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Mutono N, Basáñez MG, James A, Stolk WA, Makori A, Kimani TN, Hollingsworth TD, Vasconcelos A, Dixon MA, de Vlas SJ, Thumbi SM. Elimination of transmission of onchocerciasis (river blindness) with long-term ivermectin mass drug administration with or without vector control in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Health 2024; 12:e771-e782. [PMID: 38484745 PMCID: PMC11009120 DOI: 10.1016/s2214-109x(24)00043-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND WHO has proposed elimination of transmission of onchocerciasis (river blindness) by 2030. More than 99% of cases of onchocerciasis are in sub-Saharan Africa. Vector control and mass drug administration of ivermectin have been the main interventions for many years, with varying success. We aimed to identify factors associated with elimination of onchocerciasis transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS For this systematic review and meta-analysis we searched for published articles reporting epidemiological or entomological assessments of onchocerciasis transmission status in sub-Saharan Africa, with or without vector control. We searched MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, African Index Medicus, and Google Scholar databases for all articles published from database inception to Aug 19, 2023, without language restrictions. The search terms used were "onchocerciasis" AND "ivermectin" AND "mass drug administration". The three inclusion criteria were (1) focus or foci located in Africa, (2) reporting of elimination of transmission or at least 10 years of ivermectin mass drug administration in the focus or foci, and (3) inclusion of at least one of the following assessments: microfilarial prevalence, nodule prevalence, Ov16 antibody seroprevalence, and blackfly infectivity prevalence. Epidemiological modelling studies and reviews were excluded. Four reviewers (NM, AJ, AM, and TNK) extracted data in duplicate from the full-text articles using a data extraction tool developed in Excel with columns recording the data of interest to be extracted, and a column where important comments for each study could be highlighted. We did not request any individual-level data from authors. Foci were classified as achieving elimination of transmission, being close to elimination of transmission, or with ongoing transmission. We used mixed-effects meta-regression models to identify factors associated with transmission status. This study is registered in PROSPERO, CRD42022338986. FINDINGS Of 1525 articles screened after the removal of duplicates, 75 provided 282 records from 238 distinct foci in 19 (70%) of the 27 onchocerciasis-endemic countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Elimination of transmission was reported in 24 (9%) records, being close to elimination of transmission in 86 (30%) records, and ongoing transmission in 172 (61%) records. I2 was 83·3% (95% CI 79·7 to 86·3). Records reporting 10 or more years of continuous mass drug administration with 80% or more therapeutic coverage of the eligible population yielded significantly higher odds of achieving elimination of transmission (log-odds 8·5 [95% CI 3·5 to 13·5]) or elimination and being close to elimination of transmission (42·4 [18·7 to 66·1]) than those with no years achieving 80% coverage or more. Reporting 15-19 years of ivermectin mass drug administration (22·7 [17·2 to 28·2]) and biannual treatment (43·3 [27·2 to 59·3]) were positively associated with elimination and being close to elimination of transmission compared with less than 15 years and no biannual mass drug administration, respectively. Having had vector control without vector elimination (-42·8 [-59·1 to -26·5]) and baseline holoendemicity (-41·97 [-60·6 to -23·2]) were associated with increased risk of ongoing transmission compared with no vector control and hypoendemicity, respectively. Blackfly disappearance due to vector control or environmental change contributed to elimination of transmission. INTERPRETATION Mass drug administration duration, frequency, and coverage; baseline endemicity; and vector elimination or disappearance are important determinants of elimination of onchocerciasis transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. Our findings underscore the importance of improving and sustaining high therapeutic coverage and increasing treatment frequency if countries are to achieve elimination of onchocerciasis transmission. FUNDING The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Neglected Tropical Diseases Modelling Consortium, UK Medical Research Council, and Global Health EDCTP3 Joint Undertaking. TRANSLATIONS For the Swahili, French, Spanish and Portuguese translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nyamai Mutono
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; Paul G Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA.
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK; London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Ananthu James
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Anita Makori
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; Paul G Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Teresia Njoki Kimani
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; Paul G Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA; Ministry of Health Kenya, Kiambu Town, Kenya
| | | | | | - Matthew A Dixon
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK; London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - S M Thumbi
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; Paul G Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA; Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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Vasconcelos A, King JD, Nunes-Alves C, Anderson R, Argaw D, Basáñez MG, Bilal S, Blok DJ, Blumberg S, Borlase A, Brady OJ, Browning R, Chitnis N, Coffeng LE, Crowley EH, Cucunubá ZM, Cummings DAT, Davis CN, Davis EL, Dixon M, Dobson A, Dyson L, French M, Fronterre C, Giorgi E, Huang CI, Jain S, James A, Kim SH, Kura K, Lucianez A, Marks M, Mbabazi PS, Medley GF, Michael E, Montresor A, Mutono N, Mwangi TS, Rock KS, Saboyá-Díaz MI, Sasanami M, Schwehm M, Spencer SEF, Srivathsan A, Stawski RS, Stolk WA, Sutherland SA, Tchuenté LAT, de Vlas SJ, Walker M, Brooker SJ, Hollingsworth TD, Solomon AW, Fall IS. Accelerating Progress Towards the 2030 Neglected Tropical Diseases Targets: How Can Quantitative Modeling Support Programmatic Decisions? Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78:S83-S92. [PMID: 38662692 PMCID: PMC11045030 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciae082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, considerable progress has been made in the control, elimination, and eradication of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). Despite these advances, most NTD programs have recently experienced important setbacks; for example, NTD interventions were some of the most frequently and severely impacted by service disruptions due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Mathematical modeling can help inform selection of interventions to meet the targets set out in the NTD road map 2021-2030, and such studies should prioritize questions that are relevant for decision-makers, especially those designing, implementing, and evaluating national and subnational programs. In September 2022, the World Health Organization hosted a stakeholder meeting to identify such priority modeling questions across a range of NTDs and to consider how modeling could inform local decision making. Here, we summarize the outputs of the meeting, highlight common themes in the questions being asked, and discuss how quantitative modeling can support programmatic decisions that may accelerate progress towards the 2030 targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Vasconcelos
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Centre for Global Health Research, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan D King
- Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Cláudio Nunes-Alves
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Roy Anderson
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, St Mary's Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Argaw
- Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, St Mary's Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Shakir Bilal
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - David J Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Seth Blumberg
- Francis I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Anna Borlase
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver J Brady
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for the Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Raiha Browning
- The Department of Statistics, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Nakul Chitnis
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Emily H Crowley
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Zulma M Cucunubá
- Departamento de Epidemiología Clínica y Bioestadística, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Pontificia Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Derek A T Cummings
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Christopher Neil Davis
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Emma Louise Davis
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Dixon
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, St Mary's Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Dobson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Louise Dyson
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Michael French
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, St Mary's Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- RTI International, Washington, D.C., USA
| | - Claudio Fronterre
- CHICAS, Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Emanuele Giorgi
- CHICAS, Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Ching-I Huang
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Saurabh Jain
- Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ananthu James
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sung Hye Kim
- Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Klodeta Kura
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, St Mary's Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Lucianez
- Communicable Diseases Prevention, Control, and Elimination, Pan American Health Organization, Washington D.C., USA
| | - Michael Marks
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Pamela Sabina Mbabazi
- Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Graham F Medley
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Edwin Michael
- College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Antonio Montresor
- Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nyamai Mutono
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Thumbi S Mwangi
- Centre for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kat S Rock
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Martha-Idalí Saboyá-Díaz
- Communicable Diseases Prevention, Control, and Elimination, Pan American Health Organization, Washington D.C., USA
| | - Misaki Sasanami
- Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Markus Schwehm
- ExploSYS GmbH, Interdisciplinary Institute for Exploratory Systems, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany
| | - Simon E F Spencer
- Centre for the Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ariktha Srivathsan
- Francis I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Robert S Stawski
- Institute of Public Health and Wellbeing, School of Health and Social Care, University of Essex, Essex, United Kingdom
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Samuel A Sutherland
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Warwick Medical School, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Walker
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - T Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony W Solomon
- Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ibrahima Socé Fall
- Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
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3
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Touloupou P, Fronterre C, Cano J, Prada JM, Smith M, Kontoroupis P, Brown P, Rivera RC, de Vlas SJ, Gunawardena S, Irvine MA, Njenga SM, Reimer L, Seife F, Sharma S, Michael E, Stolk WA, Pulan R, Spencer SEF, Hollingsworth TD. An Ensemble Framework for Projecting the Impact of Lymphatic Filariasis Interventions Across Sub-Saharan Africa at a Fine Spatial Scale. Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78:S108-S116. [PMID: 38662704 PMCID: PMC11045016 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciae071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a neglected tropical disease targeted for elimination as a public health problem by 2030. Although mass treatments have led to huge reductions in LF prevalence, some countries or regions may find it difficult to achieve elimination by 2030 owing to various factors, including local differences in transmission. Subnational projections of intervention impact are a useful tool in understanding these dynamics, but correctly characterizing their uncertainty is challenging. METHODS We developed a computationally feasible framework for providing subnational projections for LF across 44 sub-Saharan African countries using ensemble models, guided by historical control data, to allow assessment of the role of subnational heterogeneities in global goal achievement. Projected scenarios include ongoing annual treatment from 2018 to 2030, enhanced coverage, and biannual treatment. RESULTS Our projections suggest that progress is likely to continue well. However, highly endemic locations currently deploying strategies with the lower World Health Organization recommended coverage (65%) and frequency (annual) are expected to have slow decreases in prevalence. Increasing intervention frequency or coverage can accelerate progress by up to 5 or 6 years, respectively. CONCLUSIONS While projections based on baseline data have limitations, our methodological advancements provide assessments of potential bottlenecks for the global goals for LF arising from subnational heterogeneities. In particular, areas with high baseline prevalence may face challenges in achieving the 2030 goals, extending the "tail" of interventions. Enhancing intervention frequency and/or coverage will accelerate progress. Our approach facilitates preimplementation assessments of the impact of local interventions and is applicable to other regions and neglected tropical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jorge Cano
- Expanded Special Project for Elimination of Neglected Tropical Diseases (ESPEN), WHO Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Joaquin M Prada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Morgan Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | | | - Paul Brown
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Rocio Caja Rivera
- Center for Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, USA
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Michael A Irvine
- Data and Analytic Services, British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Sammy M Njenga
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Lisa Reimer
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Fikre Seife
- Disease Prevention and Control Directorate, Federal Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Swarnali Sharma
- Department of Mathematics, Vijaygarh Jyotish Ray College, Kolkata, India
| | - Edwin Michael
- Center for Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, USA
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rachel Pulan
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon E F Spencer
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - T Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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James A, Coffeng LE, Blok DJ, King JD, de Vlas SJ, Stolk WA. Predictive Value of Microfilariae-Based Stop-MDA Thresholds After Triple Drug Therapy With IDA Against Lymphatic Filariasis in Treatment-Naive Indian Settings. Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78:S131-S137. [PMID: 38662696 PMCID: PMC11045019 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciae019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Mass drug administration (MDA) of antifilarial drugs is the main strategy for the elimination of lymphatic filariasis (LF). Recent clinical trials indicated that the triple-drug therapy with ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine, and albendazole (IDA) is much more effective against LF than the widely used two-drug combinations (albendazole plus either ivermectin or diethylcarbamazine). For IDA-based MDA, the stop-MDA decision is made based on microfilariae (mf) prevalence in adults. In this study, we assess how the probability of eventually reaching elimination of transmission depends on the critical threshold used in transmission assessment surveys (TAS-es) to define whether transmission was successfully suppressed and triple-drug MDA can be stopped. This analysis focuses on treatment-naive Indian settings. We do this for a range of epidemiological and programmatic contexts, using the established LYMFASIM model for transmission and control of LF. Based on our simulations, a single TAS, one year after the last MDA round, provides limited predictive value of having achieved suppressed transmission, while a higher MDA coverage increases elimination probability, thus leading to a higher predictive value. Every additional TAS, conditional on previous TAS-es being passed with the same threshold, further improves the predictive value for low values of stop-MDA thresholds. An mf prevalence threshold of 0.5% corresponding to TAS-3 results in ≥95% predictive value even when the MDA coverage is relatively low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ananthu James
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - David J Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jonathan D King
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Coffeng LE, Graham M, Browning R, Kura K, Diggle PJ, Denwood M, Medley GF, Anderson RM, de Vlas SJ. Improving the Cost-efficiency of Preventive Chemotherapy: Impact of New Diagnostics on Stopping Decisions for Control of Schistosomiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78:S153-S159. [PMID: 38662699 PMCID: PMC11045014 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciae020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Control of schistosomiasis (SCH) relies on the regular distribution of preventive chemotherapy (PC) over many years. For the sake of sustainable SCH control, a decision must be made at some stage to scale down or stop PC. These "stopping decisions" are based on population surveys that assess whether infection levels are sufficiently low. However, the limited sensitivity of the currently used diagnostic (Kato-Katz [KK]) to detect low-intensity infections is a concern. Therefore, the use of new, more sensitive, molecular diagnostics has been proposed. METHODS Through statistical analysis of Schistosoma mansoni egg counts collected from Burundi and a simulation study using an established transmission model for schistosomiasis, we investigated the extent to which more sensitive diagnostics can improve decision making regarding stopping or continuing PC for the control of S. mansoni. RESULTS We found that KK-based strategies perform reasonably well for determining when to stop PC at a local scale. Use of more sensitive diagnostics leads to a marginally improved health impact (person-years lived with heavy infection) and comes at a cost of continuing PC for longer (up to around 3 years), unless the decision threshold for stopping PC is adapted upward. However, if this threshold is set too high, PC may be stopped prematurely, resulting in a rebound of infection levels and disease burden (+45% person-years of heavy infection). CONCLUSIONS We conclude that the potential value of more sensitive diagnostics lies more in the reduction of survey-related costs than in the direct health impact of improved parasite control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus Medical Center, University Medical Center Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Matthew Graham
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford
| | | | - Klodeta Kura
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Imperial College London
- Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London
| | - Peter J Diggle
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing, and Statistics, Lancaster University Medical School, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Denwood
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Graham F Medley
- Department of Global Health and Development, Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom
| | - Roy M Anderson
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Imperial College London
- Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus Medical Center, University Medical Center Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Eyre MT, Bulstra CA, Johnson O, de Vlas SJ, Diggle PJ, Fronterrè C, Coffeng LE. A Comparison of Markov and Mechanistic Models for Soil-Transmitted Helminth Prevalence Projections in the Context of Survey Design. Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78:S146-S152. [PMID: 38662703 PMCID: PMC11045013 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciae022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Globally, there are over 1 billion people infected with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs), mostly living in marginalized settings with inadequate sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. The World Health Organization recommends an integrated approach to STH morbidity control through improved access to sanitation and hygiene education and the delivery of preventive chemotherapy (PC) to school-age children delivered through schools. Progress of STH control programs is currently estimated using a baseline (pre-PC) school-based prevalence survey and then monitored using periodical school-based prevalence surveys, known as Impact Assessment Surveys (IAS). We investigated whether integrating geostatistical methods with a Markov model or a mechanistic transmission model for projecting prevalence forward in time from baseline can improve IAS design strategies. To do this, we applied these 2 methods to prevalence data collected in Kenya, before evaluating and comparing their performance in accurately informing optimal survey design for a range of IAS sampling designs. We found that, although both approaches performed well, the mechanistic method more accurately projected prevalence over time and provided more accurate information for guiding survey design. Both methods performed less well in areas with persistent STH hotspots where prevalence did not decrease despite multiple rounds of PC. Our findings show that these methods can be useful tools for more efficient and accurate targeting of PC. The general framework built in this paper can also be used for projecting prevalence and informing survey design for other neglected tropical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max T Eyre
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline A Bulstra
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Heidelberg Institute of Global Health (HIGH), Heidelberg University Medical Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Olatunji Johnson
- Department of Mathematics, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter J Diggle
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Claudio Fronterrè
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Prada JM, Touloupou P, Kebede B, Giorgi E, Sime H, Smith M, Kontoroupis P, Brown P, Cano J, Farkas H, Irvine M, Reimer L, Caja Rivera R, de Vlas SJ, Michael E, Stolk WA, Pulan R, Spencer SEF, Hollingsworth TD, Seife F. Subnational Projections of Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination Targets in Ethiopia to Support National Level Policy. Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78:S117-S125. [PMID: 38662702 PMCID: PMC11045027 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciae072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a debilitating, poverty-promoting, neglected tropical disease (NTD) targeted for worldwide elimination as a public health problem (EPHP) by 2030. Evaluating progress towards this target for national programmes is challenging, due to differences in disease transmission and interventions at the subnational level. Mathematical models can help address these challenges by capturing spatial heterogeneities and evaluating progress towards LF elimination and how different interventions could be leveraged to achieve elimination by 2030. METHODS Here we used a novel approach to combine historical geo-spatial disease prevalence maps of LF in Ethiopia with 3 contemporary disease transmission models to project trends in infection under different intervention scenarios at subnational level. RESULTS Our findings show that local context, particularly the coverage of interventions, is an important determinant for the success of control and elimination programmes. Furthermore, although current strategies seem sufficient to achieve LF elimination by 2030, some areas may benefit from the implementation of alternative strategies, such as using enhanced coverage or increased frequency, to accelerate progress towards the 2030 targets. CONCLUSIONS The combination of geospatial disease prevalence maps of LF with transmission models and intervention histories enables the projection of trends in infection at the subnational level under different control scenarios in Ethiopia. This approach, which adapts transmission models to local settings, may be useful to inform the design of optimal interventions at the subnational level in other LF endemic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquin M Prada
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | | | - Biruck Kebede
- RTI International, 3040 E Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | | | - Heven Sime
- Malaria and Neglected Tropical Diseases Research Team, Bacterial, Parasitic and Zoonotic Disease Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Morgan Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | | | - Paul Brown
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology & Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Jorge Cano
- Expanded Special Project for Elimination of Neglected Tropical Diseases (ESPEN), WHO Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Hajnal Farkas
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology & Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Mike Irvine
- Faculty of Science, BC Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Lisa Reimer
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Rocio Caja Rivera
- College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin Michael
- College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rachel Pulan
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon E F Spencer
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology & Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - T Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Fikre Seife
- Disease Prevention and Control Directorate, Federal Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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8
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Kura K, Stolk WA, Basáñez MG, Collyer BS, de Vlas SJ, Diggle PJ, Gass K, Graham M, Hollingsworth TD, King JD, Krentel A, Anderson RM, Coffeng LE. How Does the Proportion of Never Treatment Influence the Success of Mass Drug Administration Programs for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis? Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78:S93-S100. [PMID: 38662701 PMCID: PMC11045024 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciae021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mass drug administration (MDA) is the cornerstone for the elimination of lymphatic filariasis (LF). The proportion of the population that is never treated (NT) is a crucial determinant of whether this goal is achieved within reasonable time frames. METHODS Using 2 individual-based stochastic LF transmission models, we assess the maximum permissible level of NT for which the 1% microfilaremia (mf) prevalence threshold can be achieved (with 90% probability) within 10 years under different scenarios of annual MDA coverage, drug combination and transmission setting. RESULTS For Anopheles-transmission settings, we find that treating 80% of the eligible population annually with ivermectin + albendazole (IA) can achieve the 1% mf prevalence threshold within 10 years of annual treatment when baseline mf prevalence is 10%, as long as NT <10%. Higher proportions of NT are acceptable when more efficacious treatment regimens are used. For Culex-transmission settings with a low (5%) baseline mf prevalence and diethylcarbamazine + albendazole (DA) or ivermectin + diethylcarbamazine + albendazole (IDA) treatment, elimination can be reached if treatment coverage among eligibles is 80% or higher. For 10% baseline mf prevalence, the target can be achieved when the annual coverage is 80% and NT ≤15%. Higher infection prevalence or levels of NT would make achieving the target more difficult. CONCLUSIONS The proportion of people never treated in MDA programmes for LF can strongly influence the achievement of elimination and the impact of NT is greater in high transmission areas. This study provides a starting point for further development of criteria for the evaluation of NT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klodeta Kura
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin S Collyer
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter J Diggle
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine Gass
- Neglected Tropical Diseases Support Center, Task Force for Global Health, Decatur, Georgia, USA
| | - Matthew Graham
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Disease, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - T Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan D King
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Alison Krentel
- Bruyère Research Institute, Canada
- School of Epidemiology and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Canada
| | - Roy M Anderson
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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9
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Coffeng LE, Stolk WA, de Vlas SJ. Predicting the risk and speed of drug resistance emerging in soil-transmitted helminths during preventive chemotherapy. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1099. [PMID: 38321011 PMCID: PMC10847116 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45027-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Control of soil-transmitted helminths relies heavily on regular large-scale deworming of high-risk groups (e.g., children) with benzimidazole derivatives. Although drug resistance has not yet been documented in human soil-transmitted helminths, regular deworming of cattle and sheep has led to widespread benzimidazole resistance in veterinary helminths. Here we predict the population dynamics of human soil-transmitted helminth infections and drug resistance during 20 years of regular preventive chemotherapy, using an individual-based model. With the current preventive chemotherapy strategy of mainly targeting children in schools, drug resistance may evolve in soil-transmitted helminths within a decade. More intense preventive chemotherapy strategies increase the prospects of soil-transmitted helminths elimination, but also increase the speed at which drug efficacy declines, especially when implementing community-based preventive chemotherapy (population-wide deworming). If during the last decade, preventive chemotherapy against soil-transmitted helminths has led to resistance, we may not have detected it as drug efficacy has not been structurally monitored, or incorrectly so. These findings highlight the need to develop and implement strategies to monitor and mitigate the evolution of benzimidazole resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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10
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Mathewson JD, van der Spek L, Mazigo HD, Kabona G, de Vlas SJ, Nshala A, Rood EJJ. Enabling targeted mass drug administration for schistosomiasis in north-western Tanzania: Exploring the use of geostatistical modeling to inform planning at sub-district level. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0011896. [PMID: 38227610 PMCID: PMC10817176 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease in Tanzania affecting over 50% of the population. Current control strategies involve mass drug administration (MDA) campaigns at the district level, which have led to problems of over- and under-treatment in different areas. WHO guidelines have called for more targeted MDA to circumvent these problems, however a scarcity of prevalence data inhibits decision makers from prioritizing sub-district areas for MDA. This study demonstrated how geostatistics can be used to inform planning for targeted MDA. METHODS Geostatistical sub-district (ward-level) prevalence estimates were generated through combining a zero-inflated poisson model and kriging approach (regression kriging). To make predictions, the model used prevalence survey data collected in 2021 of 17,400 school children in six regions of Tanzania, along with several open source ecological and socio-demographic variables with known associations with schistosomiasis. RESULTS The model results show that regression kriging can be used to effectively predict the ward level parasite prevalence of the two species of Schistosoma endemic to the study area. Kriging was found to further improve the regression model fit, with an adjusted R-squared value of 0.51 and 0.32 for intestinal and urogenital schistosomiasis, respectively. Targeted treatment based on model predictions would represent a shift in treatment away from 193 wards estimated to be over-treated to 149 wards that would have been omitted from the district level MDA. CONCLUSIONS Geostatistical models can help to support NTD program efficiency and reduce disease transmission by facilitating WHO recommended targeted MDA treatment through provision of prevalence estimates where data is scarce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake D. Mathewson
- Kit-Royal Tropical Institute, Epidemiology, Center for Applied Spatial Epidemiology (CASE), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Linda van der Spek
- Kit-Royal Tropical Institute, Epidemiology, Center for Applied Spatial Epidemiology (CASE), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Humphrey D. Mazigo
- School of Medicine, Department of Medical Parasitology & Entomology, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences, Mwanza, Tanzania
| | - George Kabona
- Ministry of Health, National Neglected Tropical Diseases Control Programme, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Ente J. J. Rood
- Kit-Royal Tropical Institute, Epidemiology, Center for Applied Spatial Epidemiology (CASE), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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11
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Baede VO, Gupta A, Knight GM, Schouls LM, Laing K, Tavakol M, Barray A, de Vlas SJ, de Vos AS, Hendrickx APA, Khan M, Kretzschmar ME, van Wamel WJB, Lina G, Vandenesch F, Vos MC, Witney AA, Rasigade JP, Lindsay JA. Markers of epidemiological success of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in European populations. Clin Microbiol Infect 2023; 29:1166-1173. [PMID: 37207981 PMCID: PMC10775016 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2023.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections impose a considerable burden on health systems, yet there is remarkable variation in the global incidence and epidemiology of MRSA. The MACOTRA consortium aimed to identify bacterial markers of epidemic success of MRSA isolates in Europe using a representative MRSA collection originating from France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. METHODS Operational definitions of success were defined in consortium meetings to compose a balanced strain collection of successful and sporadic MRSA isolates. Isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing and whole-genome sequencing; genes were identified and phylogenetic trees constructed. Markers of epidemiological success were identified using genome-based time-scaled haplotypic density analysis and linear regression. Antimicrobial usage data from ESAC-Net was compared with national MRSA incidence data. RESULTS Heterogeneity of MRSA isolate collections across countries hampered the use of a unified operational definition of success; therefore, country-specific approaches were used to establish the MACOTRA strain collection. Phenotypic antimicrobial resistance varied within related MRSA populations and across countries. In time-scaled haplotypic density analysis, fluoroquinolone, macrolide and mupirocin resistance were associated with MRSA success, whereas gentamicin, rifampicin and trimethoprim resistance were associated with sporadicity. Usage of antimicrobials across 29 European countries varied substantially, and β-lactam, fluoroquinolone, macrolide and aminoglycoside use correlated with MRSA incidence. DISCUSSION Our results are the strongest yet to associate MRSA antibiotic resistance profiles and antibiotic usage with the incidence of infection and successful clonal spread, which varied by country. Harmonized isolate collection, typing, resistance profiling and alignment with antimicrobial usage over time will aid comparisons and further support country-specific interventions to reduce MRSA burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie O Baede
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Arya Gupta
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gwenan M Knight
- AMR Centre, Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Leo M Schouls
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Ken Laing
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mehri Tavakol
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anaïs Barray
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Lyon 1, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France; Centre National de Référence des Staphylocoques, Institut des Agent Infectieux, Hôpital de La Croix Rousse, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anneke S de Vos
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Antoni P A Hendrickx
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Madeeha Khan
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mirjam E Kretzschmar
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Willem J B van Wamel
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Gérard Lina
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Lyon 1, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France; Centre National de Référence des Staphylocoques, Institut des Agent Infectieux, Hôpital de La Croix Rousse, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Francois Vandenesch
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Lyon 1, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France; Centre National de Référence des Staphylocoques, Institut des Agent Infectieux, Hôpital de La Croix Rousse, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Margreet C Vos
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Adam A Witney
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Philippe Rasigade
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Lyon 1, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France; Centre National de Référence des Staphylocoques, Institut des Agent Infectieux, Hôpital de La Croix Rousse, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Jodi A Lindsay
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom.
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12
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Kloek M, Chabata ST, van Noord L, Machingura F, Makandwa R, Dirawo J, Takaruza A, Matambanadzo P, de Vlas SJ, Hontelez JAC, Cowan FM. HIV prevalence, risk behaviour, and treatment and prevention cascade outcomes among cisgender men, transgender women, and transgender men who sell sex in Zimbabwe: a cross-sectional analysis of programme data. Lancet HIV 2023; 10:e453-e460. [PMID: 37329898 DOI: 10.1016/s2352-3018(23)00088-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a paucity of evidence on HIV vulnerabilities and service engagements among people who sell sex in sub-Saharan Africa and identify as cisgender men, transgender women, or transgender men. We aimed to describe sexual risk behaviours, HIV prevalence, and access to HIV services among cisgender men, transgender women, and transgender men who sell sex in Zimbabwe. METHODS We did a cross-sectional analysis of routine programme data that were collected between July 1, 2018, and June 30, 2020, from cisgender men who sell sex, transgender women who sell sex, and transgender men who sell sex, as part of accessing sexual and reproductive health and HIV services provided through the Sisters with a Voice programme, at 31 sites across Zimbabwe. All people who sell sex reached by the programme had routine data collected, including routine HIV testing, and were referred using a network of peer educators. Sexual risk behaviours, HIV prevalence, and HIV services uptake during the period from July, 2018, to June, 2020, were analysed through descriptive statistics by gender group. FINDINGS A total of 1003 people who sell sex were included in our analysis: 423 (42·2%) cisgender men, 343 (34·2%) transgender women, and 237 (23·6%) transgender men. Age-standardised HIV prevalence estimates were 26·2% (95% CI 22·0-30·7) among cisgender men, 39·4% (34·1-44·9) among transgender women, and 38·4% (32·1-45·0) among transgender men. Among people living with HIV, 66·0% (95% CI 55·7-75·3) of cisgender men, 74·8% (65·8-82·4) of transgender women, and 70·2% (59·3-79·7) of transgender men knew their HIV status, and 15·5% (8·9-24·2), 15·7% (9·5-23·6), and 11·9% (5·9-20·8) were on antiretroviral therapy, respectively. Self-reported condom use was consistently low across gender groups, ranging from 26% (95% CI 22-32) for anal sex among transgender women to 32% (27-37) for vaginal sex among cisgender men. INTERPRETATION These unique data show that people who sell sex and identify as cisgender men, transgender women, or transgender men in sub-Saharan Africa have high HIV prevalences and risk of infection, with alarmingly low access to HIV prevention, testing, and treatment services. There is an urgent need for people-centred HIV interventions for these high-risk groups and for more inclusive HIV policies and research to ensure we truly attain universal access for all. FUNDING Aidsfonds Netherlands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariëlle Kloek
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sungai T Chabata
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands; Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research (CeSHHAR) Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Laura van Noord
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Fortunate Machingura
- Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research (CeSHHAR) Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Rumbidzo Makandwa
- Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research (CeSHHAR) Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Jeffrey Dirawo
- Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research (CeSHHAR) Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Albert Takaruza
- Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research (CeSHHAR) Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jan A C Hontelez
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands; Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University Medical Center, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Frances M Cowan
- Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research (CeSHHAR) Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe; Department of International Public Health, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
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13
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Kazienga A, Levecke B, Leta GT, de Vlas SJ, Coffeng LE. A general framework to support cost-efficient survey design choices for the control of soil-transmitted helminths when deploying Kato-Katz thick smear. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011160. [PMID: 37347783 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To monitor and evaluate soil-transmitted helminth (STH) control programs, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends screening stools from 250 children, deploying Kato-Katz thick smear (KK). However, it remains unclear whether these recommendations are sufficient to make adequate decisions about stopping preventive chemotherapy (PC) (prevalence of infection <2%) or declaring elimination of STH as a public health problem (prevalence of moderate-to-heavy intensity (MHI) infections <2%). METHODOLOGY We developed a simulation framework to determine the effectiveness and cost of survey designs for decision-making in STH control programs, capturing the operational resources to perform surveys, the variation in egg counts across STH species, across schools, between and within individuals, and between repeated smears. Using this framework and a lot quality assurance sampling approach, we determined the most cost-efficient survey designs (number of schools, subjects, stool samples per subject, and smears per stool sample) for decision-making. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS For all species, employing duplicate KK (sampling 4 to 6 schools and 64 to 70 subjects per school) was the most cost-efficient survey design to assess whether prevalence of any infection intensity was above or under 2%. For prevalence of MHI infections, single KK was the most cost-efficient (sampling 11 to 25 schools and 52 to 84 children per school). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE KK is valuable for monitoring and evaluation of STH control programs, though we recommend deploying a duplicate KK on a single stool sample to stop PC, and a single KK to declare the elimination of STH as a public health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adama Kazienga
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bruno Levecke
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gemechu Tadesse Leta
- Bacterial, Parasitic and Zoonotic Diseases Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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14
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Coffeng LE, Vlaminck J, Cools P, Denwood M, Albonico M, Ame SM, Ayana M, Dana D, Cringoli G, de Vlas SJ, Fenwick A, French M, Kazienga A, Keiser J, Knopp S, Leta G, Matoso LF, Maurelli MP, Montresor A, Mirams G, Mekonnen Z, Corrêa-Oliveira R, Pinto SA, Rinaldi L, Sayasone S, Steinmann P, Thomas E, Vercruysse J, Levecke B. A general framework to support cost-efficient fecal egg count methods and study design choices for large-scale STH deworming programs-monitoring of therapeutic drug efficacy as a case study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011071. [PMID: 37196017 PMCID: PMC10228800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) control programs currently lack evidence-based recommendations for cost-efficient survey designs for monitoring and evaluation. Here, we present a framework to provide evidence-based recommendations, using a case study of therapeutic drug efficacy monitoring based on the examination of helminth eggs in stool. METHODS We performed an in-depth analysis of the operational costs to process one stool sample for three diagnostic methods (Kato-Katz, Mini-FLOTAC and FECPAKG2). Next, we performed simulations to determine the probability of detecting a truly reduced therapeutic efficacy for different scenarios of STH species (Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and hookworms), pre-treatment infection levels, survey design (screen and select (SS); screen, select and retest (SSR) and no selection (NS)) and number of subjects enrolled (100-5,000). Finally, we integrated the outcome of the cost assessment into the simulation study to estimate the total survey costs and determined the most cost-efficient survey design. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Kato-Katz allowed for both the highest sample throughput and the lowest cost per test, while FECPAKG2 required both the most laboratory time and was the most expensive. Counting of eggs accounted for 23% (FECPAKG2) or ≥80% (Kato-Katz and Mini-FLOTAC) of the total time-to-result. NS survey designs in combination with Kato-Katz were the most cost-efficient to assess therapeutic drug efficacy in all scenarios of STH species and endemicity. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE We confirm that Kato-Katz is the fecal egg counting method of choice for monitoring therapeutic drug efficacy, but that the survey design currently recommended by WHO (SS) should be updated. Our generic framework, which captures laboratory time and material costs, can be used to further support cost-efficient choices for other important surveys informing STH control programs. In addition, it can be used to explore the value of alternative diagnostic techniques, like automated egg counting, which may further reduce operational costs. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03465488.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc E. Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Johnny Vlaminck
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Piet Cools
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Matthew Denwood
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Shaali M. Ame
- Laboratory Division, Public Health Laboratory-Ivo de Carneri, Chake Chake, United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Mio Ayana
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Jimma University Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Daniel Dana
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Jimma University Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Giuseppe Cringoli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alan Fenwick
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, St Mary’s Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael French
- Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, St Mary’s Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- RTI International, Washington District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Adama Kazienga
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jennifer Keiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefanie Knopp
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Gemechu Leta
- Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Leonardo F. Matoso
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Research Center René Rachou—FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Nursing school, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Maria P. Maurelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Antonio Montresor
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Zeleke Mekonnen
- Jimma University Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Rodrigo Corrêa-Oliveira
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Research Center René Rachou—FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Simone A. Pinto
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Research Center René Rachou—FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Laura Rinaldi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Somphou Sayasone
- Lao Tropical and Public Health Institute, Ministry of Health, Vientiane, Lao People’s Democratic Republic
| | - Peter Steinmann
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Jozef Vercruysse
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Bruno Levecke
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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15
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Dekker MM, Coffeng LE, Pijpers FP, Panja D, de Vlas SJ. Reducing societal impacts of SARS-CoV-2 interventions through subnational implementation. eLife 2023; 12:80819. [PMID: 36880190 PMCID: PMC10023153 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
To curb the initial spread of SARS-CoV-2, many countries relied on nation-wide implementation of non-pharmaceutical intervention measures, resulting in substantial socio-economic impacts. Potentially, subnational implementations might have had less of a societal impact, but comparable epidemiological impact. Here, using the first COVID-19 wave in the Netherlands as a case in point, we address this issue by developing a high-resolution analysis framework that uses a demographically stratified population and a spatially explicit, dynamic, individual contact-pattern based epidemiology, calibrated to hospital admissions data and mobility trends extracted from mobile phone signals and Google. We demonstrate how a subnational approach could achieve similar level of epidemiological control in terms of hospital admissions, while some parts of the country could stay open for a longer period. Our framework is exportable to other countries and settings, and may be used to develop policies on subnational approach as a better strategic choice for controlling future epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark M Dekker
- Department of Information and Computing Sciences, Utrecht UniversityUtrechtNetherlands
- Centre for Complex Systems Studies, Utrecht UniversityUtrechtNetherlands
- PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment AgencyThe HagueNetherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center RotterdamRotterdamNetherlands
| | - Frank P Pijpers
- Statistics NetherlandsThe HagueNetherlands
- Korteweg-de Vries Institute for Mathematics, University of AmsterdamAmsterdamNetherlands
| | - Debabrata Panja
- Department of Information and Computing Sciences, Utrecht UniversityUtrechtNetherlands
- Centre for Complex Systems Studies, Utrecht UniversityUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center RotterdamRotterdamNetherlands
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16
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Hambridge T, Coffeng LE, de Vlas SJ, Richardus JH. Establishing a standard method for analysing case detection delay in leprosy using a Bayesian modelling approach. Infect Dis Poverty 2023; 12:12. [PMID: 36800979 PMCID: PMC9940321 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-023-01065-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae and remains a source of preventable disability if left undetected. Case detection delay is an important epidemiological indicator for progress in interrupting transmission and preventing disability in a community. However, no standard method exists to effectively analyse and interpret this type of data. In this study, we aim to evaluate the characteristics of leprosy case detection delay data and select an appropriate model for the variability of detection delays based on the best fitting distribution type. METHODS Two sets of leprosy case detection delay data were evaluated: a cohort of 181 patients from the post exposure prophylaxis for leprosy (PEP4LEP) study in high endemic districts of Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Tanzania; and self-reported delays from 87 individuals in 8 low endemic countries collected as part of a systematic literature review. Bayesian models were fit to each dataset to assess which probability distribution (log-normal, gamma or Weibull) best describes variation in observed case detection delays using leave-one-out cross-validation, and to estimate the effects of individual factors. RESULTS For both datasets, detection delays were best described with a log-normal distribution combined with covariates age, sex and leprosy subtype [expected log predictive density (ELPD) for the joint model: -1123.9]. Patients with multibacillary (MB) leprosy experienced longer delays compared to paucibacillary (PB) leprosy, with a relative difference of 1.57 [95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI): 1.14-2.15]. Those in the PEP4LEP cohort had 1.51 (95% BCI: 1.08-2.13) times longer case detection delay compared to the self-reported patient delays in the systematic review. CONCLUSIONS The log-normal model presented here could be used to compare leprosy case detection delay datasets, including PEP4LEP where the primary outcome measure is reduction in case detection delay. We recommend the application of this modelling approach to test different probability distributions and covariate effects in studies with similar outcomes in the field of leprosy and other skin-NTDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Hambridge
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Luc E. Coffeng
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Hendrik Richardus
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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17
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Stolk WA, Coffeng LE, Bolay FK, Eneanya OA, Fischer PU, Hollingsworth TD, Koudou BG, Méité A, Michael E, Prada JM, Caja Rivera RM, Sharma S, Touloupou P, Weil GJ, de Vlas SJ. Comparing antigenaemia- and microfilaraemia as criteria for stopping decisions in lymphatic filariasis elimination programmes in Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010953. [PMID: 36508458 PMCID: PMC9779720 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mass drug administration (MDA) is the main strategy towards lymphatic filariasis (LF) elimination. Progress is monitored by assessing microfilaraemia (Mf) or circulating filarial antigenaemia (CFA) prevalence, the latter being more practical for field surveys. The current criterion for stopping MDA requires <2% CFA prevalence in 6- to 7-year olds, but this criterion is not evidence-based. We used mathematical modelling to investigate the validity of different thresholds regarding testing method and age group for African MDA programmes using ivermectin plus albendazole. METHODOLGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We verified that our model captures observed patterns in Mf and CFA prevalence during annual MDA, assuming that CFA tests are positive if at least one adult worm is present. We then assessed how well elimination can be predicted from CFA prevalence in 6-7-year-old children or from Mf or CFA prevalence in the 5+ or 15+ population, and determined safe (>95% positive predictive value) thresholds for stopping MDA. The model captured trends in Mf and CFA prevalences reasonably well. Elimination cannot be predicted with sufficient certainty from CFA prevalence in 6-7-year olds. Resurgence may still occur if all children are antigen-negative, irrespective of the number tested. Mf-based criteria also show unfavourable results (PPV <95% or unpractically low threshold). CFA prevalences in the 5+ or 15+ population are the best predictors, and post-MDA threshold values for stopping MDA can be as high as 10% for 15+. These thresholds are robust for various alternative assumptions regarding baseline endemicity, biological parameters and sampling strategies. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE For African areas with moderate to high pre-treatment Mf prevalence that have had 6 or more rounds of annual ivermectin/albendazole MDA with adequate coverage, we recommend to adopt a CFA threshold prevalence of 10% in adults (15+) for stopping MDA. This could be combined with Mf testing of CFA positives to ensure absence of a significant Mf reservoir for transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilma A. Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Luc E. Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fatorma K. Bolay
- National Public Health Institute of Liberia (NPHIL), Monrovia, Liberia
| | - Obiora A. Eneanya
- Infectious Diseases Division, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Peter U. Fischer
- Infectious Diseases Division, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - T. Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin G. Koudou
- Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d’Ivoire, Abidjan, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
- Laboratoire de Cytologie et Biologie Animale, UFR Science de la Nature, Université Nangui Abrogoua Abidjan, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Aboulaye Méité
- Programme National de Lutte contre les Maladies Tropicales Négligées à Chimiothérapie Préventive, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Edwin Michael
- Center for Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Joaquin M. Prada
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Rocio M. Caja Rivera
- Center for Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Swarnali Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana, United States of America
- Christian Medical College, IDA Scudder Rd, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Panayiota Touloupou
- Department of Statistics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- School of Mathematics, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Gary J. Weil
- Infectious Diseases Division, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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18
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Malizia V, Giardina F, de Vlas SJ, Coffeng LE. Appropriateness of the current parasitological control target for hookworm morbidity: A statistical analysis of individual-level data. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010279. [PMID: 35763498 PMCID: PMC9239476 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background
Soil-transmitted helminths affect almost 2 billion people globally. Hookworm species contribute to most of the related morbidity. Hookworms mainly cause anaemia, due to blood loss at the site of the attachment of the adult worms to the human intestinal mucosa. The World Health Organization (WHO) aims to eliminate hookworm morbidity by 2030 through achieving a prevalence of moderate and heavy intensity (M&HI) infections below 2%. In this paper, we aim to assess the suitability of this threshold to reflect hookworm-attributable morbidity.
Methodology/Principal findings
We developed a hierarchical statistical model to simulate individual haemoglobin concentrations in association with hookworm burdens, accounting for low haemoglobin values attributable to other causes. The model was fitted to individual-level data within a Bayesian framework. Then, we generated different endemicity settings corresponding to infection prevalence ranging from 10% to 90% (0% to 55% M&HI prevalence), using 1, 2 or 4 Kato-Katz slides. For each scenario, we estimated the prevalence of anaemia due to hookworm. Our results showed that on average, haemoglobin falls below the WHO threshold for anaemia when intensities are above 2000 eggs per gram of faeces. For the different simulated scenarios, the estimated prevalence of anaemia attributable to hookworm ranges from 0% to 30% (95%-PI: 24% - 36%) being mainly associated to the prevalence of M&HI infections. Simulations show that a 2% prevalence of M&HI infections in adults corresponds to a prevalence of hookworm-attributable anaemia lower than 1%.
Conclusions/Significance
Our results support the use of the current WHO thresholds of 2% prevalence of M&HI as a proxy for hookworm morbidity. A single Kato-Katz slide may be sufficient to assess the achievement of the morbidity target. Further studies are needed to elucidate haemoglobin dynamics pre- and post- control, ideally using longitudinal data in adults and children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Malizia
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department for Health Evidence, Biostatistics Research Group, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail: (VM); (LEC)
| | - Federica Giardina
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department for Health Evidence, Biostatistics Research Group, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E. Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail: (VM); (LEC)
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19
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Kloek M, Bulstra CA, Chabata ST, Fearon E, Taramusi I, de Vlas SJ, Cowan FM, Hontelez JAC. No increased HIV risk in general population near sex work sites: a nationally representative cross-sectional study in Zimbabwe. Trop Med Int Health 2022; 27:696-704. [PMID: 35687493 PMCID: PMC9545096 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.13791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Objectives Sex work sites have been hypothesised to be at the root of the observed heterogeneity in HIV prevalence in sub‐Saharan Africa. We determined if proximity to sex work sites is associated with HIV prevalence among the general population in Zimbabwe, a country with one of the highest HIV prevalence in the world. Methods In this cross‐sectional study we use a unique combination of nationally representative geolocated individual‐level data from 16,121 adults (age 15–49 years) from 400 sample locations and the locations of 55 sex work sites throughout Zimbabwe; covering an estimated 95% of all female sex workers (FSWs). We calculated the shortest distance by road from each survey sample location to the nearest sex work site, for all sites and by type of sex work site, and conducted univariate and multivariate multilevel logistic regressions to determine the association between distance to sex work sites and HIV seropositivity, controlling for age, sex, male circumcision status, number of lifetime sex partners, being a FSW client or being a stable partner of an FSW client. Results We found no significant association between HIV seroprevalence and proximity to the nearest sex work site among the general population in Zimbabwe, regardless of which type of site is closest (city site adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.010 [95% confidence interval {CI} 0.992–1.028]; economic growth point site aOR 0.982 [95% CI 0.962–1.002]; international site aOR 0.995 [95% CI 0.979–1.012]; seasonal site aOR 0.987 [95% CI 0.968–1.006] and transport site aOR 1.007 [95% CI 0.987–1.028]). Individual‐level indicators of sex work were significantly associated with HIV seropositivity: being an FSW client (aOR 1.445 [95% CI 1.188–1.745]); nine or more partners versus having one to three lifetime partners (aOR 2.072 [95% CI 1.654–2.596]). Conclusions Sex work sites do not seem to directly affect HIV prevalence among the general population in surrounding areas. Prevention and control interventions for HIV at these locations should primarily focus on sex workers and their clients, with special emphasis on including and retaining mobile sex workers and clients into services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariёlle Kloek
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Caroline A Bulstra
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sungai T Chabata
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Elizabeth Fearon
- Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | | | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Frances M Cowan
- Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research, Harare, Zimbabwe.,Department of International Public Health, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - Jan A C Hontelez
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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20
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Kazienga A, Coffeng LE, de Vlas SJ, Levecke B. Two-stage lot quality assurance sampling framework for monitoring and evaluation of neglected tropical diseases, allowing for imperfect diagnostics and spatial heterogeneity. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010353. [PMID: 35394996 PMCID: PMC9020685 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background
Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is a key component of large-scale neglected tropical diseases (NTD) control programs. Diagnostic tests deployed in these M&E surveys are often imperfect, and it remains unclear how this affects the population-based program decision-making.
Methodology
We developed a 2-stage lot quality assurance sampling (LQAS) framework for decision-making that allows for both imperfect diagnostics and spatial heterogeneity of infections. We applied the framework to M&E of soil-transmitted helminth control programs as a case study. For this, we explored the impact of the diagnostic performance (sensitivity and specificity), spatial heterogeneity (intra-cluster correlation), and survey design on program decision-making around the prevalence decisions thresholds recommended by WHO (2%, 10%, 20% and 50%) and the associated total survey costs.
Principal findings
The survey design currently recommended by WHO (5 clusters and 50 subjects per cluster) may lead to incorrect program decisions around the 2% and 10% prevalence thresholds, even when perfect diagnostic tests are deployed. To reduce the risk of incorrect decisions around the 2% prevalence threshold, including more clusters (≥10) and deploying highly specific diagnostic methods (≥98%) are the most-cost saving strategies when spatial heterogeneity is moderate-to-high (intra-cluster correlation >0.017). The higher cost and lower throughput of improved diagnostic tests are compensated by lower required sample sizes, though only when the cost per test is <6.50 US$ and sample throughput is ≥3 per hour.
Conclusion/Significance
Our framework provides a means to assess and update M&E guidelines and guide product development choices for NTD. Using soil-transmitted helminths as a case study, we show that current M&E guidelines may severely fall short, particularly in low-endemic and post-control settings. Furthermore, specificity rather than sensitivity is a critical parameter to consider. When the geographical distribution of an NTD within a district is highly heterogeneous, sampling more clusters (≥10) may be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adama Kazienga
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
- * E-mail: (KA); (BL)
| | - Luc E. Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bruno Levecke
- Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
- * E-mail: (KA); (BL)
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21
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Blok DJ, de Vlas SJ. Guiding policy towards zero leprosy: Challenges for modelling & economic evaluation. Indian J Med Res 2022; 155:7-10. [PMID: 35859423 PMCID: PMC9552368 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_220_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David J Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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22
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Luz JGG, Carvalho AGD, Dias JVL, Marciano LCL, Vlas SJD, Fontes CJF, Coffeng LE. Passive case detection for canine visceral leishmaniasis control in urban Brazil: Determinants of population uptake. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009818. [PMID: 34624032 PMCID: PMC8528332 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Brazil, the transmission of Leishmania infantum in urban settings is closely related to infection among dogs, with occasional transmission to humans. Serological screening of dogs for Leishmania spp. infection on requests of their owners (passive case detection) represents a frequent, but little studied, practice within the scope of Brazilian public health. This study identified factors associated with canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) diagnosis-seeking behavior of dog owners in Rondonópolis (236,000 inhabitants), a municipality in Central-Western Brazil where VL is endemic. Also, we evaluated the profile of dog owners and their animals screened on free demand. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Using mixed effects negative binomial regression, we modelled the number of dogs screened for Leishmania infection on free demand per neighborhood from 2011 to 2016 as a function of time-dependent predictors (current or recent canine seropositivity and human VL incidence), distance to the screening site, and demographic variables. We assessed potential delays in the effect of time-dependent predictors on the outcome. Among 12,536 dogs screened for Leishmania infection, 64.2% were tested during serosurveys and 35.8% were tested on free demand. Of these, 63.9% were positive. Uptake of screening under free demand was strongly associated with higher levels of canine seropositivity in the neighborhood (current or recent) and decreasing distance to the screening site. A subsample of dog owners (n = 93) who sought CVL screening between 2016 and 2017 were interviewed in more detail. Owners with better socioeconomic status and dogs with apparent CVL clinical manifestations prevailed among them. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE To support timely CVL management, passive case detection along with awareness activities aimed at dog owners should be encouraged in endemic areas. Screening sites should be prioritized in accessible zones, as well as in socio-economically disadvantage areas. In parallel, CVL active case detection should be continued as a surveillance tool to guide control actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Gabriel G Luz
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- School of Medicine, Institute of Exact and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Rondonópolis, Rondonópolis, Brazil
- Post-graduation Program in Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil
| | - Amanda G de Carvalho
- School of Medicine, Institute of Exact and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Rondonópolis, Rondonópolis, Brazil
- Post-graduation Program in Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil
| | - João Victor L Dias
- School of Medicine, Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys, Teófilo Otoni, Brazil
| | - Luis Claudio L Marciano
- School of Medicine, Institute of Exact and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Rondonópolis, Rondonópolis, Brazil
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cor Jesus F Fontes
- Post-graduation Program in Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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23
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Le Rutte EA, van der Wilt LS, Bulstra CA, Nieboer D, Kontoroupis P, de Vlas SJ, Richardus JH. Incidence and geographical distribution of canine leishmaniosis in 2016-2017 in Spain and France. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports 2021; 25:100613. [PMID: 34474806 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2021.100613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Leishmania infantum is transmitted by sand flies and causes visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in humans, as well as canine leishmaniosis (CanL) in dogs, the main reservoir of infection in Europe. The infection spread northwards in the last two decades, but case data are scarce, hindering monitoring and evaluation of incidence as is required by European WHO guidelines. We aim to identify the current geographical distribution of CanL incidence in Spain, which has been endemic for CanL, and France, where CanL is emerging. An online survey was conducted among veterinarians in Spain and France questioning CanL incidence in the years 2016-2017. These data were interpolated to estimate incidence in both countries using the geographical analysis ordinary kriging. Two hundred and seventy-three (273) veterinarians from 81 out of 148 French and Spanish districts completed the survey. The mean incidence in veterinary practices was 21 CanL cases per 1000 dogs during the past year, which was higher in Spain (31/1000 dogs/year) than in France (6/1000 dogs/year). Incidence rates were highest in south-eastern Spain, but sporadic cases were found up to the most northern regions of France. Our study confirms the northward spread of CanL in Spain and France, as the incidence rates were higher than reported in previous studies and cases were found in areas formerly considered non-endemic for L. infantum. Monitoring the reservoir of infection in dogs is essential for implementing timely and geographically-targeted interventions to prevent further spread of CanL and VL in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Epke A Le Rutte
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000, CA, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Lotte S van der Wilt
- Department of Epidemiology, University Medical Center, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584, CX, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Caroline A Bulstra
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000, CA, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Daan Nieboer
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000, CA, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Periklis Kontoroupis
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000, CA, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000, CA, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jan Hendrik Richardus
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000, CA, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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24
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Gugole F, Coffeng LE, Edeling W, Sanderse B, de Vlas SJ, Crommelin D. Uncertainty quantification and sensitivity analysis of COVID-19 exit strategies in an individual-based transmission model. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1009355. [PMID: 34534205 PMCID: PMC8480746 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many countries are currently dealing with the COVID-19 epidemic and are searching for an exit strategy such that life in society can return to normal. To support this search, computational models are used to predict the spread of the virus and to assess the efficacy of policy measures before actual implementation. The model output has to be interpreted carefully though, as computational models are subject to uncertainties. These can stem from, e.g., limited knowledge about input parameters values or from the intrinsic stochastic nature of some computational models. They lead to uncertainties in the model predictions, raising the question what distribution of values the model produces for key indicators of the severity of the epidemic. Here we show how to tackle this question using techniques for uncertainty quantification and sensitivity analysis. We assess the uncertainties and sensitivities of four exit strategies implemented in an agent-based transmission model with geographical stratification. The exit strategies are termed Flattening the Curve, Contact Tracing, Intermittent Lockdown and Phased Opening. We consider two key indicators of the ability of exit strategies to avoid catastrophic health care overload: the maximum number of prevalent cases in intensive care (IC), and the total number of IC patient-days in excess of IC bed capacity. Our results show that uncertainties not directly related to the exit strategies are secondary, although they should still be considered in comprehensive analysis intended to inform policy makers. The sensitivity analysis discloses the crucial role of the intervention uptake by the population and of the capability to trace infected individuals. Finally, we explore the existence of a safe operating space. For Intermittent Lockdown we find only a small region in the model parameter space where the key indicators of the model stay within safe bounds, whereas this region is larger for the other exit strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luc E. Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter Edeling
- Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daan Crommelin
- Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Korteweg-de Vries Institute for Mathematics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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25
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Vegvari C, Giardina F, Malizia V, de Vlas SJ, Coffeng LE, Anderson RM. Impact of Key Assumptions About the Population Biology of Soil-Transmitted Helminths on the Sustainable Control of Morbidity. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 72:S188-S194. [PMID: 33906237 PMCID: PMC8218855 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciab195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The design and evaluation of control programs for soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) is based on surveillance data recording measurements of egg counts in the stool of infected individuals, which underpin estimates of the prevalence and average intensity of infection. There is considerable uncertainty around these measurements and their interpretation. The uncertainty is composed of several sources of measurement error and the limit of detection of fecal smear tests on the one hand, and key assumptions on STH biology on the other hand, including assumptions on the aggregation of worms within hosts and on the impact of density-dependent influences on worm reproduction. Using 2 independently developed models of STH transmission we show how different aspects of STH biology and human behavior impact on STH surveillance and control programs and how accounting for uncertainty can help to develop optimal and sustainable control strategies to meet the World Health Organization (WHO) morbidity target for STHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Vegvari
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Federica Giardina
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Veronica Malizia
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Roy M Anderson
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,The DeWorm3 Project, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
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26
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Stolk WA, Blok DJ, Hamley JID, Cantey PT, de Vlas SJ, Walker M, Basáñez MG. Scaling-Down Mass Ivermectin Treatment for Onchocerciasis Elimination: Modeling the Impact of the Geographical Unit for Decision Making. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 72:S165-S171. [PMID: 33909070 PMCID: PMC8201558 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciab238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Due to spatial heterogeneity in onchocerciasis transmission, the duration of ivermectin mass drug administration (MDA) required for eliminating onchocerciasis will vary within endemic areas and the occurrence of transmission “hotspots” is inevitable. The geographical scale at which stop-MDA decisions are made will be a key driver in how rapidly national programs can scale down active intervention upon achieving the epidemiological targets for elimination. Methods We used 2 onchocerciasis models (EPIONCHO-IBM and ONCHOSIM) to predict the likelihood of achieving elimination by 2030 in Africa, accounting for variation in preintervention endemicity levels and histories of ivermectin treatment. We explore how decision making at contrasting geographical scales (community vs larger scale “project”) changes projections on populations still requiring MDA or transitioning to post-treatment surveillance. Results The total population considered grows from 118 million people in 2020 to 136 million in 2030. If stop-MDA decisions are made at project level, the number of people requiring treatment declines from 69–118 million in 2020 to 59–118 million in 2030. If stop-MDA decisions are made at community level, the numbers decline from 23–81 million in 2020 to 15–63 million in 2030. The lower estimates in these prediction intervals are based on ONCHOSIM, the upper limits on EPIONCHO-IBM. Conclusions The geographical scale at which stop-MDA decisions are made strongly determines how rapidly national onchocerciasis programs can scale down MDA programs. Stopping in portions of project areas or transmission zones would free up human and economic resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - David J Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jonathan I D Hamley
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's Campus), Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's Campus), Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul T Cantey
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Walker
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's Campus), Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - María-Gloria Basáñez
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's Campus), Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's Campus), Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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27
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Coffeng LE, Le Rutte EA, Munoz J, Adams E, de Vlas SJ. Antibody and Antigen Prevalence as Indicators of Ongoing Transmission or Elimination of Visceral Leishmaniasis: A Modeling Study. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 72:S180-S187. [PMID: 33906229 PMCID: PMC8201595 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciab210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Control of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) on the Indian subcontinent has been highly successful. Control efforts such as indoor residual spraying and active case detection will be scaled down or even halted over the coming years. We explored how after scale-down, potential recurrence of VL cases may be predicted based on population-based surveys of antibody or antigenemia prevalence. Methods Using a stochastic age-structured transmission model of VL, we predicted trends in case incidence and biomarker prevalence over time after scaling down control efforts when the target of 3 successive years without VL cases has been achieved. Next, we correlated biomarker prevalence with the occurrence of new VL cases within 10 years of scale-down. Results Occurrence of at least 1 new VL case in a population of 10 000 was highly correlated with the seroprevalence and antigenemia prevalence at the moment of scale-down, or 1 or 2 years afterward. Receiver operating characteristic curves indicated that biomarker prevalence in adults provided the most predictive information, and seroprevalence was a more informative predictor of new VL cases than antigenemia prevalence. Thresholds for biomarker prevalence to predict occurrence of new VL cases with high certainty were robust to variation in precontrol endemicity. Conclusions The risk of recrudescence of VL after scaling down control efforts can be monitored and mitigated by means of population-based surveys. Our findings highlight that rapid point-of-care diagnostic tools to assess (preferably) seroprevalence or (otherwise) antigenemia in the general population could be a key ingredient of sustainable VL control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam,The Netherlands
| | - Epke A Le Rutte
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam,The Netherlands.,Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel,Switzerland.,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Johanna Munoz
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam,The Netherlands
| | - Emily Adams
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam,The Netherlands
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28
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Wiegand RE, Secor WE, Fleming FM, French MD, King CH, Montgomery SP, Evans D, Utzinger J, Vounatsou P, de Vlas SJ. Control and Elimination of Schistosomiasis as a Public Health Problem: Thresholds Fail to Differentiate Schistosomiasis Morbidity Prevalence in Children. Open Forum Infect Dis 2021; 8:ofab179. [PMID: 34307724 PMCID: PMC8297701 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofab179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current World Health Organization guidelines utilize prevalence of heavy-intensity infections (PHIs), that is, ≥50 eggs per 10 mL of urine for Schistosoma haematobium and ≥400 eggs per gram of stool for S. mansoni, to determine whether a targeted area has controlled schistosomiasis morbidity or eliminated schistosomiasis as a public health problem. The relationship between these PHI categories and morbidity is not well understood. METHODS School-age participants enrolled in schistosomiasis monitoring and evaluation cohorts from 2003 to 2008 in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia were surveyed for infection and morbidity at baseline and after 1 and 2 rounds of preventive chemotherapy. Logistic regression was used to compare morbidity prevalence among participants based on their school's PHI category. RESULTS Microhematuria levels were associated with the S. haematobium PHI categories at all 3 time points. For any other S. haematobium or S. mansoni morbidity that was measured, PHI categories did not differentiate morbidity prevalence levels consistently. CONCLUSIONS These analyses suggest that current PHI categorizations do not differentiate the prevalence of standard morbidity markers. A reevaluation of the criteria for schistosomiasis control is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan E Wiegand
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - W Evan Secor
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | | | - Charles H King
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Susan P Montgomery
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Darin Evans
- United States Agency for International Development, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jürg Utzinger
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Penelope Vounatsou
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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29
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Blok DJ, Kamgno J, Pion SD, Nana-Djeunga HC, Niamsi-Emalio Y, Chesnais CB, Mackenzie CD, Klion AD, Fletcher DA, Nutman TB, de Vlas SJ, Boussinesq M, Stolk WA. Feasibility of Onchocerciasis Elimination Using a "Test-and-not-treat" Strategy in Loa loa Co-endemic Areas. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 72:e1047-e1055. [PMID: 33289025 PMCID: PMC8204788 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mass drug administration (MDA) with ivermectin is the main strategy for onchocerciasis elimination. Ivermectin is generally safe, but is associated with serious adverse events in individuals with high Loa loa microfilarial densities (MFD). Therefore, ivermectin MDA is not recommended in areas where onchocerciasis is hypo-endemic and L loa is co-endemic. To eliminate onchocerciasis in those areas, a test-and-not-treat (TaNT) strategy has been proposed. We investigated whether onchocerciasis elimination can be achieved using TaNT and the required duration. Methods We used the individual-based model ONCHOSIM to predict the impact of TaNT on onchocerciasis microfilarial (mf) prevalence. We simulated precontrol mf prevalence levels from 2% to 40%. The impact of TaNT was simulated under varying levels of participation, systematic nonparticipation, and exclusion from ivermectin resulting from high L loa MFD. For each scenario, we assessed the time to elimination, defined as bringing onchocerciasis mf prevalence below 1.4%. Results In areas with 30% to 40% precontrol mf prevalence, the model predicted that it would take between 14 and 16 years to bring the mf prevalence below 1.4% using conventional MDA, assuming 65% participation. TaNT would increase the time to elimination by up to 1.5 years, depending on the level of systematic nonparticipation and the exclusion rate. At lower exclusion rates (≤2.5%), the delay would be less than 6 months. Conclusions Our model predicts that onchocerciasis can be eliminated using TaNT in L loa co-endemic areas. The required treatment duration using TaNT would be only slightly longer than in areas with conventional MDA, provided that participation is good.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joseph Kamgno
- Centre for Research on Filariasis and other Tropical Diseases (CRFilMT), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Sebastien D Pion
- IRD UMI 233-INSERM U1175-Montpellier University, Montpellier, France
| | - Hugues C Nana-Djeunga
- Centre for Research on Filariasis and other Tropical Diseases (CRFilMT), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Yannick Niamsi-Emalio
- Centre for Research on Filariasis and other Tropical Diseases (CRFilMT), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Cedric B Chesnais
- IRD UMI 233-INSERM U1175-Montpellier University, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Amy D Klion
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland, United States
| | - Daniel A Fletcher
- Department of Bioengineering and the Biophysics Program, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States
| | - Thomas B Nutman
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland, United States
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michel Boussinesq
- IRD UMI 233-INSERM U1175-Montpellier University, Montpellier, France
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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30
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Reuling IJ, Mendes AM, de Jong GM, Fabra-García A, Nunes-Cabaço H, van Gemert GJ, Graumans W, Coffeng LE, de Vlas SJ, Yang ASP, Lee C, Wu Y, Birkett AJ, Ockenhouse CF, Koelewijn R, van Hellemond JJ, van Genderen PJJ, Sauerwein RW, Prudêncio M. An open-label phase 1/2a trial of a genetically modified rodent malaria parasite for immunization against Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Sci Transl Med 2021; 12:12/544/eaay2578. [PMID: 32434846 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aay2578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
For some diseases, successful vaccines have been developed using a nonpathogenic counterpart of the causative microorganism of choice. The nonpathogenicity of the rodent Plasmodium berghei (Pb) parasite in humans prompted us to evaluate its potential as a platform for vaccination against human infection by Plasmodium falciparum (Pf), a causative agent of malaria. We hypothesized that the genetic insertion of a leading protein target for clinical development of a malaria vaccine, Pf circumsporozoite protein (CSP), in its natural pre-erythrocytic environment, would enhance Pb's capacity to induce protective immunity against Pf infection. Hence, we recently generated a transgenic Pb sporozoite immunization platform expressing PfCSP (PbVac), and we now report the clinical evaluation of its biological activity against controlled human malaria infection (CHMI). This first-in-human trial shows that PbVac is safe and well tolerated, when administered by a total of ~300 PbVac-infected mosquitoes per volunteer. Although protective efficacy evaluated by CHMI showed no sterile protection at the tested dose, significant delays in patency (2.2 days, P = 0.03) and decreased parasite density were observed after immunization, corresponding to an estimated 95% reduction in Pf liver parasite burden (confidence interval, 56 to 99%; P = 0.010). PbVac elicits dose-dependent cross-species cellular immune responses and functional PfCSP-dependent antibody responses that efficiently block Pf sporozoite invasion of liver cells in vitro. This study demonstrates that PbVac immunization elicits a marked biological effect, inhibiting a subsequent infection by the human Pf parasite, and establishes the clinical validation of a new paradigm in malaria vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaie J Reuling
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - António M Mendes
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Gerdie M de Jong
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, 3015 GD Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Amanda Fabra-García
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Helena Nunes-Cabaço
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Geert-Jan van Gemert
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Wouter Graumans
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Annie S P Yang
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Cynthia Lee
- PATH's Malaria Vaccine Initiative, Washington, DC 20001, USA
| | - Yimin Wu
- PATH's Malaria Vaccine Initiative, Washington, DC 20001, USA
| | | | | | - Rob Koelewijn
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, 3015 GD Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jaap J van Hellemond
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, 3015 GD Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Perry J J van Genderen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, 3015 GD Rotterdam, Netherlands. .,Corporate Travel Clinic Erasmus MC, 3015 CP Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Robert W Sauerwein
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands.
| | - Miguel Prudêncio
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal.
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Vinkeles Melchers NVS, Stolk WA, Murdoch ME, Pedrique B, Kloek M, Bakker R, de Vlas SJ, Coffeng LE. How does onchocerciasis-related skin and eye disease in Africa depend on cumulative exposure to infection and mass treatment? PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009489. [PMID: 34115752 PMCID: PMC8221783 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Onchocerciasis (river-blindness) in Africa is targeted for elimination through mass drug administration (MDA) with ivermectin. Onchocerciasis may cause various types of skin and eye disease. Predicting the impact of MDA on onchocercal morbidity is useful for future policy development. Here, we introduce a new disease module within the established ONCHOSIM model to predict trends over time in prevalence of onchocercal morbidity. Methods We developed novel generic model concepts for development of symptoms due to cumulative exposure to dead microfilariae, accommodating both reversible (acute) and irreversible (chronic) symptoms. The model was calibrated to reproduce pre-control age patterns and associations between prevalences of infection, eye disease, and various types of skin disease as observed in a large set of population-based studies. We then used the new disease module to predict the impact of MDA on morbidity prevalence over a 30-year time frame for various scenarios. Results ONCHOSIM reproduced observed age-patterns in disease and community-level associations between infection and disease reasonably well. For highly endemic settings with 30 years of annual MDA at 60% coverage, the model predicted a 70% to 89% reduction in prevalence of chronic morbidity. This relative decline was similar with higher MDA coverage and only somewhat higher for settings with lower pre-control endemicity. The decline in prevalence was lowest for mild depigmentation and visual impairment. The prevalence of acute clinical manifestations (severe itch, reactive skin disease) declined by 95% to 100% after 30 years of annual MDA, regardless of pre-control endemicity. Conclusion We present generic model concepts for predicting trends in acute and chronic symptoms due to history of exposure to parasitic worm infections, and apply this to onchocerciasis. Our predictions suggest that onchocercal morbidity, in particular chronic manifestations, will remain a public health concern in many epidemiological settings in Africa, even after 30 years of MDA. Onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness, is the second most common infectious cause of blindness worldwide, but also leads to serious skin conditions. Large-scale interventions are ongoing to control and eliminate the disease in Africa, yet the impact of these interventions on onchocercal morbidity is largely unknown. Here, we predict the trends in a wide spectrum of skin and eye disease due to onchocerciasis after up to 30 years of annual mass drug administration (MDA) with ivermectin. To this end, we have developed a novel disease framework within the established ONCHOSIM model. We show that annual MDA will rapidly reduce the prevalence of acute clinical conditions, whereas the prevalence of chronic clinical manifestations will decline much more slowly. The new disease framework was validated with several data sources and reproduced morbidity trends adequately, making the framework applicable for more refined disease prevalence predictions by taking account of treatment history in Africa. Such predictions are essential for accurate estimates of disability-adjusted life years lost due to onchocerciasis by 2025.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie V. S. Vinkeles Melchers
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail: (NVSVM); (LEC)
| | - Wilma A. Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michele E. Murdoch
- Department of Dermatology, West Herts Hospitals NHS Trust, Watford General Hospital, Watford, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Belén Pedrique
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Marielle Kloek
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Roel Bakker
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E. Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail: (NVSVM); (LEC)
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Wiegand RE, Fleming FM, Straily A, Montgomery SP, de Vlas SJ, Utzinger J, Vounatsou P, Secor WE. Urogenital schistosomiasis infection prevalence targets to determine elimination as a public health problem based on microhematuria prevalence in school-age children. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009451. [PMID: 34115760 PMCID: PMC8221785 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent research suggests that schistosomiasis targets for morbidity control and elimination as a public health problem could benefit from a reanalysis. These analyses would define evidence-based targets that control programs could use to confidently assert that they had controlled or eliminated schistosomiasis as a public health problem. We estimated how low Schistosoma haematobium infection levels diagnosed by urine filtration in school-age children should be decreased so that microhematuria prevalence was at, or below, a "background" level of morbidity. METHODOLOGY Data obtained from school-age children in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Tanzania, and Zambia who participated in schistosomiasis monitoring and evaluation cohorts were reanalyzed before and after initiation of preventive chemotherapy. Bayesian models estimated the infection level prevalence probabilities associated with microhematuria thresholds ≤10%, 13%, or 15%. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS An infection prevalence of 5% could be a sensible target for urogenital schistosomiasis morbidity control in children as microhematuria prevalence was highly likely to be below 10% in all surveys. Targets of 8% and 11% infection prevalence were highly likely to result in microhematuria levels less than 13% and 15%, respectively. By contrast, measuring heavy-intensity infections only achieves these thresholds at impractically low prevalence levels. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE A target of 5%, 8%, or 11% urogenital schistosomiasis infection prevalence in school-age children could be used to determine whether a geographic area has controlled or eliminated schistosomiasis as a public health problem depending on the local background threshold of microhematuria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan E. Wiegand
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Anne Straily
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Susan P. Montgomery
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jürg Utzinger
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Penelope Vounatsou
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - W. Evan Secor
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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de Vos AS, Stolk WA, Coffeng LE, de Vlas SJ. The impact of mass drug administration expansion to low onchocerciasis prevalence settings in case of connected villages. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009011. [PMID: 33979331 PMCID: PMC8143415 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The existence of locations with low but stable onchocerciasis prevalence is not well understood. An often suggested yet poorly investigated explanation is that the infection spills over from neighbouring locations with higher infection densities. Methodology We adapted the stochastic individual based model ONCHOSIM to enable the simulation of multiple villages, with separate blackfly (intermediate host) and human populations, which are connected through the regular movement of the villagers and/or the flies. With this model we explore the impact of the type, direction and degree of connectedness, and of the impact of localized or full-area mass drug administration (MDA) over a range of connected village settings. Principal findings In settings with annual fly biting rates (ABR) below the threshold needed for stable local transmission, persistence of onchocerciasis prevalence can well be explained by regular human traffic and/or fly movement from locations with higher ABR. Elimination of onchocerciasis will then theoretically be reached by only implementing MDA in the higher prevalence area, although lingering infection in the low prevalence location can trigger resurgence of transmission in the total region when MDA is stopped too soon. Expanding MDA implementation to the lower ABR location can therefore shorten the duration of MDA needed. For example, when prevalence spill-over is due to human traffic, and both locations have about equal populations, then the MDA duration can be shortened by up to three years. If the lower ABR location has twice as many inhabitants, the reduction can even be up to six years, but if spill-over is due to fly movement, the expected reduction is less than a year. Conclusions/Significance Although MDA implementation might not always be necessary in locations with stable low onchocerciasis prevalence, in many circumstances it is recommended to accelerate achieving elimination in the wider area. When infected by onchocerciasis worm parasites, people can eventually develop blindness or severe skin morbidity. Over the past decades, in most places with high onchocerciasis prevalence, annual mass drug administration has become freely available for all inhabitants, regardless of their infection status. This policy has been highly successful in decreasing morbidity. For the next aim, to eliminate onchocerciasis, this intervention is now being expanded to lower prevalence locations. We have adapted an existing simulation model of the spread of onchocerciasis to allow us to model settings where multiple villages are connected, through movement of either humans or blackflies, the intermediate host. By this connection, worms could spill over from a high prevalence village to neighbouring villages with lower prevalence. For such situations, we have examined the impact of implementing treatment only in the high prevalence village, or also in one or two lower prevalence villages. We conclude that for elimination of onchocerciasis transmission, treatment in the lower prevalence villages may not actually be needed, but the total duration of mass drug administration in the entire area can be significantly decreased by expanding treatment to these villages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneke S. de Vos
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Wilma A. Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E. Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Wiegand RE, Secor WE, Fleming FM, French MD, King CH, Deol AK, Montgomery SP, Evans D, Utzinger J, Vounatsou P, de Vlas SJ. Associations between infection intensity categories and morbidity prevalence in school-age children are much stronger for Schistosoma haematobium than for S. mansoni. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009444. [PMID: 34033646 PMCID: PMC8183985 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for measuring global progress in schistosomiasis control classify individuals with Schistosoma spp. infections based on the concentration of excreted eggs. We assessed the associations between WHO infection intensity categories and morbidity prevalence for selected S. haematobium and S. mansoni morbidities in school-age children. METHODOLOGY A total of 22,488 children aged 6-15 years from monitoring and evaluation cohorts in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Uganda, Tanzania, and Zambia from 2003-2008 were analyzed using Bayesian logistic regression. Models were utilized to evaluate associations between intensity categories and the prevalence of any urinary bladder lesion, any upper urinary tract lesion, microhematuria, and pain while urinating (for S. haematobium) and irregular hepatic ultrasound image pattern (C-F), enlarged portal vein, laboratory-confirmed diarrhea, and self-reported diarrhea (for S. mansoni) across participants with infection and morbidity data. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS S. haematobium infection intensity categories possessed consistent morbidity prevalence across surveys for multiple morbidities and participants with light infections had elevated morbidity levels, compared to negative participants. Conversely, S. mansoni infection intensity categories lacked association with prevalence of the morbidity measures assessed. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Current status infection intensity categories for S. haematobium were associated with morbidity levels in school-age children, suggesting urogenital schistosomiasis morbidity can be predicted by an individual's intensity category. Conversely, S. mansoni infection intensity categories were not consistently indicative of childhood morbidity at baseline or during the first two years of a preventive chemotherapy control program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan E. Wiegand
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - W. Evan Secor
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | | | | | - Charles H. King
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Arminder K. Deol
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susan P. Montgomery
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Darin Evans
- United States Agency for International Development, Washington DC, United States of America
| | - Jürg Utzinger
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Penelope Vounatsou
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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35
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Vegvari C, Giardina F, Bajaj S, Malizia V, Hardwick RJ, Truscott JE, Montresor A, de Vlas SJ, Coffeng LE, Anderson RM. Deworming women of reproductive age during adolescence and pregnancy: what is the impact on morbidity from soil-transmitted helminths infection? Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:220. [PMID: 33892750 PMCID: PMC8063329 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04620-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) are a major cause of poor health in low- and middle-income countries. In particular, hookworm is known to cause anaemia in children and women of reproductive age (WRA). One goal of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) 2030 roadmap for neglected tropical diseases is to reduce STH-related morbidity in WRA. As a minimal intervention, the WHO recommends deworming adolescent girls annually during human papilloma virus vaccination programmes and WRA during pregnancy and lactation. These routine interventions are low cost and can be implemented even by the most basic health services in endemic countries. In this study we use a cohort model to investigate the potential impact on STH-related morbidity in WRA. Results Annual deworming treatment of adolescent girls reduces the prevalence of moderate- and heavy-intensity infections in this age group by up to 60% in moderate transmission settings and by 12–27% in high transmission settings. Treatment of WRA during pregnancy and lactation on its own has a small (< 20%) but significant effect on morbidity although it does not lead to the achievement of the morbidity target (< 2% moderate- to high-intensity infections) in this age group. However, depending on the age-intensity profile of infection, which may vary geographically, and assumptions on the density-dependence of egg production by fertilised female worms, continued school-based treatment may be able to reduce the force of infection acting on WRA, both through an indirect effect on the overall population-based force of infection and via reducing the burden of infection as children age and move into the WRA age classes. As a result, morbidity in WRA may be eliminated. Conclusion While deworming during pregnancy and lactation does not lead to the achievement of the morbidity target in WRA and its efficacy may vary by setting, it is still expected to be beneficial for maternity and child health. Monitoring of any WRA-based intervention is recommended to evaluate its effectiveness.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Vegvari
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNTDR), Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK. .,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK. .,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Federica Giardina
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sumali Bajaj
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Veronica Malizia
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robert J Hardwick
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNTDR), Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.,The DeWorm3 Project, The Natural History Museum of London, London, SW7 5BD, UK
| | - James E Truscott
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNTDR), Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.,The DeWorm3 Project, The Natural History Museum of London, London, SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Antonio Montresor
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Roy M Anderson
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNTDR), Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Praed Street, London, W2 1PG, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.,The DeWorm3 Project, The Natural History Museum of London, London, SW7 5BD, UK
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Bulstra CA, Blok DJ, Alam K, Butlin CR, Roy JC, Bowers B, Nicholls P, de Vlas SJ, Richardus JH. Geospatial epidemiology of leprosy in northwest Bangladesh: a 20-year retrospective observational study. Infect Dis Poverty 2021; 10:36. [PMID: 33752751 PMCID: PMC7986508 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-021-00817-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Leprosy is known to be unevenly distributed between and within countries. High risk areas or ‘hotspots’ are potential targets for preventive interventions, but the underlying epidemiologic mechanisms that enable hotspots to emerge, are not yet fully understood. In this study, we identified and characterized leprosy hotspots in Bangladesh, a country with one of the highest leprosy endemicity levels globally. Methods We used data from four high-endemic districts in northwest Bangladesh including 20 623 registered cases between January 2000 and April 2019 (among ~ 7 million population). Incidences per union (smallest administrative unit) were calculated using geospatial population density estimates. A geospatial Poisson model was used to detect incidence hotspots over three (overlapping) 10-year timeframes: 2000–2009, 2005–2014 and 2010–2019. Ordinal regression models were used to assess whether patient characteristics were significantly different for cases outside hotspots, as compared to cases within weak (i.e., relative risk (RR) of one to two), medium (i.e., RR of two to three), and strong (i.e., RR higher than three) hotspots. Results New case detection rates dropped from 44/100 000 in 2000 to 10/100 000 in 2019. Statistically significant hotspots were identified during all timeframes and were often located at areas with high population densities. The RR for leprosy was up to 12 times higher for inhabitants of hotspots than for people living outside hotspots. Within strong hotspots (1930 cases among less than 1% of the population), significantly more child cases (i.e., below 15 years of age) were detected, indicating recent transmission. Cases in hotspots were not significantly more likely to be detected actively. Conclusions Leprosy showed a heterogeneous distribution with clear hotspots in northwest Bangladesh throughout a 20-year period of decreasing incidence. Findings confirm that leprosy hotspots represent areas of higher transmission activity and are not solely the result of active case finding strategies.![]() Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40249-021-00817-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline A Bulstra
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. .,Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - David J Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Khorshed Alam
- Rural Health Programme, The Leprosy Mission International Bangladesh, Nilphamari, Bangladesh
| | - C Ruth Butlin
- The Leprosy Mission England and Wales, Goldhay Way, Orton Goldhay, Peterborough, England
| | - Johan Chandra Roy
- Rural Health Programme, The Leprosy Mission International Bangladesh, Nilphamari, Bangladesh
| | - Bob Bowers
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | | | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Hendrik Richardus
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Le Rutte EA, Coffeng LE, Muñoz J, de Vlas SJ. Modelling the impact of COVID-19-related programme interruptions on visceral leishmaniasis in India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2021; 115:229-235. [PMID: 33580952 PMCID: PMC7928630 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trab012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In March 2020, India declared a nationwide lockdown to control the spread of coronavirus disease 2019. As a result, control efforts against visceral leishmaniasis (VL) were interrupted. Methods Using an established age-structured deterministic VL transmission model, we predicted the impact of a 6- to 24-month programme interruption on the timeline towards achieving the VL elimination target as well as on the increase of VL cases. We also explored the potential impact of a mitigation strategy after the interruption. Results Delays towards the elimination target are estimated to range between 0 and 9 y. Highly endemic settings where control efforts have been ongoing for 5–8 y are most affected by an interruption, for which we identified a mitigation strategy to be most relevant. However, more importantly, all settings can expect an increase in the number of VL cases. This increase is substantial even for settings with a limited expected delay in achieving the elimination target. Conclusions Besides implementing mitigation strategies, it is of great importance to try and keep the duration of the interruption as short as possible to prevent new individuals from becoming infected with VL and continue the efforts towards VL elimination as a public health problem in India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Epke A Le Rutte
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Johanna Muñoz
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Prada JM, Stolk WA, Davis EL, Touloupou P, Sharma S, Muñoz J, Caja Rivera RM, Reimer LJ, Michael E, de Vlas SJ, Hollingsworth TD. Delays in lymphatic filariasis elimination programmes due to COVID-19, and possible mitigation strategies. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2021; 115:261-268. [PMID: 33515454 PMCID: PMC7928650 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trab004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In view of the current global coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, mass drug administration interventions for neglected tropical diseases, including lymphatic filariasis (LF), have been halted. We used mathematical modelling to estimate the impact of delaying or cancelling treatment rounds and explore possible mitigation strategies. Methods We used three established LF transmission models to simulate infection trends in settings with annual treatment rounds and programme delays in 2020 of 6, 12, 18 or 24 months. We then evaluated the impact of various mitigation strategies upon resuming activities. Results The delay in achieving the elimination goals is on average similar to the number of years the treatment rounds are missed. Enhanced interventions implemented for as little as 1 y can allow catch-up on the progress lost and, if maintained throughout the programme, can lead to acceleration of up to 3 y. Conclusions In general, a short delay in the programme does not cause a major delay in achieving the goals. Impact is strongest in high-endemicity areas. Mitigation strategies such as biannual treatment or increased coverage are key to minimizing the impact of the disruption once the programme resumes and lead to potential acceleration should these enhanced strategies be maintained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquín M Prada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Emma L Davis
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Center for Health Information and Discovery, Headington, Oxford, UK
| | - Panayiota Touloupou
- Department of Statistics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.,School of Mathematics, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Swarnali Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
| | - Johanna Muñoz
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rocio M Caja Rivera
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA.,Center for Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Lisa J Reimer
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - Edwin Michael
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA.,Center for Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - T Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Center for Health Information and Discovery, Headington, Oxford, UK
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Malizia V, Giardina F, Vegvari C, Bajaj S, McRae-McKee K, Anderson RM, de Vlas SJ, Coffeng LE. Modelling the impact of COVID-19-related control programme interruptions on progress towards the WHO 2030 target for soil-transmitted helminths. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2021; 115:253-260. [PMID: 33313897 PMCID: PMC7798673 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/traa156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background On 1 April 2020, the WHO recommended an interruption of all activities for the control of neglected tropical diseases, including soil-transmitted helminths (STH), in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper investigates the impact of this disruption on the progress towards the WHO 2030 target for STH. Methods We used two stochastic individual-based models to simulate the impact of missing one or more preventive chemotherapy (PC) rounds in different endemicity settings. We also investigated the extent to which this impact can be lessened by mitigation strategies, such as semiannual or community-wide PC. Results Both models show that without a mitigation strategy, control programmes will catch up by 2030, assuming that coverage is maintained. The catch-up time can be up to 4.5 y after the start of the interruption. Mitigation strategies may reduce this time by up to 2 y and increase the probability of achieving the 2030 target. Conclusions Although a PC interruption will only temporarily impact the progress towards the WHO 2030 target, programmes are encouraged to restart as soon as possible to minimise the impact on morbidity. The implementation of suitable mitigation strategies can turn the interruption into an opportunity to accelerate progress towards reaching the target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Malizia
- Departmen t of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Federica Giardina
- Departmen t of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Carolin Vegvari
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sumali Bajaj
- Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Kevin McRae-McKee
- Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Roy M Anderson
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.,The DeWorm3 Project, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Departmen t of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Departmen t of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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40
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Hollingsworth TD, Mwinzi P, Vasconcelos A, de Vlas SJ. Evaluating the potential impact of interruptions to neglected tropical disease programmes due to COVID-19. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2021; 115:201-204. [PMID: 33693894 PMCID: PMC7946803 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trab023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- T Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Pauline Mwinzi
- Expanded Special Project for Elimination of Neglected Tropical Diseases (ESPEN), World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa, P.O.BOX 06 Cité du Djoué Brazzaville, Congo
| | - Andreia Vasconcelos
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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41
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Hamley JID, Blok DJ, Walker M, Milton P, Hopkins AD, Hamill LC, Downs P, de Vlas SJ, Stolk WA, Basáñez MG. What does the COVID-19 pandemic mean for the next decade of onchocerciasis control and elimination? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2021; 115:269-280. [PMID: 33515042 PMCID: PMC7928565 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/traa193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mass drug administration (MDA) of ivermectin for onchocerciasis has been disrupted by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Mathematical modelling can help predict how missed/delayed MDA will affect short-term epidemiological trends and elimination prospects by 2030. METHODS Two onchocerciasis transmission models (EPIONCHO-IBM and ONCHOSIM) are used to simulate microfilarial prevalence trends, elimination probabilities and age profiles of Onchocerca volvulus microfilarial prevalence and intensity for different treatment histories and transmission settings, assuming no interruption, a 1-y (2020) interruption or a 2-y (2020-2021) interruption. Biannual MDA or increased coverage upon MDA resumption are investigated as remedial strategies. RESULTS Programmes with shorter MDA histories and settings with high pre-intervention endemicity will be the most affected. Biannual MDA is more effective than increasing coverage for mitigating COVID-19's impact on MDA. Programmes that had already switched to biannual MDA should be minimally affected. In high-transmission settings with short treatment history, a 2-y interruption could lead to increased microfilarial load in children (EPIONCHO-IBM) and adults (ONCHOSIM). CONCLUSIONS Programmes with shorter (annual MDA) treatment histories should be prioritised for remedial biannual MDA. Increases in microfilarial load could have short- and long-term morbidity and mortality repercussions. These results can guide decision-making to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on onchocerciasis elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan I D Hamley
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.,MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - David J Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Walker
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.,London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research (LCNTDR), Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Philip Milton
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.,MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Adrian D Hopkins
- Neglected and Disabling Diseases of Poverty Consultant, Kent, UK
| | - Louise C Hamill
- Sightsavers, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, RH16 3BW, UK
| | - Philip Downs
- Sightsavers, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, RH16 3BW, UK
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.,MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine (St Mary's campus), Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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42
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de Vlas SJ, Coffeng LE. Achieving herd immunity against COVID-19 at the country level by the exit strategy of a phased lift of control. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4445. [PMID: 33627674 DOI: 10.1101/2020.03.29.20046011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the entire world causing substantial numbers of cases and deaths in most countries. Many have implemented nationwide stringent control to avoid overburdening the health care system. This has paralyzed economic and social activities and may continue to do so until the large-scale availability of a vaccine. We propose an alternative exit strategy to develop herd immunity in a predictable and controllable way: a phased lift of control. This means that successive parts of the country (e.g. provinces) stop stringent control, and COVID-19-related IC admissions are distributed over the country as a whole. Importantly, vulnerable individuals need to be shielded until herd immunity has developed in their area. We explore the characteristics and duration of this strategy using a novel individual-based model for geographically stratified transmission of COVID-19 in a country. The model predicts that individuals will have to experience stringent control for about 14 months on average, but this duration may be almost halved by further developments (more IC beds, better treatments). Clearly, implementation of this strategy would have a profound impact on individuals and society, and should therefore be considered carefully by various other disciplines (e.g. health systems, ethics, economics) before actual implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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43
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de Vlas SJ, Coffeng LE. Achieving herd immunity against COVID-19 at the country level by the exit strategy of a phased lift of control. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4445. [PMID: 33627674 PMCID: PMC7904921 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83492-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the entire world causing substantial numbers of cases and deaths in most countries. Many have implemented nationwide stringent control to avoid overburdening the health care system. This has paralyzed economic and social activities and may continue to do so until the large-scale availability of a vaccine. We propose an alternative exit strategy to develop herd immunity in a predictable and controllable way: a phased lift of control. This means that successive parts of the country (e.g. provinces) stop stringent control, and COVID-19-related IC admissions are distributed over the country as a whole. Importantly, vulnerable individuals need to be shielded until herd immunity has developed in their area. We explore the characteristics and duration of this strategy using a novel individual-based model for geographically stratified transmission of COVID-19 in a country. The model predicts that individuals will have to experience stringent control for about 14 months on average, but this duration may be almost halved by further developments (more IC beds, better treatments). Clearly, implementation of this strategy would have a profound impact on individuals and society, and should therefore be considered carefully by various other disciplines (e.g. health systems, ethics, economics) before actual implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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44
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Hamley JID, Walker M, Coffeng LE, Milton P, de Vlas SJ, Stolk WA, Basáñez MG. Structural Uncertainty in Onchocerciasis Transmission Models Influences the Estimation of Elimination Thresholds and Selection of Age Groups for Seromonitoring. J Infect Dis 2021; 221:S510-S518. [PMID: 32173745 PMCID: PMC7289547 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiz674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Health Organization recommends monitoring Onchocerca volvulus Ov16 serology in children aged <10 years for stopping mass ivermectin administration. Transmission models can help to identify the most informative age groups for serological monitoring and investigate the discriminatory power of serology-based elimination thresholds. Model predictions depend on assumed age-exposure patterns and transmission efficiency at low infection levels. METHODS The individual-based transmission model, EPIONCHO-IBM, was used to assess (1) the most informative age groups for serological monitoring using receiver operating characteristic curves for different elimination thresholds under various age-dependent exposure assumptions, including those of ONCHOSIM (another widely used model), and (2) the influence of within-human density-dependent parasite establishment (included in EPIONCHO-IBM but not ONCHOSIM) on positive predictive values for different serological thresholds. RESULTS When assuming EPIONCHO-IBM exposure patterns, children aged <10 years are the most informative for seromonitoring; when assuming ONCHOSIM exposure patterns, 5-14 year olds are the most informative (as published elsewhere). Omitting density-dependent parasite establishment results in more lenient seroprevalence thresholds, even for higher baseline infection prevalence and shorter treatment durations. CONCLUSIONS Selecting appropriate seromonitoring age groups depends critically on age-dependent exposure patterns. The role of density dependence on elimination thresholds largely explains differing EPIONCHO-IBM and ONCHOSIM elimination predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan I D Hamley
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Martin Walker
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK.,London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Philip Milton
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK
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45
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Coffeng LE, Malizia V, Vegvari C, Cools P, Halliday KE, Levecke B, Mekonnen Z, Gichuki PM, Sayasone S, Sarkar R, Shaali A, Vlaminck J, Anderson RM, de Vlas SJ. Impact of Different Sampling Schemes for Decision Making in Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis Control Programs. J Infect Dis 2021; 221:S531-S538. [PMID: 31829425 PMCID: PMC7289558 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiz535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Starting and stopping preventive chemotherapy (PC) for soil-transmitted helminthiasis is typically based on the prevalence of infection as measured by Kato-Katz (KK) fecal smears. Kato-Katz-based egg counts can vary highly over repeated stool samples and smears. Consequentially, the sensitivity of KK-based surveys depends on the number of stool samples per person and the number of smears per sample. Given finite resources, collecting multiple samples and/or smears means screening fewer individuals, thereby lowering the statistical precision of prevalence estimates. Using population-level data from various epidemiological settings, we assessed the performance of different sampling schemes executed within the confines of the same budget. We recommend the use of single-slide KK for determining prevalence of moderate-to-heavy intensity infection and policy decisions for starting and continuing PC; more sensitive sampling schemes may be required for policy decisions involving stopping PC. Our findings highlight that guidelines should include specific guidance on sampling schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Veronica Malizia
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Carolin Vegvari
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Piet Cools
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Katherine E Halliday
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Levecke
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Zeleke Mekonnen
- Jimma University Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Paul M Gichuki
- Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Somphou Sayasone
- Lao Tropical and Public Health Institute, Ministry of Health, Vientiane, Lao People's Democratic Republic
| | - Rajiv Sarkar
- Division of Gastrointestinal Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ame Shaali
- Laboratory Division, Public Health Laboratory-Ivo de Carneri, Chake Chake, United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Johnny Vlaminck
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Roy M Anderson
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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46
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Coffeng LE, Le Rutte EA, Muñoz J, Adams ER, Prada JM, de Vlas SJ, Medley GF. Impact of Changes in Detection Effort on Control of Visceral Leishmaniasis in the Indian Subcontinent. J Infect Dis 2021; 221:S546-S553. [PMID: 31841593 PMCID: PMC7289545 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiz644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Control of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) on the Indian subcontinent relies on prompt detection and treatment of symptomatic cases. Detection efforts influence the observed VL incidence and how well it reflects the underlying true incidence. As control targets are defined in terms of observed cases, there is an urgent need to understand how changes in detection delay and population coverage of improved detection affect VL control. Methods Using a mathematical model for transmission and control of VL, we predict the impact of reduced detection delays and/or increased population coverage of the detection programs on observed and true VL incidence and mortality. Results Improved case detection, either by higher coverage or reduced detection delay, causes an initial rise in observed VL incidence before a reduction. Relaxation of improved detection may lead to an apparent temporary (1 year) reduction in VL incidence, but comes with a high risk of resurging infection levels. Duration of symptoms in detected cases shows an unequivocal association with detection effort. Conclusions VL incidence on its own is not a reliable indicator of the performance of case detection programs. Duration of symptoms in detected cases can be used as an additional marker of the performance of case detection programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Epke A Le Rutte
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Johanna Muñoz
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Emily R Adams
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Joaquin M Prada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Graham F Medley
- Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Disease and Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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47
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Taal AT, Blok DJ, van Brakel WH, de Vlas SJ, Richardus JH. Number of people requiring post-exposure prophylaxis to end leprosy: A modeling study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009146. [PMID: 33630836 PMCID: PMC7906365 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Worldwide, around 210,000 new cases of leprosy are detected annually. To end leprosy, i.e. zero new leprosy cases, preventive interventions such as contact tracing and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) are required. This study aims to estimate the number of people requiring PEP to reduce leprosy new case detection (NCD) at national and global level by 50% and 90%. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The individual-based model SIMCOLEP was fitted to seven leprosy settings defined by NCD and MB proportion. Using data of all 110 countries with known leprosy patients in 2016, we assigned each country to one of these settings. We predicted the impact of administering PEP to about 25 contacts of leprosy patients on the annual NCD for 25 years and estimated the number of contacts requiring PEP per country for each year. The NCD trends show an increase in NCD in the first year (i.e. backlog cases) followed by a significant decrease thereafter. A reduction of 50% and 90% of new cases would be achieved in most countries in 5 and 22 years if 20.6 and 40.2 million people are treated with PEP over that period, respectively. For India, Brazil, and Indonesia together, a total of 32.9 million people requiring PEP to achieve a 90% reduction in 22 years. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE The leprosy problem is far greater than the 210,000 new cases reported annually. Our model estimates of the number of people requiring PEP to achieve significant reduction of new leprosy cases can be used by policymakers and program managers to develop long-term strategies to end leprosy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneke T. Taal
- NLR, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - David J. Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Sake J. de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Hendrik Richardus
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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48
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Zhao L, Feng D, Ye RZ, Wang HT, Zhou YH, Wei JT, de Vlas SJ, Cui XM, Jia N, Yin CN, Li SX, Wang ZQ, Cao WC. Outbreak of COVID-19 and SARS in mainland China: a comparative study based on national surveillance data. BMJ Open 2020; 10:e043411. [PMID: 33060093 PMCID: PMC7565247 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the epidemiological characteristics and transmission dynamics in relation to interventions against the COVID-19 and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in mainland China. DESIGN Comparative study based on a unique data set of COVID-19 and SARS. SETTING Outbreak in mainland China. PARTICIPANTS The final database included 82 858 confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 5327 cases of SARS. METHODS We brought together all existing data sources and integrated them into a comprehensive data set. Individual information on age, sex, occupation, residence location, date of illness onset, date of diagnosis and clinical outcome was extracted. Control measures deployed in mainland China were collected. We compared the epidemiological and spatial characteristics of COVID-19 and SARS. We estimated the effective reproduction number to explore differences in transmission dynamics and intervention effects. RESULTS Compared with SARS, COVID-19 affected more extensive areas (1668 vs 230 counties) within a shorter time (101 vs 193 days) and had higher attack rate (61.8 vs 4.0 per million persons). The COVID-19 outbreak had only one epidemic peak and one epicentre (Hubei Province), while the SARS outbreak resulted in two peaks and two epicentres (Guangdong Province and Beijing). SARS-CoV-2 was more likely to infect older people (median age of 52 years), while SARS-CoV tended to infect young adults (median age of 34 years). The case fatality rate (CFR) of either disease increased with age, but the CFR of COVID-19 was significantly lower than that of SARS (5.6% vs 6.4%). The trajectory of effective reproduction number dynamically changed in relation to interventions, which fell below 1 within 2 months for COVID-19 and within 5.5 months for SARS. CONCLUSIONS China has taken more prompt and effective responses to combat COVID-19 by learning lessons from SARS, providing us with some epidemiological clues to control the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhao
- Institute of EcoHealth, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Dan Feng
- Institution of Hospital Management, Medical Innovation Research Division, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Run-Ze Ye
- Institute of EcoHealth, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Hai-Tao Wang
- Institute of EcoHealth, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yu-Hao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Jia-Te Wei
- Institute of EcoHealth, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Xiao-Ming Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Na Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Chao-Nan Yin
- Institute of EcoHealth, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Shi-Xue Li
- Institute of EcoHealth, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Zhi-Qiang Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Second Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Wu-Chun Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
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49
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Osetinsky B, Hontelez JAC, Lurie MN, McGarvey ST, Bloomfield GS, Pastakia SD, Wamai R, Bärnighausen T, de Vlas SJ, Galárraga O. Epidemiological And Health Systems Implications Of Evolving HIV And Hypertension In South Africa And Kenya. Health Aff (Millwood) 2020; 38:1173-1181. [PMID: 31260360 DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.2018.05287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Health systems in sub-Saharan Africa are facing an ongoing HIV epidemic and increasing burden of noncommunicable disease. With the focus shifting to the development of comprehensive primary health care and chronic disease treatment, multidisease modeling is integral to estimating future health care needs. We extended an established agent-based model of HIV transmission to include hypertension in two rural settings: KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and western Kenya. We estimated that from 2018 to 2028 hypertension prevalence would increase from 40 percent to 46 percent in KwaZulu-Natal and from 29 percent to 35 percent in western Kenya, while HIV prevalence is stabilizing and predicted to decrease. As the health system burden in sub-Saharan Africa is changing, innovative chronic disease treatment and the broadening of successful programs, such as integrated HIV and noncommunicable disease care, are necessary to reach universal health care coverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna Osetinsky
- Brianna Osetinsky is a PhD candidate in the Department of Health Services, Policy, and Practice, Brown University School of Public Health, in Providence, Rhode Island
| | - Jan A C Hontelez
- Jan A. C. Hontelez is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Health at Erasmus MC, Erasmus University Rotterdam, in the Netherlands, and at the Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University, in Germany
| | - Mark N Lurie
- Mark N. Lurie is an associate professor in the Department of Epidemiology, Brown University School of Public Health
| | - Stephen T McGarvey
- Stephen T. McGarvey is director of the International Health Institute and a professor in the Department of Epidemiology, both at the Brown University School of Public Health
| | - Gerald S Bloomfield
- Gerald S. Bloomfield is an associate professor in the Department of Medicine and Global Health, Duke University School of Medicine, in Durham, North Carolina
| | - Sonak D Pastakia
- Sonak D. Pastakia is a professor of pharmacy practice with the Purdue Kenya Partnership, Purdue University College of Pharmacy, in Eldoret, Kenya
| | - Richard Wamai
- Richard Wamai is an associate professor in the Department of Cultures, Societies, and Global Studies, Northeastern University, in Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Till Bärnighausen
- Till Bärnighausen is the Alexander von Humboldt University Professor and director of the Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University. He is also senior faculty at the Africa Health Research Institute, in Somkhele, South Africa, and an adjunct professor of global health at the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, in Boston
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Sake J. de Vlas is a professor in the Department of Public Health at Erasmus MC, Erasmus University Rotterdam
| | - Omar Galárraga
- Omar Galárraga ( ) is an associate professor in the Department of Health Services, Policy, and Practice, Brown University School of Public Health
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50
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Toor J, Adams ER, Aliee M, Amoah B, Anderson RM, Ayabina D, Bailey R, Basáñez MG, Blok DJ, Blumberg S, Borlase A, Rivera RC, Castaño MS, Chitnis N, Coffeng LE, Crump RE, Das A, Davis CN, Davis EL, Deiner MS, Diggle PJ, Fronterre C, Giardina F, Giorgi E, Graham M, Hamley JID, Huang CI, Kura K, Lietman TM, Lucas TCD, Malizia V, Medley GF, Meeyai A, Michael E, Porco TC, Prada JM, Rock KS, Le Rutte EA, Smith ME, Spencer SEF, Stolk WA, Touloupou P, Vasconcelos A, Vegvari C, de Vlas SJ, Walker M, Hollingsworth TD. Predicted Impact of COVID-19 on Neglected Tropical Disease Programs and the Opportunity for Innovation. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 72:1463-1466. [PMID: 32984870 PMCID: PMC7543306 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many key neglected tropical disease (NTD) activities have been postponed. This hindrance comes at a time when the NTDs are progressing towards their ambitious goals for 2030. Mathematical modelling on several NTDs, namely gambiense sleeping sickness, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiases (STH), trachoma, and visceral leishmaniasis, shows that the impact of this disruption will vary across the diseases. Programs face a risk of resurgence, which will be fastest in high-transmission areas. Furthermore, of the mass drug administration diseases, schistosomiasis, STH, and trachoma are likely to encounter faster resurgence. The case-finding diseases (gambiense sleeping sickness and visceral leishmaniasis) are likely to have fewer cases being detected but may face an increasing underlying rate of new infections. However, once programs are able to resume, there are ways to mitigate the impact and accelerate progress towards the 2030 goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaspreet Toor
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Emily R Adams
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Maryam Aliee
- Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom,Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin Amoah
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Roy M Anderson
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,The DeWorm3 Project, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
| | - Diepreye Ayabina
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Robin Bailey
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Maria-Gloria Basáñez
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David J Blok
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Seth Blumberg
- Francis I Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Anna Borlase
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Rocio Caja Rivera
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - María Soledad Castaño
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nakul Chitnis
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Luc E Coffeng
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald E Crump
- Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom,Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom,The School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Aatreyee Das
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christopher N Davis
- Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom,Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Emma L Davis
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Michael S Deiner
- Francis I Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America,Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Peter J Diggle
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Claudio Fronterre
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Federica Giardina
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Emanuele Giorgi
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Graham
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Oxford, United Kingdom,Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Disease, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan I D Hamley
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ching-I Huang
- Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom,Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Klodeta Kura
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas M Lietman
- Francis I Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America,Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America,Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Tim C D Lucas
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Veronica Malizia
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Graham F Medley
- Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Disease, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aronrag Meeyai
- Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Disease, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Edwin Michael
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Travis C Porco
- Francis I Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America,Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America,Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Joaquin M Prada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Kat S Rock
- Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom,Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Epke A Le Rutte
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands,Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Morgan E Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Simon E F Spencer
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom,Department of Statistics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Wilma A Stolk
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Andreia Vasconcelos
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Carolin Vegvari
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,Medical Research Council Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sake J de Vlas
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Walker
- London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research, Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - T Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Oxford, United Kingdom,Correspondence: T. D. Hollingsworth, Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, Old Road Campus, Oxford OX3 7LF, UK ()
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