/v13112116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquito-borne viruses of the Flavivirus genus (Flaviviridae family) pose an ongoing threat to global public health. For example, dengue, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile, yellow fever, and Zika viruses are transmitted by infected mosquitoes and cause severe and fatal diseases in humans. The means by which mosquito-borne flaviviruses establish persistent infection in mosquitoes and cause disease in humans are complex and depend upon a myriad of virus-host interactions, such as those of the innate immune system, which are the main focus of our review. This review also covers the different strategies utilized by mosquito-borne flaviviruses to antagonize the innate immune response in humans and mosquitoes. Given the lack of antiviral therapeutics for mosquito-borne flaviviruses, improving our understanding of these virus-immune interactions could lead to new antiviral therapies and strategies for developing refractory vectors incapable of transmitting these viruses, and can also provide insights into determinants of viral tropism that influence virus emergence into new species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed M. E. Elrefaey
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.H.); (C.M.R.); (L.A.)
| | - Philippa Hollinghurst
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.H.); (C.M.R.); (L.A.)
- Department of Microbial Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | | | - Luke Alphey
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.H.); (C.M.R.); (L.A.)
| | - Kevin Maringer
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.H.); (C.M.R.); (L.A.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Derrick J, Hollinghurst P, O'Brien S, Elviss N, Allen DJ, Iturriza-Gómara M. Measuring transfer of human norovirus during sandwich production: Simulating the role of food, food handlers and the environment. Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 348:109151. [PMID: 33940535 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne outbreaks associated with transmission of norovirus are increasingly becoming a public health concern. Foods can be contaminated with faecal material at the point of production or during food preparation, in both the home and in commercial premises. Transmission of norovirus occurs through the faecal-oral route, either via person-to-person contact or through faecal-contamination of food, water, or environmental surfaces. Understanding the role and pathways of norovirus transmission - either via food handlers' hands, contaminated foods or the environment - remains a key public health priority to reduce the burden of norovirus-associated gastroenteritis. However the proportion of norovirus that is typically transferred remains unknown. Understanding this is necessary to estimate the risk of infection and the burden of gastroenteritis caused by norovirus. In this paper we present a novel method of capture, concentration and molecular detection of norovirus from a wider range of complex food matrices than those demonstrated in existing published methods. We demonstrate that this method can be used as a tool to detect and quantify norovirus from naturally contaminated food, and for monitoring norovirus transfer between food handlers' gloved hands, food or the environment. We measure the effect of introducing contamination at different food production process stages, to the final food product, to determine whether this could cause infection and disease. Between 5.9 and 6.3 Log10 cDNA copies/μl of norovirus GII were inoculated onto food handlers' gloved hands, food or the environment and 1.1-7.4% of norovirus contamination was recovered from all samples tested. When interpreted quantitatively, this percentage equates to levels predicted to be sufficient to cause infection and disease through consumption of the final food product, demonstrating a public health risk. Overall detection and quantification of norovirus from foods, food handlers' gloved hands and the environment, when suspected to be implicated in foodborne transmissions, is paramount for appropriate outbreak investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jade Derrick
- Virus Reference Department, National Infections Service, Public Health England, London, UK.
| | - Philippa Hollinghurst
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Sarah O'Brien
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK; NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Gastrointestinal Infections, UK
| | - Nicola Elviss
- Food, Water and Environmental Microbiology Services, National Infections Service, Public Health England, UK; NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Gastrointestinal Infections, UK
| | - David J Allen
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK; NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Gastrointestinal Infections, UK
| | - Miren Iturriza-Gómara
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK; NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Gastrointestinal Infections, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tan TK, Rijal P, Rahikainen R, Keeble AH, Schimanski L, Hussain S, Harvey R, Hayes JWP, Edwards JC, McLean RK, Martini V, Pedrera M, Thakur N, Conceicao C, Dietrich I, Shelton H, Ludi A, Wilsden G, Browning C, Zagrajek AK, Bialy D, Bhat S, Stevenson-Leggett P, Hollinghurst P, Tully M, Moffat K, Chiu C, Waters R, Gray A, Azhar M, Mioulet V, Newman J, Asfor AS, Burman A, Crossley S, Hammond JA, Tchilian E, Charleston B, Bailey D, Tuthill TJ, Graham SP, Duyvesteyn HME, Malinauskas T, Huo J, Tree JA, Buttigieg KR, Owens RJ, Carroll MW, Daniels RS, McCauley JW, Stuart DI, Huang KYA, Howarth M, Townsend AR. A COVID-19 vaccine candidate using SpyCatcher multimerization of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor-binding domain induces potent neutralising antibody responses. Nat Commun 2021; 12:542. [PMID: 33483491 PMCID: PMC7822889 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20654-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
There is need for effective and affordable vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 to tackle the ongoing pandemic. In this study, we describe a protein nanoparticle vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. The vaccine is based on the display of coronavirus spike glycoprotein receptor-binding domain (RBD) on a synthetic virus-like particle (VLP) platform, SpyCatcher003-mi3, using SpyTag/SpyCatcher technology. Low doses of RBD-SpyVLP in a prime-boost regimen induce a strong neutralising antibody response in mice and pigs that is superior to convalescent human sera. We evaluate antibody quality using ACE2 blocking and neutralisation of cell infection by pseudovirus or wild-type SARS-CoV-2. Using competition assays with a monoclonal antibody panel, we show that RBD-SpyVLP induces a polyclonal antibody response that recognises key epitopes on the RBD, reducing the likelihood of selecting neutralisation-escape mutants. Moreover, RBD-SpyVLP is thermostable and can be lyophilised without losing immunogenicity, to facilitate global distribution and reduce cold-chain dependence. The data suggests that RBD-SpyVLP provides strong potential to address clinical and logistic challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiong Kit Tan
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK.
| | - Pramila Rijal
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
- Centre for Translational Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Rolle Rahikainen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Anthony H Keeble
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Lisa Schimanski
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
- Centre for Translational Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Saira Hussain
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Ruth Harvey
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Jack W P Hayes
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Jane C Edwards
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | | | - Miriam Pedrera
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Nazia Thakur
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | | | - Holly Shelton
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Anna Ludi
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Clare Browning
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Dagmara Bialy
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Sushant Bhat
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Philippa Hollinghurst
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
- Department of Microbial Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Matthew Tully
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Katy Moffat
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Chris Chiu
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Ryan Waters
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Ashley Gray
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Mehreen Azhar
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Joseph Newman
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Amin S Asfor
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Alison Burman
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - John A Hammond
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Elma Tchilian
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Dalan Bailey
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Simon P Graham
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Helen M E Duyvesteyn
- Division of Structural Biology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, The Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Headington, Oxford, UK
| | - Tomas Malinauskas
- Division of Structural Biology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, The Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Headington, Oxford, UK
| | - Jiandong Huo
- Division of Structural Biology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, The Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Headington, Oxford, UK
- Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Protein Production UK, Research Complex at Harwell, and Rosalind Franklin Institute, Harwell, Didcot, OX11 0FA, UK
| | - Julia A Tree
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, SP4 0JG, UK
| | - Karen R Buttigieg
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, SP4 0JG, UK
| | - Raymond J Owens
- Division of Structural Biology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, The Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Headington, Oxford, UK
- Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Protein Production UK, Research Complex at Harwell, and Rosalind Franklin Institute, Harwell, Didcot, OX11 0FA, UK
| | - Miles W Carroll
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, SP4 0JG, UK
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Rodney S Daniels
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - John W McCauley
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - David I Stuart
- Centre for Translational Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Division of Structural Biology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, The Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Headington, Oxford, UK
- Diamond Light Source Ltd, Harwell Science & Innovation Campus, Didcot, UK
| | - Kuan-Ying A Huang
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Mark Howarth
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK.
| | - Alain R Townsend
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK.
- Centre for Translational Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Conceicao C, Thakur N, Human S, Kelly JT, Logan L, Bialy D, Bhat S, Stevenson-Leggett P, Zagrajek AK, Hollinghurst P, Varga M, Tsirigoti C, Tully M, Chiu C, Moffat K, Silesian AP, Hammond JA, Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Shelton H, Dietrich I, Graham SC, Bailey D. The SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein has a broad tropism for mammalian ACE2 proteins. PLoS Biol 2020; 18:e3001016. [PMID: 33347434 PMCID: PMC7751883 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in late 2019, leading to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that continues to cause significant global mortality in human populations. Given its sequence similarity to SARS-CoV, as well as related coronaviruses circulating in bats, SARS-CoV-2 is thought to have originated in Chiroptera species in China. However, whether the virus spread directly to humans or through an intermediate host is currently unclear, as is the potential for this virus to infect companion animals, livestock, and wildlife that could act as viral reservoirs. Using a combination of surrogate entry assays and live virus, we demonstrate that, in addition to human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the Spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 has a broad host tropism for mammalian ACE2 receptors, despite divergence in the amino acids at the Spike receptor binding site on these proteins. Of the 22 different hosts we investigated, ACE2 proteins from dog, cat, and cattle were the most permissive to SARS-CoV-2, while bat and bird ACE2 proteins were the least efficiently used receptors. The absence of a significant tropism for any of the 3 genetically distinct bat ACE2 proteins we examined indicates that SARS-CoV-2 receptor usage likely shifted during zoonotic transmission from bats into people, possibly in an intermediate reservoir. Comparison of SARS-CoV-2 receptor usage to the related coronaviruses SARS-CoV and RaTG13 identified distinct tropisms, with the 2 human viruses being more closely aligned. Finally, using bioinformatics, structural data, and targeted mutagenesis, we identified amino acid residues within the Spike-ACE2 interface, which may have played a pivotal role in the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in humans. The apparently broad tropism of SARS-CoV-2 at the point of viral entry confirms the potential risk of infection to a wide range of companion animals, livestock, and wildlife.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nazia Thakur
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Stacey Human
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | | | - Leanne Logan
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Dagmara Bialy
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Sushant Bhat
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Philippa Hollinghurst
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
- Department of Microbial Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Michal Varga
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | | | - Matthew Tully
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Chiu
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Katy Moffat
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | - Holly Shelton
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | | | - Stephen C. Graham
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Dalan Bailey
- The Pirbright Institute, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Graham SP, McLean RK, Spencer AJ, Belij-Rammerstorfer S, Wright D, Ulaszewska M, Edwards JC, Hayes JWP, Martini V, Thakur N, Conceicao C, Dietrich I, Shelton H, Waters R, Ludi A, Wilsden G, Browning C, Bialy D, Bhat S, Stevenson-Leggett P, Hollinghurst P, Gilbride C, Pulido D, Moffat K, Sharpe H, Allen E, Mioulet V, Chiu C, Newman J, Asfor AS, Burman A, Crossley S, Huo J, Owens RJ, Carroll M, Hammond JA, Tchilian E, Bailey D, Charleston B, Gilbert SC, Tuthill TJ, Lambe T. Evaluation of the immunogenicity of prime-boost vaccination with the replication-deficient viral vectored COVID-19 vaccine candidate ChAdOx1 nCoV-19. NPJ Vaccines 2020; 5:69. [PMID: 32793398 PMCID: PMC7385486 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-020-00221-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical development of the COVID-19 vaccine candidate ChAdOx1 nCoV-19, a replication-deficient simian adenoviral vector expressing the full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein was initiated in April 2020 following non-human primate studies using a single immunisation. Here, we compared the immunogenicity of one or two doses of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 in both mice and pigs. Whilst a single dose induced antigen-specific antibody and T cells responses, a booster immunisation enhanced antibody responses, particularly in pigs, with a significant increase in SARS-CoV-2 neutralising titres.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alexandra J. Spencer
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | - Sandra Belij-Rammerstorfer
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | - Daniel Wright
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | - Marta Ulaszewska
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | | | | | | | - Nazia Thakur
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | | | | | - Holly Shelton
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Ryan Waters
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Anna Ludi
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | | | - Clare Browning
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Dagmara Bialy
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Sushant Bhat
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | | | - Philippa Hollinghurst
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
- Department of Microbial Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH UK
| | - Ciaran Gilbride
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | - David Pulido
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | - Katy Moffat
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Hannah Sharpe
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | - Elizabeth Allen
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | | | - Chris Chiu
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Joseph Newman
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Amin S. Asfor
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Alison Burman
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | | | - Jiandong Huo
- Protein Production UK, Research Complex at Harwell, and Rosalind Franklin Institute Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Harwell Oxford, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
- Division of Structural Biology, Henry Wellcome Building for Genomic Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN UK
| | - Raymond J. Owens
- Protein Production UK, Research Complex at Harwell, and Rosalind Franklin Institute Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Harwell Oxford, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
- Division of Structural Biology, Henry Wellcome Building for Genomic Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN UK
| | - Miles Carroll
- Public Health England, Manor Farm Road, Salisbury, SP4 0JG UK
| | | | - Elma Tchilian
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | - Dalan Bailey
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, GU24 0NF UK
| | | | - Sarah C. Gilbert
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | | | - Teresa Lambe
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| |
Collapse
|