A Mixture of Morus alba and Angelica keiskei Leaf Extracts Improves Muscle Atrophy by Activating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway and Inhibiting FoxO3a In Vitro and In Vivo

Muscle atrophy, which is defined as a decrease in muscle mass and strength, is caused by an imbalance between the anabolism and catabolism of muscle proteins. Thus, modulating the homeostasis between muscle protein synthesis and degradation represents an efficient treatment approach for this condition. In the present study, the protective effects against muscle atrophy of ethanol extracts of Morus alba L. (MA) and Angelica keiskei Koidz. (AK) leaves and their mixtures (MIX) were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. Our results showed that MIX increased 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide-induced C2C12 myotube thinning, and enhanced soleus and gastrocnemius muscle thickness compared to each extract alone in dexamethasone-induced muscle atrophy Sprague Dawley rats. In addition, although MA and AK substantially improved grip strength and histological changes for dexamethasone-induced muscle atrophy in vivo, the efficacy was superior in the MIX-treated group. Moreover, MIX further increased the expression levels of myogenic factors (MyoD and myogenin) and decreased the expression levels of E3 ubiquitin ligases (atrogin-1 and muscle-specific RING finger protein-1) in vitro and in vivo compared to the MA- and AK-alone treatment groups. Furthermore, MIX increased the levels of phosphorylated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt), and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) that were reduced by dexamethasone, and downregulated the expression of forkhead box O3 (FoxO3a) induced by dexamethasone. These results suggest that MIX has a protective effect against muscle atrophy by enhancing muscle protein anabolism through the activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and attenuating catabolism through the inhibition of FoxO3a.

Enhancement of Immune Functions by Limosilactobacillus reuteri KBL346: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Lactobacilli have been widely used as probiotics because of their benefits for intestinal health and physiological functions. Among a variety of Lactobacillus genera, Limosilactobacillus reuteri has been studied for its ability to exert anti-inflammatory functions and its role in controlling metabolic disorders, as well as the production of the antimicrobial compound reuterin. However, the effects and mechanisms of L. reuteri on enhancing immune responses in the immunosuppressed states have been relatively understudied. In this study, we isolated an immunomodulatory strain, namely, L. reuteri KBL346 (KBL346), from a fecal sample of a 3-month-old infant in Korea. We evaluated the immunostimulatory activity and hematopoietic function of KBL346 in macrophages and cyclophosphamide (CPA)-induced immunosuppressed mice. KBL346 increased the phagocytic activity against Candida albicans MYA-4788 in macrophages, and as biomarkers for this, increased secretions of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) were confirmed. Also, the secretions of innate cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) were increased. In CPA-induced immunosuppressed mice, KBL346 at a dosage of 1010 CFU/kg protected against spleen injury and suppressed levels of immune-associated parameters, including NK cell activity, T and B lymphocyte proliferation, CD4+ and CD8+ T cell abundance, cytokines, and immunoglobulins in vivo. The effects were comparable or superior to those in the Korean red ginseng positive control group. Furthermore, the safety assessment of KBL346 as a probiotic was conducted by evaluating its antibiotic resistance, hemolytic activity, cytotoxicity, and metabolic characteristics. This study demonstrated the efficacy and safety of KBL346, which could potentially be used as a supplement to enhance the immune system.

Urban aerosol particulate matter promotes mitochondrial oxidative stress-induced cellular senescence in human retinal pigment epithelial ARPE-19 cells

Environmental exposure to urban particulate matter (UPM) is a serious health concern worldwide. Although several studies have linked UPM to ocular diseases, no study has reported effects of UPM exposure on senescence in retinal cells. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of UPM on senescence and regulatory signaling in human retinal pigment epithelial ARPE-19 cells. Our study demonstrated that UPM significantly promoted senescence, with increased senescence-associated β-galactosidase activity. Moreover, both mRNA and protein levels of senescence markers (p16 and p21) and the senescence-associated secretory phenotype, including IL-1β, matrix metalloproteinase-1, and -3 were upregulated. Notably, UPM increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species-dependent nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation during senescence. In contrast, use of NF-κB inhibitor Bay 11-7082 reduced the level of senescence markers. Taken together, our results provide the first in vitro preliminary evidence that UPM induces senescence by promoting mitochondrial oxidative stress-mediated NF-κB activation in ARPE-19 cells.

Diallyl trisulfide inhibits monosodium urate-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation via NOX3/4-dependent mitochondrial oxidative stress in RAW 264.7 and bone marrow-derived macrophages

BACKGROUND

Monosodium urate (MSU) crystals are associated with gouty inflammatory diseases. MSU-associated inflammation is majorly triggered by NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome that promotes interleukin (IL)-1β secretion. Although diallyl trisulfide (DATS) is well-known polysulfide garlic compounds with anti-inflammatory effects, its action in MSU-induced inflammasome activation has not been known yet.

PURPOSE

The objective of the current study was to investigate anti-inflammasome effects and mechanisms of DATS in RAW 264.7 and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM).

METHODS

The concentrations of IL-1β were analyzed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The MSU-induced mitochondrial damage and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were detected by fluorescence microscope and flow cytometry. The protein expressions of NLRP3 signaling molecules, NADPH oxidase (NOX) 3/4 were assessed with Western blotting.

RESULTS

DATS suppressed MSU-induced IL-1β and caspase-1 accompanied by decreased inflammasome complex formation in RAW 264.7 and BMDM. In addition, DATS restored mitochondrial damage. DATS downregulated NOX 3/4 that were upregulated by MSU as predicted by gene microarray and confirmed by Western blotting.

CONCLUSION

This study first reports mechanistic finding that DATS alleviates MSU-induced NLRP3 inflammasome by mediating NOX3/4-dependent mitochondrial ROS production in macrophages in vitro and ex vivo, suggesting DATS could be effective therapeutic candidate for gouty inflammatory condition.

Phloroglucinol Inhibits Oxidative-Stress-Induced Cytotoxicity in C2C12 Murine Myoblasts through Nrf-2-Mediated Activation of HO-1

Phloroglucinol is a class of polyphenolic compounds containing aromatic phenyl rings and is known to have various pharmacological activities. Recently, we reported that this compound isolated from Ecklonia cava, a brown alga belonging to the family Laminariaceae, has potent antioxidant activity in human dermal keratinocytes. In this study, we evaluated whether phloroglucinol could protect against hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced oxidative damage in murine-derived C2C12 myoblasts. Our results revealed that phloroglucinol suppressed H2O2-induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage while blocking the production of reactive oxygen species. We also found that phloroglucinol protected cells from the induction of apoptosis associated with mitochondrial impairment caused by H2O2 treatment. Furthermore, phloroglucinol enhanced the phosphorylation of nuclear factor-erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) as well as the expression and activity of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). However, such anti-apoptotic and cytoprotective effects of phloroglucinol were greatly abolished by the HO-1 inhibitor, suggesting that phloroglucinol could increase the Nrf2-mediated activity of HO-1 to protect C2C12 myoblasts from oxidative stress. Taken together, our results indicate that phloroglucinol has a strong antioxidant activity as an Nrf2 activator and may have therapeutic benefits for oxidative-stress-mediated muscle disease.

Attenuation of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Responses through Inhibition of the NF-κB Pathway and the Increased NRF2 Level by a Flavonol-Enriched n-Butanol Fraction from Uvaria alba

Pathologic hyperreactive inflammatory responses occur when there is excessive activation of a proinflammatory NF-κB pathway and a reduced cytoprotective NRF2 cascade. The noncytotoxic, highly selective COX-2 inhibitory flavonol-enriched butanol fraction (UaB) from Uvaria alba (U. alba) was investigated for its inflammatory modulating potential by targeting NF-κB activation and NRF2 activity. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was initially performed to measure levels of proinflammatory mediators [nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂, and reactive oxygen species (ROS)] and cytokines [tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-1β, and IL-6], followed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting to determine mRNA and protein expression, respectively. Using immunofluorescence staining combined with western blot analysis, the activation of NF-κB was further investigated. NRF2 activity was also measured using a luciferase reporter assay. UaB abrogated protein and mRNA expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in RAW 264.7 macrophages, thereby suppressing the production of proinflammatory mediators and cytokines. This was further validated when a concentration-dependent decrease in NO and ROS production was observed in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae. UaB also increased NRF2 activity in HaCaT/ARE cell line and attenuated NF-κB activation by inhibiting the nuclear translocation of transcription factor p65 in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Nontargeted LC-MS analysis of UaB revealed the presence of the flavonols quercitrin (1), quercetin (2), rutin (3), kaempferol (4), and kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside (5). Molecular docking indicates that major flavonol aglycones have high affinity toward COX-2 NSAID-binding sites, TNF-α, and TNF-α converting enzyme, while the glycosylated flavonoids showed strong binding toward iNOS and IKK-all possessing dynamic stability when performing molecular dynamics simulations at 140 ns. This is the first report to have elucidated the mechanistic anti-inflammatory potential of the Philippine endemic plant U. alba.

Mixture of Corni Fructus and Schisandrae Fructus improves testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia through regulating 5α-reductase 2 and androgen receptor

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) characterized by an enlarged prostate gland is common in elderly men. Corni Fructus (CF) and Schisandrae Fructus (SF) are known to have various pharmacological effects, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, we evaluated the inhibitory efficacy of CF, SF, and their mixture (MIX) on the development of BPH using an in vivo model of testosterone-induced BPH.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Six-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into seven groups. To induce BPH, testosterone propionate (TP) was injected to rats except for those in the control group. Finasteride, saw palmetto (SP), CF, SF, and MIX were orally administered along with TP injection. At the end of treatment, histological changes in the prostate and the level of various biomarkers related to BPH were evaluated.

RESULTS

Our results showed that BPH induced by TP led to prostate weight and histological changes. Treatment with MIX effectively improved TP-induced BPH by reducing prostate index, lumen area, epithelial thickness, and expression of BPH biomarkers such as 5α-reductase type 2, prostate-specific antigen, androgen receptor, and proliferating cell nuclear antigen compared to treatment with CF or SF alone. Moreover, MIX further reduced levels of elevated serum testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and prostate-specific antigen in BPH compared to the SP, a positive control. BPH was also improved more by MIX than by CF or SF alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results, MIX is a potential natural therapeutic candidate for BPH by regulating 5α-reductase and AR signaling pathway.

Particulate matter 2.5 promotes inflammation and cellular dysfunction via reactive oxygen species/p38 MAPK pathway in primary rat corneal epithelial cells

PURPOSE

Numerous studies have linked particulate matter 2.5 (PM_2.5) to ocular surface diseases, but few studies have been conducted on the biological effect of PM_2.5 on the cornea. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the harmful effect of PM2.5 on primary rat corneal epithelial cells (RCECs) in vitro and identify the toxic mechanism involved.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Primary cultured RCECs were characterized by pan-cytokeratin (CK) staining. In PM2.5-exposed RCECs, cell viability, microarray gene expression, inflammatory cytokine levels, mitochondrial damage, DNA double-strand break and signaling pathway were investigated.

RESULTS

Exposure to PM_2.5 induced cytotoxicity and morphological changes in RCECs. In addition, PM_2.5 markedly up-regulated pro-inflammatory mediators but down-regulated the wound healing-related transforming growth factor-β. Furthermore, PM_2.5 promoted mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mediated cellular damage to mitochondria and DNA, whereas these cellular alterations induced by PM_2.5 were markedly suppressed by a potential ROS scavenger. Noteworthy, removal of ROS selectively down-regulated the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and the activation of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 in PM_2.5-stimulated cells. Additionally, SB203580, a p38 MAPK inhibitor, markedly suppressed these PM_2.5-mediated cellular dysfunctions.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our findings show that PM_2.5 can promote the ROS/p38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway and lead to mitochondrial damage and DNA double-strand break, which is ultimately caused inflammation and cytotoxicity in RCECs. These findings indicate that the ROS/p38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway is one mechanism involved in PM_2.5-induced ocular surface disorders.

Protective Effect of Gamma Aminobutyric Acid against Aggravation of Renal Injury Caused by High Salt Intake in Cisplatin-Induced Nephrotoxicity

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is one of the inhibitory neurotransmitters. Several studies have suggested that GABA supplements can reduce blood pressure and modulate the renal immune system in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we investigated the effect of GABA-enriched salt as an alternative to traditional salt on aggravated renal injury by high salt intake in cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity mice. High salt intake accelerated the increase of biomarkers, such as blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine levels for renal injury in cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity mice. However, oral administration of GABA-contained salt notably suppressed serum BUN and creatinine levels. The efficacy of GABA salt was superior to lacto GABA salt and postbiotics GABA salt. Furthermore, GABA-enriched salt markedly restored histological symptoms of nephrotoxicity including renal hypertrophy, tubular dilation, hemorrhage, and collagen deposition aggravated by salt over-loading in cisplatin-exposed mice. Among them, GABA salt showed a higher protective effect against cisplatin-induced renal histological changes than lacto GABA salt and postbiotics GABA salt. In addition, administration of high salt significantly enhanced expression levels of apoptosis and inflammatory mediators in cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity mice, while GABA-enriched salt greatly down-regulated the expression of these mediators. Taken together, these results demonstrate the protective effect of GABA against damage caused by high salt intake in cisplatin-induced renal toxicity. Its mechanism may be due to the suppression of hematological and biochemical toxicity, apoptosis, and inflammation. In conclusion, although the protective efficacy of GABA salt on renal injury is different depending on the sterilization and filtration process after fermentation with L. brevis BJ20 and L. plantarum BJ21, our findings suggest that GABA-enriched salt has a beneficial effect against immoderate high salt intake-mediated kidney injury in patients with cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity.

Schisandrae Fructus ethanol extract attenuates particulate matter 2.5-induced inflammatory and oxidative responses by blocking the activation of the ROS-dependent NF-κB signaling pathway

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Schisandrae Fructus, the fruit of Schisandra chinensis Baill., has traditionally been used as a medicinal herb for the treatment of various diseases, and has proven its various pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of Schisandrae Fructus ethanol extract (SF) on inflammatory and oxidative stress in particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5)-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

MATERIALS/METHODS

To investigate the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of SF in PM2.5-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, the levels of pro-inflammatory mediator such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1β, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured. To elucidate the mechanism underlying the effect of SF, the expression of genes involved in the generation of inflammatory factors was also investigated. We further evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant efficacy of SF against PM2.5 in the zebrafish model.

RESULTS

The results indicated that SF treatment significantly inhibited the PM2.5-induced release of NO and PGE₂, which was associated with decreased inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression. SF also attenuated the PM2.5-induced expression of IL-6 and IL-1β, reducing their extracellular secretion. Moreover, SF suppressed the PM2.5-mediated translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) from the cytosol into nuclei and the degradation of inhibitor IκB-α, indicating that SF exhibited anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway. In addition, SF abolished PM2.5-induced generation of ROS, similar to the pretreatment of a ROS scavenger, but not by an inhibitor of NF-κB activity. Furthermore, SF showed strong protective effects against NO and ROS production in PM2.5-treated zebrafish larvae.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that SF exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects against PM2.5 through ROS-dependent down-regulating the NF-κB signaling pathway, and that SF can be a potential functional substance to prevent PM2.5-mediated inflammatory and oxidative damage.

Mori Ramulus Suppresses Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Oxidative Damage in Murine Myoblast C2C12 Cells through Activation of AMPK

Mori Ramulus, the dried twigs of Morus alba L., has been attracting attention for its potent antioxidant activity, but its role in muscle cells has not yet been elucidated. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the protective effect of aqueous extracts of Mori Ramulus (AEMR) against oxidative stress caused by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in C2C12 mouse myoblasts, and in dexamethasone (DEX)-induced muscle atrophied models. Our results showed that AEMR rescued H₂O₂-induced cell viability loss and the collapse of the mitochondria membrane potential. AEMR was also able to activate AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in H₂O₂-treated C2C12 cells, whereas compound C, a pharmacological inhibitor of AMPK, blocked the protective effects of AEMR. In addition, H₂O₂-triggered DNA damage was markedly attenuated in the presence of AEMR, which was associated with the inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Further studies showed that AEMR inhibited cytochrome c release from mitochondria into the cytoplasm, and Bcl-2 suppression and Bax activation induced by H₂O₂. Furthermore, AEMR diminished H₂O₂-induced activation of caspase-3, which was associated with the ability of AEMR to block the degradation of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, thereby attenuating H₂O₂-induced apoptosis. However, compound C greatly abolished the protective effect of AEMR against H₂O₂-induced C2C12 cell apoptosis, including the restoration of mitochondrial dysfunction. Taken together, these results demonstrate that AEMR could protect C2C12 myoblasts from oxidative damage by maintaining mitochondrial function while eliminating ROS, at least with activation of the AMPK signaling pathway. In addition, oral administration of AEMR alleviated gastrocnemius and soleus muscle loss in DEX-induced muscle atrophied rats. Our findings support that AEMR might be a promising therapeutic candidate for treating oxidative stress-mediated myoblast injury and muscle atrophy.

Induction of Apoptosis by Isoalantolactone in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Hep3B Cells through Activation of the ROS-Dependent JNK Signaling Pathway

Isoalantolactone (IALT) is one of the isomeric sesquiterpene lactones isolated from the roots of Inula helenium L. IALT is known to possess various biological and pharmacological activities, but its anti-cancer mechanisms are not well understood. The aim of the present study was to investigate the anti-proliferative effects of IALT in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells and to evaluate the potential anti-cancer mechanisms. Our results demonstrated that IALT treatment concentration-dependently suppressed the cell survival of HCC Hep3B cells, which was associated with the induction of apoptosis. IALT increased the expression of death-receptor-related proteins, activated caspases, and induced Bid truncation, subsequently leading to cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. In addition, IALT contributed to the cytosolic release of cytochrome c by destroying mitochondrial integrity, following an increase in the Bax/Bcl-2 expression ratio. However, IALT-mediated growth inhibition and apoptosis were significantly attenuated in the presence of a pan-caspase inhibitor, suggesting that IALT induced caspase-dependent apoptosis in Hep3B cells. Moreover, IALT activated the mitogen-activated protein kinases signaling pathway, and the anti-cancer effect of IALT was significantly diminished in the presence of a potent c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor. IALT also improved the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), whereas the ROS inhibitor significantly abrogated IALT-induced growth reduction, apoptosis, and JNK activation. Furthermore, ROS-dependent apoptosis was revealed as a mechanism involved in the anti-cancer activity of IALT in a 3D multicellular tumor spheroid model of Hep3B cells. Taken together, our findings indicate that IALT exhibited anti-cancer activity in HCC Hep3B cells by inducing ROS-dependent activation of the JNK signaling pathway.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Auranofin on Palmitic Acid and LPS-Induced Inflammatory Response by Modulating TLR4 and NOX4-Mediated NF-κB Signaling Pathway in RAW264.7 Macrophages

Chronic inflammation, which is promoted by the production and secretion of inflammatory mediators and cytokines in activated macrophages, is responsible for the development of many diseases. Auranofin is a Food and Drug Administration-approved gold-based compound for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and evidence suggests that auranofin could be a potential therapeutic agent for inflammation. In this study, to demonstrate the inhibitory effect of auranofin on chronic inflammation, a saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid (PA), and a low concentration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were used to activate RAW264.7 macrophages. The results show that PA amplified LPS signals to produce nitric oxide (NO) and various cytokines. However, auranofin significantly inhibited the levels of NO, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, and IL-6, which had been increased by co-treatment with PA and LPS. Moreover, the expression of inducible NO synthase, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA and protein levels increased by PA and LPS were reduced by auranofin. In particular, the upregulation of NADPH oxidase (NOX) 4 and the translocation of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) induced by PA and LPS were suppressed by auranofin. The binding between the toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 and auranofin was also predicted, and the release of NO and cytokines was reduced more by simultaneous treatment with auranofin and TLR4 inhibitor than by auranofin alone. In conclusion, all these findings suggested that auranofin had anti-inflammatory effects in PA and LPS-induced macrophages by interacting with TLR4 and downregulating the NOX4-mediated NF-κB signaling pathway.

ROS-Mediated Anti-Tumor Effect of Coptidis Rhizoma against Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Hep3B Cells and Xenografts

Coptidis Rhizoma is the dried rhizome from the Coptis chinensis Franch. that has been shown to have a number of beneficial pharmacological properties including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects. However, the anti-cancer effects of Coptidis Rhizoma on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the anti-cancer properties of Coptidis Rhizoma ethanol extract (CR) in HCC Hep3B cells and in a xenograft mouse model. Our results showed that the CR significantly inhibited cell growth and induced apoptosis in Hep3B cells through increased expression of Bcl-2 associated x-protein (Bax) and cleavage of poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP), reduced expression of Bcl-2, and activated caspases. CR also increased the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), which caused a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP, ΔΨm) and activation of the mitochondria-mediated intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Moreover, N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a ROS inhibitor, markedly blocked the effects of CR on apoptotic pathways. CR also induced the expression of light chain 3 (LC3)-I/II, a key autophagy regulator, whereas CR-mediated autophagy was significantly suppressed by NAC. In addition, pre-treatment with NAC perfectly attenuated the inhibition of cell invasion and migration of CR-stimulated Hep3B cells. Furthermore, oral administration of CR suppressed Hep3B tumor growth in xenograft mice without toxicity, alterations to body weight, or changes in hematological and biochemical profiles. Taken together, our findings suggest that CR has anti-tumor effects that result from ROS generation, and may be a potential pharmacological intervention for HCC.

Suppression of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory and Oxidative Response by 5-Aminolevulinic Acid in RAW 264.7 Macrophages and Zebrafish Larvae

In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), a heme precursor, on inflammatory and oxidative stress activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW 264.7 macrophages by estimating nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), cytokines, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). We also evaluated the molecular mechanisms through analysis of the expression of their regulatory genes, and further evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant efficacy of ALA against LPS in the zebrafish model. Our results indicated that ALA treatment significantly attenuated the LPS-induced release of pro-inflammatory mediators including NO and PGE2, which was associated with decreased inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression. ALA also inhibited the LPS-induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6, reducing their extracellular secretion. Additionally, ALA abolished ROS generation, improved the mitochondrial mass, and enhanced the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and the activation of nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. However, zinc protoporphyrin, a specific inhibitor of HO-1, reversed the ALA-mediated inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines production and activation of mitochondrial function in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, ALA significantly abolished the expression of LPS-induced pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines, and showed strong protective effects against NO and ROS production in zebrafish larvae. In conclusion, our findings suggest that ALA exerts LPS-induced anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects by upregulating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway, and that ALA can be a potential functional agent to prevent inflammatory and oxidative damage.

Spermidine Attenuates Oxidative Stress-Induced Apoptosis via Blocking Ca2+ Overload in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells Independently of ROS

Retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells occupy the outer layer of the retina and perform various biological functions. Oxidative damage to RPE cells is a major risk factor for retinal degeneration that ultimately leads to vision loss. In this study, we investigated the role of spermidine in a hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced oxidative stress model using human RPE cells. Our findings showed that 300 μM H₂O₂ increased cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase, whereas these effects were markedly suppressed by 10 μM spermidine. Furthermore, spermidine significantly reduced H₂O₂-induced mitochondrial dysfunction including mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial activity. Although spermidine displays antioxidant properties, the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon H₂O₂ insult was not regulated by spermidine. Spermidine did suppress the increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels resulting from endoplasmic reticulum stress in H₂O₂-stimulated human RPE cells. Treatment with a cytosolic Ca²⁺ chelator markedly reversed H₂O₂-induced cellular dysfunction. Overall, spermidine protected against H₂O₂-induced cellular damage by blocking the increase of intracellular Ca²⁺ independently of ROS. These results suggest that spermidine protects RPE cells from oxidative stress, which could be a useful treatment for retinal diseases.

Coptisine induces autophagic cell death through down-regulation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and up-regulation of ROS-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction in hepatocellular carcinoma Hep3B cells

Coptisine is isoquinoline alkaloid derived from Coptidis Rhizoma and is known to have potential anti-cancer activity toward various carcinomas. Targeting autophagy is one of the main approaches for cancer therapy, but whether the anti-cancer efficacy of coptisine involves autophagy is still unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of coptisine on autophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) Hep3B cells, and identified the underlying mechanism. Our results showed that coptisine increased cytotoxicity and autophagic vacuoles in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, the expressions of light chain 3 (LC3)-I/II, Beclin-1 and autophagy genes were markedly increased by coptisine, while the expression of p62 decreased. In addition, we found that pretreatment with bafilomycin A1, an inhibitor of autophagosome-lysosome fusion, markedly reduced coptisine-mediated autophagic cell death, but 3-methyladenine, an inhibitor for autophagosome formation did not. Moreover, our results showed that although coptisine up-regulated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) that partially induced LC3-I/II, coptisine-mediated AMPK signaling did not directly regulate autophagic cell death. Additionally, we found that coptisine suppressed the phosphorylation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR), and this effect was notably enhanced by PI3K inhibitor LY294002. Meanwhile, coptisine significantly increased both the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the recruitment of mitophagy-regulated proteins to mitochondria. Furthermore, N-acetylcysteine, a potential ROS scavenger, substantially suppressed the expression of mitophagy-regulated proteins and LC3 puncta by coptisine. Overall, our results demonstrate that coptisine-mediated autophagic cell death was regulated by PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling and mitochondrial ROS production associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Taken together, these findings suggest that coptisine exerts its anti-cancer effects through induction of autophagy in HCC Hep3B cells.

Gamma Aminobutyric Acid-Enriched Fermented Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) Increases the Length of the Growth Plate on the Proximal Tibia Bone in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Bone growth during childhood and puberty determines an adult’s final stature. Although several prior studies have reported that fermented oyster (FO) consisting of a high amount of gamma aminobutyric acid can be attributed to bone health, there is no research on the efficacy of FO on growth regulation and the proximal tibial growth plate. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the effect of FO oral administration on hepatic and serum growth regulator levels and the development of the proximal tibial growth plate in young Sprague-Dawley rats. Both oral administration of FO (FO 100, 100 mg/kg FO and FO 200, 200 mg/kg FO) and subcutaneous injection of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH, 200 μg/kg of rhGH) for two weeks showed no toxicity. Circulating levels of growth hormone (GH) significantly increased in the FO 200 group. The expression and secretion of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) were enhanced by FO administration. FO administration promoted the expression of bone morphogenic proteins IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 in the proximal tibial growth plate. This positive effect of FO resulted in incremental growth of the entire plate length by expanding the proliferating and hypertrophic zones in the proximal tibial growth plate. Collectively, our results suggested that oral administration of FO is beneficial for bone health, which may ultimately result in increased height.

Diesel particulate matter2.5 promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition of human retinal pigment epithelial cells via generation of reactive oxygen species

Although several studies have linked PM_2.5 (particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 μm) to ocular surface diseases such as keratitis and conjunctivitis, very few studies have previously addressed its effect on the retina. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of PM_2.5 on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a process involved in disorders of the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) on APRE-19 cells. PM_2.5 changed the phenotype of RPE cells from epithelial to fibroblast-like mesenchymal, and increased cell migration. Exposure to PM_2.5 markedly increased the expression of mesenchymal markers, but reduced the levels of epithelial markers. Moreover, PM_2.5 promoted the phosphorylation of MAPKs and the expression of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-mediated nuclear transcriptional factors. However, these PM_2.5-mediated changes were completely reversed by LY2109761, a small molecule inhibitor of the TGF-β receptor type I/II kinases, and N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), a reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger. Interestingly, NAC, but not LY2109761, effectively restored the PM_2.5-induced mitochondrial defects, including increased ROS, decreased mitochondrial activity, and mitochondrial membrane potential disruption. Collectively, our findings indicate that the TGF-β/Smad/ERK/p38 MAPK signaling pathway is activated downstream of cellular ROS during PM_2.5-induced EMT. The present study provides the first evidence that EMT of RPE may be one of the mechanisms of PM_2.5-induced retinal dysfunction.

Dependence of the V/III Ratio on Indium Incorporation in InGaN Films Grown by Metalorganic Vapour Phase Epitaxy

InGaN epitaxial layers were grown on c-plane sapphire substrates using the metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE) system at 760 °C. By varying the total flow rate of group-III sources (TMI+TEG) with a fixed molar ratio of group-III sources [TMI/(TMI+TEG)], the influence of V/III ratio were investigated from 4500 to 20000. The grown N-polar InGaN layers were investigated by atomic force microscopy and it is found that the surface roughness decreases with increasing the V/III ratios. High resolution X-ray diffraction analyses show that the phase separation decreases with increasing the V/III ratios. Photoluminescence measurements reveal that the peak position of the band-edge emission shifted toward the shorter wavelength with increasing the V/III ratios. Reciprocal space mapping (RSM) analyses were carried out on InGaN films. At low V/III ratio, the phase separation can be detected in InGaN films.

Ethanol Extract of Hizikia fusiforme Induces Apoptosis in B16F10 Mouse Melanoma Cells through ROS-Dependent Inhibition of the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have reported that Hizikia fusiforme, an edible brown seaweed, has diverse health-promoting effects; however, evidence for its anti-cancer potential is still lacking. In this study, we examined the effect of ethanol extract of H. fusiforme (EHF) on the proliferation of B16F10 mouse melanoma cells.

METHODS

Analyses of cell viability and apoptosis were performed to study the actions of EHF on B16F10 cells. Cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) were measured using a flow cytometer. Western blot analysis was carried out to measure apoptosis and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling related proteins.

RESULTS

EHF treatment significantly decreased B16F10 cell viability, which was associated with induction of apoptosis. EHF activated caspase-8 and caspase-9, which are involved in the initiation of extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis pathways, respectively, and also increased caspase-3 activity, a typical effect caspase, subsequently leading to poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage. In addition, EHF destroyed the integrity of mitochondria and increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, which contributed to cytosolic release of cytochrome c. EHF further enhanced intracellular levels of ROS and the addition of N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), a ROS inhibitor, significantly diminished EHF-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and growth inhibition. Moreover, EHF inactivated the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and LY294002, a PI3K/Akt inhibitor, increased the apoptosis-inducing effect of EHF. However, increased apoptosis and reduced cell viability by simultaneous treatment of EHF and LY294002 were significantly attenuated in the presence of NAC.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that EHF induces apoptosis through activation of extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways and ROS-dependent inactivation of PI3K/Akt signaling in B16F10 cells.
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Effect of fermented oyster extract on growth promotion in Sprague-Dawley rats

Background

Oysters (Crassostrea gigas) are a popular marine product worldwide and have the advantage of nutritional benefits. This study aimed to investigate the effect of fermented oyster extract (FO) on growth promotion, including analysis of body size, bone microarchitecture, hematology and biochemistry in vivo.

Methods

The amount of nutrients and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) were determined. Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups: the control group, FO 50 group (FO 50 mg/kg), and FO 100 group (FO 100 mg/kg) were administered orally once daily and the recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) group (200 μg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected once daily for 14 days.

Results

Oral administration of FO 100 significantly increased body length and had no effect on organ damage or hematological profiles. However, administration of rhGH significantly induced hypertrophy of the liver, kidney and spleen along with a marked increase in body length. Tibia length and the growth plate were increased, and bone morphometric parameters were slightly improved by FO and rhGH administration. Serum analysis showed that the levels of GH and insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) were slightly upregulated by FO administration. Nevertheless, the protein expression of hepatic IGF-1 was markedly increased by FO 100 and rhGH administration.

Conclusions

FO have high content of GABA, and induced positive effects on body length, tibial length, growth-plate length and hepatic IGF-1 synthesis in SD rats with no toxicity or alterations of hematological profile. Therefore, these results suggest that GABA-enriched FO could be considered a potential alternative treatment for growth stimulation.

Suppression of tumor growth and metastasis by ethanol extract of Angelica dahurica Radix in murine melanoma B16F10 cells

The roots of Angelica dahurica have long been used as a traditional medicine in Korea to treat various diseases such as toothache and cold. In this study, we investigated the effect of ethanol extract from the roots of this plant on metastatic melanoma, a highly aggressive skin cancer, in B16F10 melanoma cells and B16F10 cell inoculated-C57BL/6 mice. Our results showed that the ethanol extracts of Angelicae dahuricae Radix (EEAD) suppressed cell growth and induced apoptotic cell death in B16F10 cells. EEAD also activated the mitochondria-mediated intrinsic apoptosis pathway, with decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, and increased production of intracellular reactive oxygen species and ration of Bax/Bcl-2 expression. Furthermore, EEAD reduced the migration, invasion, and colony formation of B16F10 cells through the reduced expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9. In addition, in vivo results demonstrated that oral administration of EEAD inhibited lactate dehydrogenase activity, hepatotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity without weight loss in B16F10 cell inoculated-mice. Importantly, EEAD was able to markedly suppress lung hypertrophy, the incidence of B16F10 cells lung metastasis, and the expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in lung tissue. Taken together, our findings suggest that EEAD may be useful for managing metastasis and growth of malignant cancers, including melanoma.

Isorhamnetin Induces Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis Via Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Pathway Activation in Human Bladder Cancer Cells

Isorhamnetin is an O-methylated flavonol that is predominantly found in the fruits and leaves of various plants, which have been used for traditional herbal remedies. Although several previous studies have reported that this flavonol has diverse health-promoting effects, evidence is still lacking for the underlying molecular mechanism of its anti-cancer efficacy. In this study, we examined the anti-proliferative effect of isorhamnetin on human bladder cancer cells and found that isorhamnetin triggered the gap 2/ mitosis (G2/M) phase cell arrest and apoptosis. Our data showed that isorhamnetin decreased the expression of Wee1 and cyclin B1, but increased the expression of cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitor p21^WAF1/CIP1, and increased p21 was bound to Cdk1. In addition, isorhamnetin-induced apoptosis was associated with the increased expression of the Fas/Fas ligand, reduced ratio of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)/Bcl-2 associated X protein (Bax) expression, cytosolic release of cytochrome c, and activation of caspases. Moreover, isorhamnetin inactivated the adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway by diminishing the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production due to impaired mitochondrial function. Furthermore, isorhamnetin stimulated production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS); however, the interruption of ROS generation using a ROS scavenger led to an escape from isorhamnetin-mediated G2/M arrest and apoptosis. Collectively, this is the first report to show that isorhamnetin inhibited the proliferation of human bladder cancer cells by ROS-dependent arrest of the cell cycle at the G2/M phase and induction of apoptosis. Therefore, our results provide an important basis for the interpretation of the anti-cancer mechanism of isorhamnetin in bladder cancer cells and support the rationale for the need to evaluate more precise molecular mechanisms and in vivo anti-cancer properties.

Citrus unshiu peel suppress the metastatic potential of murine melanoma B16F10 cells in vitro and in vivo

The peel of Citrus unshiu Marcow. fruits (CU) has long been used as a traditional medicine that has therapeutic effects against pathogenic diseases, including asthma, vomiting, dyspepsia, blood circulation disorders, and various types of cancer. In this study, we investigated the effect of CU peel on metastatic melanoma, a highly aggressive skin cancer, in B16F10 melanoma cells, and in B16F10 cells inoculated‐C57BL/6 mice. Our results show that ethanol extracts of CU (EECU) inhibited cell growth and increased the apoptotic cells in B16F10 cells. EECU also stimulated the induction of mitochondria‐mediated intrinsic pathway, with reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and increased generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, EECU suppressed the migration, invasion, and colony formation of B16F10 cells. In addition, the oral administration of EECU reduced serum lactate dehydrogenase activity without weight loss, hepatotoxicity, nor nephrotoxicity in B16F10 cell‐inoculated mice. Moreover, EECU markedly suppressed lung hypertrophy, the number and expression of metastatic tumor nodules, and the expression of inflammatory tumor necrosis factor‐alpha in lung tissue. In conclusion, our findings suggest that the inhibitory effect of EECU on the metastasis of melanoma indicates that it may be regarded as a potential therapeutic herbal drug for melanoma.

Induction of G2/M Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis by Genistein in Human Bladder Cancer T24 Cells through Inhibition of the ROS-Dependent PI3k/Akt Signal Transduction Pathway

We examined the anti-cancer effect of genistein, a soy-derived isoflavone, in human bladder transitional cell carcinoma T24 cells. According to our data, genistein induced G2/M phase arrest of the cell cycle and apoptosis. Genistein down-regulated the levels of cyclin A and cyclin B1, but up-regulated the levels of p21WAF1/CIP1, cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitor, that was complexed with Cdc2 and Cdk2. Furthermore, genistein induced the activation of caspases (caspase-3, -8 and -9), and cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage. However, genistein-induced apoptosis was significantly inhibited by a pan-caspase inhibitor, indicating that the induction of apoptosis by genestein was caspase-dependent. In addition, genistein increased the cytosolic release of cytochrome c by increasing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and destroying mitochondria integrity. Moreover, genistein inactivated the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway, while LY294002, a PI3K/Akt inhibitor, increased the apoptosis-inducing effect of genistein. Genistein further increased the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which was significantly suppressed by N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), a ROS scavenger, and in particular, NAC prevented genistein-mediated inactivation of PI3K/Akt signaling, G2/M arrest and apoptosis. Therefore, the present results indicated that genistein promoted apoptosis induction in human bladder cancer T24 cells, which was associated with G2/M phase cell cycle arrest via regulation of ROS-dependent PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Fermented Sea Tangle (Laminaria japonica Aresch) Suppresses RANKL-Induced Osteoclastogenesis by Scavenging ROS in RAW 264.7 Cells

Sea tangle (Laminaria japonica Aresch), a brown alga, has been used for many years as a functional food ingredient in the Asia-Pacific region. In the present study, we investigated the effects of fermented sea tangle extract (FST) on receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) ligand (RANKL)-stimulated osteoclast differentiation, using RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cells. FST was found to inhibit the RANKL-stimulated activation of tartrate-resistance acid phosphatase (TRAP) and F-actin ring structure formation. FST also down-regulated the expression of osteoclast marker genes like TRAP, matrix metalloproteinase-9, cathepsin K and osteoclast-associated receptor by blocking RANKL-induced activation of NF-κB and expression of nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (NFATc1), a master transcription factor. In addition, FST significantly abolished RANKL-induced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by activation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its transcriptional targets. Hence, it seems likely that FST may have anti-osteoclastogenic potential as a result of its ability to inactivate the NF-κB-mediated NFATc1 signaling pathway and by reducing ROS production through activation of the Nrf2 pathway. Although further studies are needed to inquire its efficacy in vivo, FST appears to have potential use as an adjunctive or as a prophylactic treatment for osteoclastic bone disease.

Induction of Apoptosis by Citrus unshiu Peel in Human Breast Cancer MCF-7 Cells: Involvement of ROS-Dependent Activation of AMPK

The fruit of Citrus unshiu MARKOVICH used for various purposes in traditional medicine has various pharmacological properties including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects. Recently, the possibility of anti-cancer activity of the extracts or components of this fruit has been reported; however, the exact mechanism has not yet been fully understood. In this study, we evaluated the anti-proliferative effect of water extract of C. unshiu peel (WECU) on human breast cancer MCF-7 cells and investigated the underlying mechanism. Our results showed that reduction of MCF-7 cell survival by WECU was associated with the induction of apoptosis. WECU-induced apoptotic cell death was related to the activation of caspase-8 and -9, representative initiate caspases of extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis pathways, respectively, and increase in the Bax : Bcl-2 ratio accompanied by cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). WECU also increased the mitochondrial dysfunction and cytosolic release of cytochrome c. In addition, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and its downstream target molecule, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, were activated in a concentration-dependent manner in WECU-treated cells. In contrast, compound C, an AMPK inhibitor, significantly inhibited WECU-induced apoptosis, while inhibiting increased expression of Bax and decreased expression of Bcl-2 by WECU and inhibition of WECU-induced PARP degradation. Furthermore, WECU provoked the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS); however, the activation of AMKP and apoptosis by WECU were prevented, when the ROS production was blocked by antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine. Therefore, our data indicate that WECU suppresses MCF-7 cell proliferation by activating the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways through ROS-dependent AMPK pathway activation.

Corni Fructus attenuates testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia by suppressing 5α-reductase and androgen receptor expression in rats

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) is a major cause of abnormal overgrowth of the prostate mainly in the elderly. Corni Fructus has been reported to be effective in the prevention and treatment of various diseases because of its strong antioxidant effect, but its efficacy against BPH is not yet known. This study was designed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of Corni Fructus water extract (CF) in testosterone-induced BPH rats.

MATERIALS/METHODS

To induce BPH, rats were intraperitoneal injected with testosterone propionate (TP). Rats in the treatment group were orally administered with CF with TP injection, and finasteride, which is a selective inhibitor of 5α-reductase type 2, was used as a positive control.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the increased prostate weight and histopathological changes in BPH model rats were suppressed by CF treatment. CF, similar to the finasteride-treated group, decreased the levels of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone by TP treatment in the serum, and it also reduced 5α-reductase expression and concentration in prostate tissue and serum, respectively. In addition, CF significantly blocked the expression of the androgen receptor (AR), AR co-activators, and proliferating cell nuclear antigen in BPH rats, and this blocking was associated with a decrease in prostate-specific antigen levels in serum and prostate tissue.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that CF may weaken the BPH status through the inactivation of at least 5α-reductase and AR activity and may be useful for the clinical treatment of BPH.

Reactive oxygen species-dependent apoptosis induction by water extract of Citrus unshiu peel in MDA-MB-231 human breast carcinoma cells

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Although several recent studies have reported the anti-cancer effects of extracts or components of Citrus unshiu peel, which has been used for various purposes in traditional medicine, the molecular mechanisms for their effects remain unclear. In the present study, the anti-cancer activity of a water-soluble extract of C. unshiu peel (WECU) in MDA-MB-231 human breast carcinoma cells at the level of apoptosis induction was investigated.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Cytotoxicity was evaluated using the MTT assay. Apoptosis was detected using DAPI staining and flow cytometry analyses. Mitochondrial membrane potential, reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay, caspase activity and Western blotting were used to confirm the basis of apoptosis.

RESULTS

The results indicated that WECU-induced apoptosis was related to the activation of caspase-8, and -9, representative initiator caspases of extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis pathways, respectively, and caspase-3 accompanied by proteolytic degradation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and down-regulation of the inhibitors of apoptosis protein family members. WECU also increased the pro-apoptotic BAX to anti-apoptotic BCL-2 ratio, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and cytochrome c release from mitochondria to cytoplasm. Furthermore, WECU provoked the generation of ROS, but the reduction of cell viability and induction of apoptosis by WECU were prevented when ROS production was blocked by antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that WECU suppressed proliferation of MDA-MB-231 cells by activating extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis pathways in a ROS-dependent manner.

Induction of apoptosis by ethanol extract of Citrus unshiu Markovich peel in human bladder cancer T24 cells through ROS-mediated inactivation of the PI3K/Akt pathway

Citrus unshiu peel has been used to prevent and treat various diseases in traditional East-Asian medicine including in Korea. Extracts of C. unshiu peel are known to have various pharmacological effects including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties. Although the possibility of their anti-cancer activity has recently been reported, the exact mechanisms in human cancer cells have not been sufficiently studied. In this study, the inhibitory effect of ethanol extract of C. unshiu peel (EECU) on the growth of human bladder cancer T24 cells was evaluated and the underlying mechanism was investigated. The present study demonstrated that the suppression of T24 cell viability by EECU is associated with apoptosis induction. EECU-induced apoptosis was found to correlate with an activation of caspase-8, -9, and -3 in concomitance with a decrease in the expression of the inhibitor of apoptosis family of proteins and an increase in the Bax:Bcl-2 ratio accompanied by the proteolytic degradation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. EECU also increased the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential, and cytochrome c release to the cytosol, along with a truncation of Bid. In addition, EECU inactivated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) as well as Akt, a downstream molecular target of PI3K, and LY294002, a specific PI3K inhibitor significantly enhanced EECU-induced apoptosis and cell viability reduction. However, N-acetyl cysteine, a general ROS scavenger, completely reversed the EECU-induced dephosphorylation of PI3K and Akt, as well as cell apoptosis. Taken together, these findings suggest that EECU inhibits T24 cell proliferation by activating intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways through a ROS-mediated inactivation of the PI3K/Akt pathway.

Molecular characterization and hormonal regulation of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 in goat ovarian granulosa cells

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1) belongs to a group of endogenous inhibitors that control the activity of matrix metalloproteinases and other metalloproteinases. TIMP1 is ubiquitously expressed and implicated in many physiological and pathologic processes. In this study, the full-length complementary DNA of goat (Capra hircus) Timp1 was cloned from adult goat ovary for the first time to better understand the regulatory role of TIMP1. The putative TIMP1 protein shared a high amino acid sequence identity with other species. Real-time polymerase chain reaction results showed that Timp1 was widely expressed in adult goat tissues, and messenger RNA expression was higher in the ovary than in other tissues; meanwhile, increasing expression of Timp1 was also discovered during the process of follicle growth and corpus luteum. We then investigated Timp1 expression patterns in different types of ovarian follicular cells from goats. In small or large antral follicles, Timp1 expression was higher (P < 0.05) in theca cells than in granulosa cells, cumulus cells, and oocytes. Increasing expression of Timp1 in theca and granulosa cells was observed as the variation of the follicle size. Immunohistochemical analyses further revealed the presence of the TIMP1 proteins in follicles at all antral stages of development. The most intense staining for TIMP1 was observed in the theca cells and granulosa cells of large antral follicles and corpus luteum. Timp1 was highly (P < 0.05) induced in granulosa cells in vitro after treatment with the luteinizing hormone agonist, human chorionic gonadotropin. Treatments with forskolin, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate + forskolin could also stimulate Timp1 messenger RNA expression. The effects of human chorionic gonadotropin were reduced (P < 0.05) by the inhibitors of protein kinase A, protein kinase C, MAPK kinase, or p38 kinase, indicating that Timp1 expression could be adjusted by luteinizing hormone-initiated activation of these signaling mediators. Our results suggested that TIMP1 may be involved in regulating ovarian follicle development and ovulation.

Gene polymorphisms associated with susceptibility to coronary artery disease in Han Chinese people

This study investigated 5 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) haplotypes in susceptibility genes for coronary artery disease (CAD) and the putative involvement of these SNPs in CAD in the Chi-nese Han population. From March 2008 to June 2009, we selected 119 CAD patients and 115 subjects not related to the CAD of Chinese Han or-igin as controls. The SNP genotypes were performed by multiplex SNaP-shot technology. The HNRPUL1 gene rs11881940T and GATA2 gene rs3803T loci were highly correlated with CAD (P < 0.05). rs10757278G increased the risk of CAD in patients indicated by an odds ratio (OR) = 1.242 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.04-1.49]; rs11881940T and rs3803T were protective factors for CAD with ORs = 0.767 (95%CI = 0.61-0.97) and 0.53 (95%CI = 0.40-0.72), respectively. Analysis of the rs10757278, rs11881940 and rs3803 loci showed that haplotypes ATC (OR = 4.26; 95%CI = 2.85-6.40, P < 0.01), GAC (OR = 1.50; 95%CI = 1.25-1.81, P < 0.01) and GAT (OR = 1.53; 95%CI = 1.12-2.09, P < 0.01) were CAD risk factors, whereas GTC was protective (OR = 0.48; 95%CI = 0.32-0.72, P < 0.01). ATC and glucose were positively correlated (OR = 1.91; 95%CI = 1.01-3.61, P < 0.05). GAT was a risk factor for hyper-tension (OR = 2.86; 95%CI = 1.40-5.83, P < 0.01). In conclusion, poly-morphisms and haplotype analysis of susceptibility genes for CAD can improve predicting this disease and will enable early diagnosis of CAD.

Digestible and metabolizable energy concentrations in copra meal, palm kernel meal, and cassava root fed to growing pigs

An experiment was conducted to measure DE and ME in copra (Cocos nucifera) meal (CM), palm kernel meal (PKM), and cassava (Manihot esculenta) root (CR) in growing pigs. Eight boars with an initial BW of 67.3 ± 5.8 kg were individually housed in metabolism crates that were equipped with a feeder and a nipple drinker. A replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design was used with 4 dietary treatments, 4 periods, and 8 animals. A basal diet mainly contained corn (Zea mays) and soybean (Glycine max) meal. Three additional diets were formulated to contain 30% of CM, PKM, and CR. All diets contained the same proportion of corn:soybean meal ratio at 4.14:1. The apparent total tract digestibility of energy was 89.5, 84.1, 82.4, and 87.9% (P < 0.001) in the basal, CM, PKM, and CR diets, respectively. The DE in CM and PKM were greater (P < 0.05) than in CR (3440 and 3238 vs. 2966 kcal/kg as-fed). The ME in CM was greater (P < 0.05) than in CR (3340 vs. 2935 kcal/kg as-fed) but not different from the ME in PKM (3168 kcal/kg as-fed). In conclusion, CM and PKM have a higher DE value than CR, and CM has a higher ME value than CR.

Airway smooth muscle phenotype and function: interactions with current asthma therapies

Asthma incidence has climbed markedly in the past two decades despite an increased use of medications that suppress airway inflammation and repress contraction of smooth muscle that encircles the airways. Asthmatics exhibit episodes of airway inflammation that potentiates reversible airway smooth muscle spasm. A hallmark diagnostic symptom of asthma is airway hyperresponsiveness to inhaled non-allergic stimuli, such as methacholine, that directly induce airway smooth muscle contraction. Inhaled gluccocorticoids are used for first-line prevention of airway inflammation, and are frequently combined with inhaled beta2-adrenoceptor agonists that can effectively relax airway smooth muscle and restore airway conductance. Leukotriene receptor antagonists and anti-cholinergics can also be used in many patients to ensure optimal control of symptoms. With increasing disease duration irreversible airway restriction develops from inflammation-driven fibro-proliferative airway remodeling that includes increased deposition of extracellular matrix, the accumulation of airway smooth muscle, and increased numbers of myofibroblasts. Mature airway smooth muscle cells are phenotypically plastic, enabling them to subserve contractile, proliferative, migratory and secretory functional responses that contribute to airway remodeling and persistent hyperresponsiveness. This review assesses current understanding of acute and chronic effects of common anti-asthma medications on the diverse phenotype and functional characteristics of airway smooth muscle cells. Furthermore, we describe the significance of these effects in the treatment of asthma symptoms and pathogenesis.

New 7,20:14,20-diepoxy ent-kauranoids from Isodon xerophilus

Three new 7,20:14,20-diepoxy-ent-kaurane diterpenoids, xerophilusins A-C (1-3), together with a known one, macrocalin B (4), were isolated from the leaves of Isodon xerophilus. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of their spectral properties and X-ray crystallographic analysis. Compounds 1, 2, and 4 showed significant cytotoxic activity against K562, HL-60, and MKN-28 cells.

Importance of acid-base strategy in reducing myocardial and whole body oxygen consumption during perfusion hypothermia

During induced hypothermia with cardiopulmonary bypass, acid-base management usually follows one of two strategies: the so-called ectothermic or alpha-stat strategy, in which the pH of the arterial blood increases 0.015 pH units for every degree Celsius decrease in body temperature, or the pH-stat strategy, in which pH remains 7.4 at all temperatures. It has been assumed that oxygen consumption decreases approximately equally during hypothermia with either strategy, although there are biochemical reasons to hypothesize that oxygen consumption would be better maintained with the alpha-stat strategy. We also hypothesized that venous oxygen tension would be lower with the more alkaline alpha-stat strategy than with the pH-stat acid-base strategy, because of the Bohr effect. We tested these hypotheses by placing 10 anesthetized immature domestic pigs on cardiopulmonary bypass. We measured whole body oxygen consumption and myocardial oxygen consumption. Control measurements were made at 37 degrees C. Then the animals were cooled to 27 degrees C and the measurements were repeated. The alpha-stat strategy (pH 7.554 +/- 0.020 at 27 degrees C) was used in five animals and five animals received pH-stat management (pH 7.409 +/- 0.012 at 27 degrees C). Whole body and myocardial oxygen consumption rate decreased in both groups, but more so in the alpha-stat animals than in the pH-stat animals. The unexpectedly high oxygen consumption in the pH-stat animals also resulted in a lower than expected venous oxygen tension. Thus the effect of hypothermia in reducing oxygen consumption was less pronounced with pH-stat acid-base management.

Free transplantation of venous network pattern skin flap: an experimental study in rabbits

Free skin flaps using rabbit ear to replace rabbit scalp have been accomplished using only arteriovenous and venous-venous anastomosis, without arterio-arterial anastomosis. The technique produced excellent graft survival in 30 of 33 rabbits. Without the vascular anastomosis control grafts did poorly. The mechanism of flow reversed revascularization is discussed.