Optimal stomatal theory predicts CO2 responses of stomatal conductance in both gymnosperm and angiosperm trees

Optimal stomatal theory predicts that stomata operate to maximise photosynthesis (A_net ) and minimise transpirational water loss to achieve optimal intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE). We tested whether this theory can predict stomatal responses to elevated atmospheric CO₂ (eCO₂ ), and whether it can capture differences in responsiveness among woody plant functional types (PFTs). We conducted a meta-analysis of tree studies of the effect of eCO₂ on iWUE and its components A_net and stomatal conductance (g_s ). We compared three PFTs, using the unified stomatal optimisation (USO) model to account for confounding effects of leaf-air vapour pressure difference (D). We expected smaller g_s , but greater A_net , responses to eCO₂ in gymnosperms compared with angiosperm PFTs. We found that iWUE increased in proportion to increasing eCO₂ in all PFTs, and that increases in A_net had stronger effects than reductions in g_s . The USO model correctly captured stomatal behaviour with eCO₂ across most datasets. The chief difference among PFTs was a lower stomatal slope parameter (g₁ ) for the gymnosperm, compared with angiosperm, species. Land surface models can use the USO model to describe stomatal behaviour under changing atmospheric CO₂ conditions.

Water taken up through the bark is detected in the transpiration stream in intact upper-canopy branches

Alternative water uptake pathways through leaves and bark complement water supply with interception, fog or dew. Bark water-uptake contributes to embolism-repair, as demonstrated in cut branches. We tested whether bark water-uptake could also contribute to supplement xylem-water for transpiration. We applied bandages injected with ² H-enriched water on intact upper-canopy branches of Pinus sylvestris and Fagus sylvatica in a boreal and in a temperate forest, in summer and winter, and monitored transpiration and online isotopic composition (δ² H and δ¹⁸ O) of water vapour, before sampling for analyses of δ² H and δ¹⁸ O in tissue waters. Xylem, bark and leaf waters from segments downstream from the bandages were ² H-enriched whereas δ¹⁸ O was similar to controls. Transpiration was positively correlated with ² H-enrichment. Isotopic compositions of transpiration and xylem water allowed us to calculate isotopic exchange through the bark via vapour exchange, which was negligible in comparison to estimated bark water-uptake, suggesting that water-uptake occurred via liquid phase. Results were consistent across species, forests and seasons, indicating that bark water-uptake may be more ubiquitous than previously considered. We suggest that water taken up through the bark could be incorporated into the transpiration stream, which could imply that sap-flow measurements underestimate transpiration when bark is wet.

Predicting resilience through the lens of competing adjustments to vegetation function

There is a pressing need to better understand ecosystem resilience to droughts and heatwaves. Eco-evolutionary optimization approaches have been proposed as means to build this understanding in land surface models and improve their predictive capability, but competing approaches are yet to be tested together. Here, we coupled approaches that optimize canopy gas exchange and leaf nitrogen investment, respectively, extending both approaches to account for hydraulic impairment. We assessed model predictions using observations from a native Eucalyptus woodland that experienced repeated droughts and heatwaves between 2013 and 2020, whilst exposed to an elevated [CO₂ ] treatment. Our combined approaches improved predictions of transpiration and enhanced the simulated magnitude of the CO₂ fertilization effect on gross primary productivity. The competing approaches also worked consistently along axes of change in soil moisture, leaf area, and [CO₂ ]. Despite predictions of a significant percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity due to embolism (PLC) in 2013, 2014, 2016, and 2017 (99th percentile PLC > 45%), simulated hydraulic legacy effects were small and short-lived (2 months). Our analysis suggests that leaf shedding and/or suppressed foliage growth formed a strategy to mitigate drought risk. Accounting for foliage responses to water availability has the potential to improve model predictions of ecosystem resilience.

Differences in temperature sensitivity and drought recovery between natural stands and plantations of conifers are species-specific

Forests are being impacted by climate and land-use changes which have altered their productivity and growth. Understanding how tree growth responds to climate in natural and planted stands may provide valuable information to prepare management in sight of climate change. Plantations are expected to show higher sensitivity to climate and lower post-drought resilience than natural stands, due to their lower compositional and structural diversity. We reconstructed and compared the radial growth of six conifers with contrasting ecological and climatic niches (Abies pinsapo, Cedrus atlantica, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus nigra, Pinus pinea, Pinus pinaster) in natural and planted stands subjected to seasonal drought in 40 sites. We quantified the relationships between individual growth variability and climate variables (temperature, precipitation and the SPEI drought index), as well as post-drought resilience. Elevated precipitation during the previous autumn-winter and current spring to early summer enhanced growth in both natural and planted stands of all species. Temperature effects on growth were less consistent: only plantations of A. pinsapo, C. atlantica, P. nigra, P. pinea, P. sylvetris and a natural stand of P. nigra showed negative impacts of summer temperature on growth. Drought reduced growth of all species in both plantations and natural stands, with variations in the temporal scale of the response. Drought constrained growth more severely in natural stands than in plantations of C. atlantica, P. pinaster and P. nigra, whereas the inverse pattern was found for A. pinsapo. Resilience to drought varied between species: natural stands of A. pinsapo, C. atlantica and P. pinaster recovered faster than plantations, while P. pinea plantations recovered faster than natural stands. Overall, plantations did not consistently show a higher sensitivity to climate and a lower capacity to recover after drought. Therefore, plantations are potential tools for mitigating climate warming.

Whole-tree mesophyll conductance reconciles isotopic and gas-exchange estimates of water-use efficiency

Photosynthetic water-use efficiency (WUE) describes the link between terrestrial carbon (C) and water cycles. Estimates of intrinsic WUE (iWUE) from gas exchange and C isotopic composition (δ¹³ C) differ due to an internal conductance in the leaf mesophyll (g_m ) that is variable and seldom computed. We present the first direct estimates of whole-tree g_m , together with iWUE from whole-tree gas exchange and δ¹³ C of the phloem (δ¹³ C_ph ). We measured gas exchange, online ¹³ C-discrimination, and δ¹³ C_ph monthly throughout spring, summer, and autumn in Eucalyptus tereticornis grown in large whole-tree chambers. Six trees were grown at ambient temperatures and six at a 3°C warmer air temperature; a late-summer drought was also imposed. Drought reduced whole-tree g_m . Warming had few direct effects, but amplified drought-induced reductions in whole-tree g_m . Whole-tree g_m was similar to leaf g_m for these same trees. iWUE estimates from δ¹³ C_ph agreed with iWUE from gas exchange, but only after incorporating g_m . δ¹³ C_ph was also correlated with whole-tree ¹³ C-discrimination, but offset by -2.5 ± 0.7‰, presumably due to post-photosynthetic fractionations. We conclude that δ¹³ C_ph is a good proxy for whole-tree iWUE, with the caveats that post-photosynthetic fractionations and intrinsic variability of g_m should be incorporated to provide reliable estimates of this trait in response to abiotic stress.

Ecosystem transpiration and evaporation: Insights from three water flux partitioning methods across FLUXNET sites

We apply and compare three widely applicable methods for estimating ecosystem transpiration (T) from eddy covariance (EC) data across 251 FLUXNET sites globally. All three methods are based on the coupled water and carbon relationship, but they differ in assumptions and parameterizations. Intercomparison of the three daily T estimates shows high correlation among methods (R between .89 and .94), but a spread in magnitudes of T/ET (evapotranspiration) from 45% to 77%. When compared at six sites with concurrent EC and sap flow measurements, all three EC-based T estimates show higher correlation to sap flow-based T than EC-based ET. The partitioning methods show expected tendencies of T/ET increasing with dryness (vapor pressure deficit and days since rain) and with leaf area index (LAI). Analysis of 140 sites with high-quality estimates for at least two continuous years shows that T/ET variability was 1.6 times higher across sites than across years. Spatial variability of T/ET was primarily driven by vegetation and soil characteristics (e.g., crop or grass designation, minimum annual LAI, soil coarse fragment volume) rather than climatic variables such as mean/standard deviation of temperature or precipitation. Overall, T and T/ET patterns are plausible and qualitatively consistent among the different water flux partitioning methods implying a significant advance made for estimating and understanding T globally, while the magnitudes remain uncertain. Our results represent the first extensive EC data-based estimates of ecosystem T permitting a data-driven perspective on the role of plants' water use for global water and carbon cycling in a changing climate.

An explanation for the isotopic offset between soil and stem water in a temperate tree species

A growing number of field studies report isotopic offsets between stem water and its potential sources that prevent the unambiguous identification of plant water origin using water isotopes. We explored the causes of this isotopic offset by conducting a controlled experiment on the temperate tree species Fagus sylvatica. We measured δ² H and δ¹⁸ O of soil and stem water from potted saplings growing on three soil substrates and subjected to two watering regimes. Regardless of substrate, soil and stem water δ² H were similar only near permanent wilting point. Under moister conditions, stem water δ² H was 11 ± 3‰ more negative than soil water δ² H, coherent with field studies. Under drier conditions, stem water δ² H became progressively more enriched than soil water δ² H. Although stem water δ¹⁸ O broadly reflected that of soil water, soil-stem δ² H and δ¹⁸ O differences were correlated (r = 0.76) and increased with transpiration rates indicated by proxies. Soil-stem isotopic offsets are more likely to be caused by water isotope heterogeneities within the soil pore and stem tissues, which would be masked under drier conditions as a result of evaporative enrichment, than by fractionation under root water uptake. Our results challenge our current understanding of isotopic signals in the soil-plant continuum.

Incorporating non-stomatal limitation improves the performance of leaf and canopy models at high vapour pressure deficit

Vapour pressure deficit (D) is projected to increase in the future as temperature rises. In response to increased D, stomatal conductance (gs) and photosynthesis (A) are reduced, which may result in significant reductions in terrestrial carbon, water and energy fluxes. It is thus important for gas exchange models to capture the observed responses of gs and A with increasing D. We tested a series of coupled A-gs models against leaf gas exchange measurements from the Cumberland Plain Woodland (Australia), where D regularly exceeds 2 kPa and can reach 8 kPa in summer. Two commonly used A-gs models were not able to capture the observed decrease in A and gs with increasing D at the leaf scale. To explain this decrease in A and gs, two alternative hypotheses were tested: hydraulic limitation (i.e., plants reduce gs and/or A due to insufficient water supply) and non-stomatal limitation (i.e., downregulation of photosynthetic capacity). We found that the model that incorporated a non-stomatal limitation captured the observations with high fidelity and required the fewest number of parameters. Whilst the model incorporating hydraulic limitation captured the observed A and gs, it did so via a physical mechanism that is incorrect. We then incorporated a non-stomatal limitation into the stand model, MAESPA, to examine its impact on canopy transpiration and gross primary production. Accounting for a non-stomatal limitation reduced the predicted transpiration by ~19%, improving the correspondence with sap flow measurements, and gross primary production by ~14%. Given the projected global increases in D associated with future warming, these findings suggest that models may need to incorporate non-stomatal limitation to accurately simulate A and gs in the future with high D. Further data on non-stomatal limitation at high D should be a priority, in order to determine the generality of our results and develop a widely applicable model.

A novel optimization approach incorporating non-stomatal limitations predicts stomatal behaviour in species from six plant functional types

The primary function of stomata is to minimize plant water loss while maintaining CO2 assimilation. Stomatal water loss incurs an indirect cost to photosynthesis in the form of non-stomatal limitations (NSL) via reduced carboxylation capacity (CAP) and/or mesophyll conductance (MES). Two optimal formulations for stomatal conductance (gs) arise from the assumption of each type of NSL. In reality, both NSL could coexist, but one may prevail for a given leaf ontogenetic stage or plant functional type, depending on leaf morphology. We tested the suitability of two gs formulations (CAP versus MES) on species from six plant functional types (C4 crop, C3 grass, fern, conifer, evergreen, and deciduous angiosperm trees). MES and CAP parameters (the latter proportional to the marginal water cost to carbon gain) decreased with water availability only in deciduous angiosperm trees, while there were no clear differences between leaf ontogenetic stages. Both CAP and MES formulations fit our data in most cases, particularly under low water availability. For ferns, stomata appeared to operate optimally only when subjected to water stress. Overall, the CAP formulation provided a better fit across all species, suggesting that sub-daily stomatal responses minimize NSL by reducing carboxylation capacity predominantly, regardless of leaf morphology and ontogenetic stage.

Elevated CO2 did not affect the hydrological balance of a mature native Eucalyptus woodland

Elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration (eC_a ) might reduce forest water-use, due to decreased transpiration, following partial stomatal closure, thus enhancing water-use efficiency and productivity at low water availability. If evapotranspiration (E_t ) is reduced, it may subsequently increase soil water storage (ΔS) or surface runoff (R) and drainage (D_g ), although these could be offset or even reversed by changes in vegetation structure, mainly increased leaf area index (L). To understand the effect of eC_a in a water-limited ecosystem, we tested whether 2 years of eC_a (~40% increase) affected the hydrological partitioning in a mature water-limited Eucalyptus woodland exposed to Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment (FACE). This timeframe allowed us to evaluate whether physiological effects of eC_a reduced stand water-use irrespective of L, which was unaffected by eC_a in this timeframe. We hypothesized that eC_a would reduce tree-canopy transpiration (E_tree ), but excess water from reduced E_tree would be lost via increased soil evaporation and understory transpiration (E_floor ) with no increase in ΔS, R or D_g . We computed E_t , ΔS, R and D_g from measurements of sapflow velocity, L, soil water content (θ), understory micrometeorology, throughfall and stemflow. We found that eC_a did not affect E_tree , E_floor , ΔS or θ at any depth (to 4.5 m) over the experimental period. We closed the water balance for dry seasons with no differences in the partitioning to R and D_g between C_a levels. Soil temperature and θ were the main drivers of E_floor while vapour pressure deficit-controlled E_tree , though eC_a did not significantly affect any of these relationships. Our results suggest that in the short-term, eC_a does not significantly affect ecosystem water-use at this site. We conclude that water-savings under eC_a mediated by either direct effects on plant transpiration or by indirect effects via changes in L or soil moisture availability are unlikely in water-limited mature eucalypt woodlands.

Light inhibition of foliar respiration in response to soil water availability and seasonal changes in temperature in Mediterranean holm oak (Quercus ilex) forest

In the present study we investigated variations in leaf respiration in darkness (RD) and light (RL), and associated traits in response to season, and along a gradient of soil moisture, in Mediterranean woodland dominated by holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) in central and north-eastern Spain respectively. On seven occasions during the year in the central Spain site, and along the soil moisture gradient in north-eastern Spain, we measured rates of leaf RD, RL (using the Kok method), light-saturated photosynthesis (A) and related light response characteristics, leaf mass per unit area (MA) and leaf nitrogen (N) content. At the central Spain site, significant seasonal changes in soil water content and ambient temperature (T) were associated with changes in MA, foliar N, A and stomatal conductance. RD measured at the prevailing daily T and in instantaneous R-T responses, displayed signs of partial acclimation and was not significantly affected by time of year. RL was always less than, and strongly related to, RD, and RL/RD did not vary significantly or systematically with seasonal changes in T or soil water content. Averaged over the year, RL/RD was 0.66±0.05s.e. (n=14) at the central Spain site. At the north-eastern Spain site, the soil moisture gradient was characterised by increasing MA and RD, and reduced foliar N, A, and stomatal conductance as soil water availability decreased. Light inhibition of R occurred across all sites (mean RL/RD=0.69±0.01s.e. (n=18)), resulting in ratios of RL/A being lower than for RD/A. Importantly, the degree of light inhibition was largely insensitive to changes in soil water content. Our findings provide evidence for a relatively constrained degree of light inhibition of R (RL/RD ~ 0.7, or inhibition of ~30%) across gradients of water availability, although the combined impacts of seasonal changes in both T and soil water content increase the range of values expressed. The findings thus have implications in terms of the assumptions made by predictive models that seek to account for light inhibition of R, and for our understanding of how environmental gradients impact on leaf trait relationships in Mediterranean plant communities.

Bryophyte gas-exchange dynamics along varying hydration status reveal a significant carbonyl sulphide (COS) sink in the dark and COS source in the light

Carbonyl sulphide (COS) is a potential tracer of gross primary productivity (GPP), assuming a unidirectional COS flux into the vegetation that scales with GPP. However, carbonic anhydrase (CA), the enzyme that hydrolyses COS, is expected to be light independent, and thus plants without stomata should continue to take up COS in the dark. We measured net CO₂ (A^C ) and COS (A^S ) uptake rates from two astomatous bryophytes at different relative water contents (RWCs), COS concentrations, temperatures and light intensities. We found large A^S in the dark, indicating that CA activity continues without photosynthesis. More surprisingly, we found a nonzero COS compensation point in light and dark conditions, indicating a temperature-driven COS source with a Q₁₀ (fractional change for a 10°C temperature increase) of 3.7. This resulted in greater A^S in the dark than in the light at similar RWC. The processes underlying such COS emissions remain unknown. Our results suggest that ecosystems dominated by bryophytes might be strong atmospheric sinks of COS at night and weaker sinks or even sources of COS during daytime. Biotic COS production in bryophytes could result from symbiotic fungal and bacterial partners that could also be found on vascular plants.

Using models to guide field experiments: a priori predictions for the CO2 response of a nutrient- and water-limited native Eucalypt woodland

The response of terrestrial ecosystems to rising atmospheric CO2 concentration (Ca ), particularly under nutrient-limited conditions, is a major uncertainty in Earth System models. The Eucalyptus Free-Air CO2 Enrichment (EucFACE) experiment, recently established in a nutrient- and water-limited woodland presents a unique opportunity to address this uncertainty, but can best do so if key model uncertainties have been identified in advance. We applied seven vegetation models, which have previously been comprehensively assessed against earlier forest FACE experiments, to simulate a priori possible outcomes from EucFACE. Our goals were to provide quantitative projections against which to evaluate data as they are collected, and to identify key measurements that should be made in the experiment to allow discrimination among alternative model assumptions in a postexperiment model intercomparison. Simulated responses of annual net primary productivity (NPP) to elevated Ca ranged from 0.5 to 25% across models. The simulated reduction of NPP during a low-rainfall year also varied widely, from 24 to 70%. Key processes where assumptions caused disagreement among models included nutrient limitations to growth; feedbacks to nutrient uptake; autotrophic respiration; and the impact of low soil moisture availability on plant processes. Knowledge of the causes of variation among models is now guiding data collection in the experiment, with the expectation that the experimental data can optimally inform future model improvements.

Canopy leaf area of a mature evergreen Eucalyptus woodland does not respond to elevated atmospheric [CO2] but tracks water availability

Canopy leaf area, quantified by the leaf area index (L), is a crucial driver of forest productivity, water use and energy balance. Because L responds to environmental drivers, it can represent an important feedback to climate change, but its responses to rising atmospheric [CO2] and water availability of forests have been poorly quantified. We studied canopy leaf area dynamics for 28 months in a native evergreen Eucalyptus woodland exposed to free-air CO2 enrichment (the EucFACE experiment), in a subtropical climate where water limitation is common. We hypothesized that, because of expected stimulation of productivity and water-use efficiency, L should increase with elevated [CO2]. We estimated L from diffuse canopy transmittance, and measured monthly leaf litter production. Contrary to expectation, L did not respond to elevated [CO2]. We found that L varied between 1.10 and 2.20 across the study period. The dynamics of L showed a quick increase after heavy rainfall and a steady decrease during periods of low rainfall. Leaf litter production was correlated to changes in L, both during periods of decreasing L (when no leaf growth occurred) and during periods of increasing L (active shedding of old foliage when new leaf growth occurred). Leaf lifespan, estimated from mean L and total annual litter production, was up to 2 months longer under elevated [CO2] (1.18 vs. 1.01 years; P = 0.05). Our main finding that L was not responsive to elevated CO2 is consistent with other forest FACE studies, but contrasts with the positive response of L commonly predicted by many ecosystem models.

Short-term carbon cycling responses of a mature eucalypt woodland to gradual stepwise enrichment of atmospheric CO2 concentration

Projections of future climate are highly sensitive to uncertainties regarding carbon (C) uptake and storage by terrestrial ecosystems. The Eucalyptus Free-Air CO2 Enrichment (EucFACE) experiment was established to study the effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations (eCO2 ) on a native mature eucalypt woodland with low fertility soils in southeast Australia. In contrast to other FACE experiments, the concentration of CO2 at EucFACE was increased gradually in steps above ambient (+0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 ppm CO2 above ambient of ~400 ppm), with each step lasting approximately 5 weeks. This provided a unique opportunity to study the short-term (weeks to months) response of C cycle flux components to eCO2 across a range of CO2 concentrations in an intact ecosystem. Soil CO2 efflux (i.e., soil respiration or Rsoil ) increased in response to initial enrichment (e.g., +30 and +60 ppm CO2 ) but did not continue to increase as the CO2 enrichment was stepped up to higher concentrations. Light-saturated photosynthesis of canopy leaves (Asat ) also showed similar stimulation by elevated CO2 at +60 ppm as at +150 ppm CO2 . The lack of significant effects of eCO2 on soil moisture, microbial biomass, or activity suggests that the increase in Rsoil likely reflected increased root and rhizosphere respiration rather than increased microbial decomposition of soil organic matter. This rapid increase in Rsoil suggests that under eCO2, additional photosynthate was produced, transported belowground, and respired. The consequences of this increased belowground activity and whether it is sustained through time in mature ecosystems under eCO2 are a priority for future research.

Global variability in leaf respiration in relation to climate, plant functional types and leaf traits

Leaf dark respiration (Rdark ) is an important yet poorly quantified component of the global carbon cycle. Given this, we analyzed a new global database of Rdark and associated leaf traits. Data for 899 species were compiled from 100 sites (from the Arctic to the tropics). Several woody and nonwoody plant functional types (PFTs) were represented. Mixed-effects models were used to disentangle sources of variation in Rdark . Area-based Rdark at the prevailing average daily growth temperature (T) of each site increased only twofold from the Arctic to the tropics, despite a 20°C increase in growing T (8-28°C). By contrast, Rdark at a standard T (25°C, Rdark (25) ) was threefold higher in the Arctic than in the tropics, and twofold higher at arid than at mesic sites. Species and PFTs at cold sites exhibited higher Rdark (25) at a given photosynthetic capacity (Vcmax (25) ) or leaf nitrogen concentration ([N]) than species at warmer sites. Rdark (25) values at any given Vcmax (25) or [N] were higher in herbs than in woody plants. The results highlight variation in Rdark among species and across global gradients in T and aridity. In addition to their ecological significance, the results provide a framework for improving representation of Rdark in terrestrial biosphere models (TBMs) and associated land-surface components of Earth system models (ESMs).

Different intra- and interspecific facilitation mechanisms between two Mediterranean trees under a climate change scenario

In harsh environments facilitation alleviates biotic and abiotic constraints on tree recruitment. Under ongoing drier climate change, we expect facilitation to increase as a driver of coexistence. However, this might not hold under extreme abiotic stress and when the outcome depends on the interaction with other drivers such as altered herbivore pressure due to land use change. We performed a field water-manipulation experiment to quantify the importance of facilitation in two coexisting Mediterranean trees (dominant Juniperus thurifera and coexisting Quercus ilex subsp. ballota) under a climate change scenario. Shifts in canopy dominance favouring Q. ilex could be based on the extension of heterospecific facilitation to the detriment of conspecific alleviation. We found that saplings of both species transplanted under the canopy of nurse trees had greater survival probability, growth and photochemical efficiency. Intra- and interspecific facilitation mechanisms differed: alleviation of abiotic stress benefited both species during summer and J. thurifera during winter, whereas browsing protection was relevant only for Q. ilex. Facilitation was greater under the dry treatment only for Q. ilex, which partially agreed with the predictions of the stress gradient hypothesis. We conclude that present rainfall availability limits neither J. thurifera nor Q. ilex establishment. Nevertheless, under current global change scenarios, imposing increasing abiotic stress together with altered herbivore browsing, nurse trees could differentially facilitate the establishment of Q. ilex due to species-specific traits, i.e. palatability; drought, heat and cold tolerance, underlying species differences in the facilitation mechanisms and eventually triggering a change from pure juniper woodlands to mixed formations.

Enhanced growth of Juniperus thurifera under a warmer climate is explained by a positive carbon gain under cold and drought

Juniperus thurifera L. is an endemic conifer of the western Mediterranean Basin where it is subjected to a severe climatic stress characterized by low winter temperatures and summer drought. Given the trend of increased warming-induced drought stress in this area and the climatic sensitivity of this species, we expect a negative impact of climate change on growth and ecophysiological performance of J. thurifera in the harsh environments where it dominates. To evaluate this, we measured long- and short-term radial growth using dendrochronology, photosynthesis and water-use efficiency in males, females and juveniles in three sites in Central Spain. Climate was monitored and completed with historical records. Mean annual temperature has increased +0.2 °C per decade in the study area, and the main warming trends corresponded to spring (+0.2 °C per decade) and summer (+0.3 °C per decade). Radial growth and maximum photosynthesis peaked in spring and autumn. Positive photosynthetic rates were maintained all year long, albeit at reduced rates in winter and summer. Radial growth was enhanced by wet conditions in the previous autumn and by warm springs and high precipitation in summer of the year of tree-ring formation. Cloud cover during the summer increased growth, while cloudy winters led to impaired carbon gain and reduced growth in the long term. We argue that maintenance of carbon gain under harsh conditions (low winter temperatures and dry summer months) and plastic xylogenesis underlie J. thurifera's ability to profit from changing climatic conditions such as earlier spring onset and erratic summer rainfall. Our results highlight that not only the magnitude but also the sign of the impact of climate change on growth and persistence of Mediterranean trees is species specific.

Plasticity and stress tolerance override local adaptation in the responses of Mediterranean holm oak seedlings to drought and cold

Plant populations of widely distributed species experience a broad range of environmental conditions that can be faced by phenotypic plasticity or ecotypic differentiation and local adaptation. The strategy chosen will determine a population's ability to respond to climate change. To explore this, we grew Quercus ilex (L.) seedlings from acorns collected at six selected populations from climatically contrasting localities and evaluated their response to drought and late season cold events. Maximum photosynthetic rate (A(max)), instantaneous water use efficiency (iWUE), and thermal tolerance to freeze and heat (estimated from chlorophyll fluorescence versus temperature curves) were measured in 5-month-old seedlings in control (no stress), drought (water-stressed), and cold (low suboptimal temperature) conditions. The observed responses were similar for the six populations: drought decreased A(max) and increased iWUE, and cold reduced A(max) and iWUE. All the seedlings maintained photosynthetic activity under adverse conditions (drought and cold), and rapidly increased their iWUE by closing stomata when exposed to drought. Heat and freeze tolerances were similarly high for seedlings from all the populations, and they were significantly increased by drought and cold, respectively; and were positively related to each other. Differences in seedling performance across populations were primarily induced by maternal effects mediated by seed size and to a lesser extent by idiosyncratic physiologic responses to drought and low temperatures. Tolerance to multiple stresses together with the capacity to physiologically acclimate to heat waves and cold snaps may allow Q. ilex to cope with the increasingly stressful conditions imposed by climate change. Lack of evidence of physiologic seedling adaptation to local climate may reflect opposing selection pressures to complex, multidimensional environmental conditions operating within the distribution range of this species.

Water stress responses of two Mediterranean tree species influenced by native soil microorganisms and inoculation with a plant growth promoting rhizobacterium

Soil microorganisms, such as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), play crucial roles in plant growth, but their influence on plant water relations remains poorly explored. We studied the effects of native soil microorganisms and inoculation with the PGPR strain Aur6 of Pseudomonas fluorescens on water stress responses of seedlings of the drought-avoiding Pinus halepensis Mill. and the drought-tolerant Quercus coccifera L. Plant growth, nutrient concentrations and physiology (maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII; F(v)/F(m)), electron transport rate (ETR), stomatal conductance (g(s)) and predawn shoot water potential (Psi(PD))) were measured in well-watered plants, and in plants under moderate or severe water stress. Inoculation with PGPR and native soil microorganisms improved tree growth, and their interactions had either additive or synergistic effects. Both F(v)/F(m) and ETR were significantly affected by PGPR and native soil microorganisms. Marked differences in g(s) and Psi(PD) were found between species, confirming that they differ in mechanisms of response to water stress. A complex tree species x treatment interactive response to drought was observed. In P. halepensis, F(v)/F(m) and ETR were enhanced by PGPR and native soil microorganisms under well-watered conditions, but the effects of PGPR on Psi(PD) and g(s) were negative during a period of water stress. In Q. coccifera, F(v)/F(m) and ETR were unaffected or even reduced by inoculation under well-watered conditions, whereas Psi(PD) and g(s) were increased by PGPR during a period of water stress. Our results indicate that microbial associates of roots can significantly influence the response of tree seedlings to drought, but the magnitude and sign of this effect seems to depend on the water-use strategy of the species.