Triticale in Italy

Triticale is currently grown throughout the world with a wider diffusion in Europe, with Poland, Belarus, Germany, France and Spain as major producers. Although triticale occupies a very small fraction of the Italian cultivated land (16,000 ha of harvested area, mean value of the past 5 years), a continuous interest for this crop and its possible uses explains the work and progress made by breeding activities in different periods. The aim of this review is to report some experiences related to the cultivation of triticale in Italy. A general long-term view of the performance of triticale varieties in Italy has been distilled from a large amount of data derived from the pluri-decennial Italian national variety trials network. This activity, historically coordinated by CREA-GB, extends over several decades and examines the agronomic performance, in different Italian environments, of the most widespread and emerging varieties of triticale. Indications on new breeding targets can be deduced from the elaborations in the frame of both climatic change and market demands.

Combining Native and Malted Triticale Flours in Biscuits: Nutritional and Technological Implications

Triticale-based biscuits were formulated with increasing substitution levels (i.e., 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% w/w) of malted triticale flour (MTF). The products were analyzed for technological and nutritional characteristics, including the evaluation of the in vitro starch digestion. The results indicated that the substitution of triticale flour with MTF increased (p < 0.05) the total dietary fiber and ash contents. Total starch decreased (p < 0.05) when the level of MTF increased in the formulation, causing an increase in reducing sugars and an increase in the starch hydrolysis index and in the in vitro predicted glycemic index (pGI). The hardness and spread ratio values of biscuits decreased (p < 0.05) with increasing levels of MTF in the recipe. The lightness of doughs and biscuits decreased (p < 0.05) with increasing MTF levels. Overall, MTF could be used to formulate biscuits with higher dietary fiber content than native triticale flour and a medium to high in vitro glycemic index value as a function of the substitution level.

A Molecular Toolbox to Identify and Quantify Grape Varieties: On the Trace of "Glera"

A pillar of wine authenticity is the variety/ies used. Ampelographic descriptors and SSR markers, included in several national and international databases, are extensively used for varietal identification purposes. Recently, SNP markers have been proposed as useful for grape varietal identification and traceability. Our study has been directed toward the development of a molecular toolbox able to track grape varieties from the nursery to the must. Two complementary approaches were developed, exploiting SNP markers with two different technologies, i.e., a high-throughput platform for varietal identification and a digital PCR system for varietal quantification. As proof-of-concept, the toolbox was successfully applied to the identification and quantification of the "Glera" variety along the Prosecco wine production chain. The assays developed found their limits in commercial, aged wines.

Long-Term In Situ Conservation Drove Microevolution of Solina d'Abruzzo Wheat on Adaptive, Agronomic and Qualitative Traits

Solina is an example of a bread wheat landrace that has been conserved in situ for centuries in Central Italy. A core collection of Solina lines sampled in areas at different altitudes and climatic conditions was obtained and genotyped. A clustering analysis based on a wide SNP dataset generated from DArTseq analysis outlined the existence of two main groups, which, after F_st analysis, showed polymorphism in genes associated with vernalization and photoperiod response. Starting from the hypothesis that the different pedoclimatic environments in which Solina lines were conserved may have shaped the population, some phenotypic characteristics were studied in the Solina core collection. Growth habit, low-temperature resistance, allelic variations at major loci involved in vernalization response, and sensitivity to photoperiod were evaluated, together with seed morphologies, grain colour, and hardness. The two Solina groups showed different responses to low temperatures and to photoperiod-specific allelic variations as well as the different morphology and technological characteristics of the grain. In conclusion, the long-term in situ conservation of Solina in environments sited at different altitudes has had an impact on the evolution of this landrace which, despite its high genetic diversity, remains clearly identifiable and distinct so as to be included in conservation varieties.

Hierarchical Effects of Lactic Fermentation and Grain Germination on the Microbial and Metabolomic Profile of Rye Doughs

A multi-omics approach was adopted to investigate the impact of lactic acid fermentation and seed germination on the composition and physicochemical properties of rye doughs. Doughs were prepared with either native or germinated rye flour and fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, combined or not with a sourdough starter including Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Weissella confusa and Weissella cibaria. LAB fermentation significantly increased total titrable acidity and dough rise regardless of the flour used. Targeted metagenomics revealed a strong impact of germination on the bacterial community profile of sprouted rye flour. Doughs made with germinated rye displayed higher levels of Latilactobacillus curvatus, while native rye doughs were associated with higher proportions of Lactoplantibacillus plantarum. The oligosaccharide profile of rye doughs indicated a lower carbohydrate content in native doughs as compared to the sprouted counterparts. Mixed fermentation promoted a consistent decrease in both monosaccharides and low-polymerization degree (PD)-oligosaccharides, but not in high-PD carbohydrates. Untargeted metabolomic analysis showed that native and germinated rye doughs differed in the relative abundance of phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and phospholipids. Sourdough fermentation promoted the accumulation of terpenoids, phenolic compounds and proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids. Present findings offer an integrated perspective on rye dough as a multi-constituent system and on cereal-sourced bioactive compounds potentially affecting the functional properties of derived food products.

A Digital PCR Assay to Quantify the Percentages of Hulled vs. Hulless Wheat in Flours and Flour-Based Products

Several food products, made from hulled wheats, are now offered by the market, ranging from grains and pasta to flour and bakery products. The possibility of verifying the authenticity of wheat species used at any point in the production chain is relevant, in defense of both producers and consumers. A chip digital PCR assay has been developed to detect and quantify percentages of hulless (i.e., common and durum wheat) and hulled (i.e., einkorn, emmer and spelt) wheats in grains, flours and food products. The assay has been designed on a polymorphism in the miRNA172 target site of the AP2-5 transcription factor localized on chromosome 5A and involved in wheat spike morphogenesis and grain threshability. The assay has been evaluated even in a real-time PCR system to assess its applicability and to compare the analytical costs between dPCR and real-time PCR approaches.

Muscat Flavor in Grapevine: A Digital PCR Assay to Track Allelic Variation in VvDXS Gene

The aroma of grapes and derived wines has long been one of the major traits considered in the selection of grapevine varieties through the centuries. In particular, Muscat aromatic grapes have been highly appreciated and widespread since ancient times. Monoterpenes are the key compounds responsible for the Muscat flavor. A major QTL affecting monoterpene level has been found to co-localize with the 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (VvDXS) gene, encoding for the 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase enzyme involved in the plastidial pathway of terpene biosynthesis. In more detail, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP 1822) in the coding region of the gene causes a "gain of function" mutation, which is involved in Muscat flavor. In this work, we have developed a digital PCR-based assay to target allelic variations in the VvDXS gene, SNP1822, with the aim to propose a fast and sensitive analytical tool for targeting Muscat-flavored grapevine genotypes. The assay accurately predicts the genetic structure at 1822 SNP, critical for the development of the aroma in the great majority of Muscats. In the case of grapes in which the aromatic component is due to mutations other than SNP 1822 (e.g., Chasselas Musqué and Chardonnay Muscat), further specific assays can be developed.

Digital PCR for Genotype Quantification: A Case Study in a Pasta Production Chain

Simple Summary

Digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR) is a breakthrough technology able to provide an absolute quantification of the target sequence through the compartmentalization of the sample and independent amplifications of the numerous separate compartments. Such technology has recently found several applications in plant science; however, to the best of our knowledge, it has never been applied until now for the detection and quantification of a specific plant variety along a production chain. As proof of concept, a dPCR assay targeted to the quantification of a durum wheat variety routinely used in an Italian premium pasta production chain has been developed.

Abstract

Digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR) is a breakthrough technology based on the partitioning of the analytical sample and detection of individual end-point amplifications into the separate compartments. Among the numerous applications of this technology, its suitability in mutation detection is relevant and characterized by unprecedented levels of precision. The actual applicability of this analytical technique to quantify the presence of a specific plant genotype, in both raw materials and transformed products, by exploiting a point polymorphism has been evaluated. As proof of concept, an Italian premium pasta production chain was considered and a dPCR assay based on a durum wheat target variety private point mutation was designed and evaluated in supply-chain samples. From the results obtained, the assay can be applied to confirm the presence of a target variety and to quantify it in raw materials and transformed products, such as commercial grain lots and pasta. The performance, costs, and applicability of the assay has been compared to analytical alternatives, namely simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and genotype-by-sequencing based on Diversity Arrays Technology sequencing (DArTseq^TM).

Influence of plant genotype and soil on the wheat rhizosphere microbiome: evidences for a core microbiome across eight African and European soils

Here, we assessed the relative influence of wheat genotype, agricultural practices (conventional vs organic) and soil type on the rhizosphere microbiome. We characterized the prokaryotic (archaea and bacteria) and eukaryotic (fungi and protists) communities in soils from four different countries (Cameroon, France, Italy, Senegal) and determined if a rhizosphere core microbiome existed across these different countries. The wheat genotype had a limited effect on the rhizosphere microbiome (2% of variance) as the majority of the microbial taxa were consistently associated to multiple wheat genotypes grown in the same soil. Large differences in taxa richness and in community structure were observed between the eight soils studied (57% variance) and the two agricultural practices (10% variance). Despite these differences between soils, we observed that 177 taxa (2 archaea, 103 bacteria, 41 fungi and 31 protists) were consistently detected in the rhizosphere, constituting a core microbiome. In addition to being prevalent, these core taxa were highly abundant and collectively represented 50% of the reads in our data set. Based on these results, we identify a list of key taxa as future targets of culturomics, metagenomics and wheat synthetic microbiomes. Additionally, we show that protists are an integral part of the wheat holobiont that is currently overlooked.

A Fast, Naked-Eye Assay for Varietal Traceability in the Durum Wheat Production Chain

The development of a colorimetric mono-varietal discriminating assay, aimed at improving traceability and quality control checks of durum wheat products, is described. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was identified as a reliable marker for wheat varietal discrimination, and a rapid test for easy and clear identification of specific wheat varieties was developed. Notably, an approach based on the loop-mediated isothermal amplification reaction (LAMP) as an SNP discrimination tool, in combination with naked-eye visualization of the results, was designed and optimized. Our assay was proven to be effective in the detection of adulterated food products, including both substitution and mixing with different crop varieties.

Double Gamers-Can Modified Natural Regulators of Higher Plants Act as Antagonists against Phytopathogens? The Case of Jasmonic Acid Derivatives

As key players in biotic stress response of plants, jasmonic acid (JA) and its derivatives cover a specific and prominent role in pathogens-mediated signaling and hence are promising candidates for a sustainable management of phytopathogenic fungi. Recently, JA directed antimicrobial effects on plant pathogens has been suggested, supporting the theory of oxylipins as double gamers in plant-pathogen interaction. Based on these premises, six derivatives (dihydrojasmone and cis-jasmone, two thiosemicarbazonic derivatives and their corresponding complexes with copper) have been evaluated against 13 fungal species affecting various economically important herbaceous and woody crops, such as cereals, grapes and horticultural crops: Phaeoacremonium minimum, Neofusicoccum parvum, Phaeomoniella chlamydospora, Fomitiporia mediterranea, Fusarium poae, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum f. sp. lactucae,F. sporotrichioides, Aspergillus flavus, Rhizoctonia solani,Sclerotinia spp. and Verticillium dahliae. The biological activity of these compounds was assessed in terms of growth inhibition and, for the two mycotoxigenic species A. flavus and F. sporotrichioides, also in terms of toxin containment. As expected, the inhibitory effect of molecules greatly varied amongst both genera and species; cis-jasmone thiosemicarbazone in particular has shown the wider range of effectiveness. However, our results show that thiosemicarbazones derivatives are more effective than the parent ketones in limiting fungal growth and mycotoxins production, supporting possible applications for the control of pathogenic fungi.

Moving from qPCR to Chip Digital PCR Assays for Tracking of some Fusarium Species Causing Fusarium Head Blight in Cereals

Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) is one of the major diseases affecting small-grain cereals, worldwide spread and responsible for severe yield and quality losses annually. Diagnostic tools, able to track Fusarium species even in the early stages of infection, can contribute to mycotoxins' risk control. Among DNA-based technologies for Fusarium detection, qPCR (single and multiplex assays) is currently the most applied method. However, pathogen diagnostics is now enforced by digital PCR (dPCR), a breakthrough technology that provides ultrasensitive and absolute nucleic acid quantification. In our work, a panel of chip digital PCR assays was developed to quantify Fusarium graminearum, F.culmorum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. avenaceum. The primers/probes combinations were evaluated on pure fungal samples with cdPCR technique, in comparison with the qPCR approach. Moreover, the cdPCR assays were applied to quantify Fusarium in durum wheat and oat samples, naturally contaminated or spiked with fungal DNA. For a better evaluation of infection level in plants, duplex assays were developed, able to co-amplify both plant and fungal DNA. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study directed to the application of digital PCR to Fusarium diagnosis in plants.

Parentage Atlas of Italian Grapevine Varieties as Inferred From SNP Genotyping

The Italian grape germplasm is characterized by a high level of richness in terms of varieties number, with nearly 600 wine grape varieties listed in the Italian National Register of Grapevine Varieties and with a plethora of autochthonous grapes. In the present study an extended SNP genotyping has been carried out on Italian germplasm of cultivated Vitis vinifera subsp. sativa and Vitis hybrids. Several hundred Italian varieties maintained in the repositories of scientific Institutions and about one thousand additional varieties derived from previous studies on European, Southern Italy, Magna Graecia and Georgian germplasm were considered. The large genotyping data obtained were used to check the presence of homonyms and synonyms, determine parental relationships, and identify the main ancestors of traditional Italian cultivars and closely-related accessions. The parentage among a set of 1,232 unique varieties has been assessed. A total of 92 new parent-offspring (PO) pairs and 14 new PO trios were identified. The resulted parentage network suggested that the traditional Italian grapevine germplasm originates largely from a few central varieties geographically distributed into several areas of genetic influence: "Strinto porcino" and its offspring "Sangiovese", "Mantonico bianco" and "Aglianico" mainly as founder varieties of South-Western Italy (IT-SW); Italian Adriatic Coast (IT-AC); and Central Italy with most varieties being offsprings of "Visparola", "Garganega" and "Bombino bianco"; "Termarina (Sciaccarello)" "Orsolina" and "Uva Tosca" as the main varieties of North-Western Italy (IT-NW) and Central Italy. The pedigree reconstruction by full-sib and second-degree relationships highlighted the key role of some cultivars, and, in particular, the centrality of "Visparola" in the origin of Italian germplasm appeared clear. An hypothetical migration of this variety within the Italian Peninsula from South to North along the eastern side, as well as of "Sangiovese" from South to Central Italy along the Western side might be supposed. Moreover, it was also highlighted that, among the main founders of muscat varieties, "Moscato bianco" and "Zibibbo (Muscat of Alexandria)" have spread over the whole Italy, with a high contribution by the former to germplasm of the North-Western of the peninsula.

Discussion paper: Sustainable increase of crop production through improved technical strategies, breeding and adapted management - A European perspective

During the next decade it will be necessary to develop novel combinations of management strategies to sustainably increase crop production and soil resilience. Improving agricultural productivity, while conserving and enhancing biotic and abiotic resources, is an essential requirement to increase global food production on a sustainable basis. The role of farmers in increasing agricultural productivity growth sustainably will be crucial. Farmers are at the center of any process of change involving natural resources and for this reason they need to be encouraged and guided, through appropriate incentives and governance practices, to conserve natural ecosystems and their biodiversity, and minimize the negative impact agriculture can have on the environment. Farmers and stakeholders need to revise traditional approaches not as productive as the modern approaches but more friendly with natural and environmental ecosystems values as well as emerging novel tools and approaches addressing precise farming, organic amendments, lowered water consumption, integrated pest control and beneficial plant-microbe interactions. While practical solutions are developing, science based recommendations for crop rotations, breeding and harvest/postharvest strategies leading to environmentally sound and pollinator friendly production and better life in rural areas have to be provided.

Quantification of Botrytis cinerea in Grapevine Bunch Trash by Real-Time PCR

Quantification of colonization of grape bunch trash by Botrytis cinerea is crucial for Botrytis bunch rot (BBR) control. A previously developed quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) method was adapted to quantify B. cinerea DNA in grape bunch trash, and a colonization coefficient (CC) was calculated as the ratio between the DNA concentrations of B. cinerea and of Vitis vinifera. CC values increased linearly with the number of conidia of B. cinerea or the quantity of mycelium of B. cinerea added to the bunch trash increased. CC values also increased linearly in bunch trash samples containing increasing percentages of B. cinerea-colonized bunch trash; in the latter samples, CC values were correlated with subsequent assessments of B. cinerea colonization of trash (as determined by plating on agar) and sporulation on the trash (as determined by spore counts after incubation in humid chambers). The qPCR assay was also validated using trash collected from bunches treated or not treated with fungicides in three vineyards in two seasons. CC values reflected the reduction in sporulation and in latent infections of mature berries caused by fungicide application. The qPCR assay enables rapid, specific, sensitive, and reliable quantification of the degree of colonization of bunch trash by B. cinerea, which makes it a useful tool for studies of the epidemiology and management of BBR.

Metabolomic responses triggered by arbuscular mycorrhiza enhance tolerance to water stress in wheat cultivars

Under global climate change forecasts, the pressure of environmental stressors (and in particular drought) on crop productivity is expected to rise and challenge further global food security. The application of beneficial microorganisms may represent an environment friendly tool to secure improved crop performance and yield stability. Accordingly, this current study aimed at elucidating the metabolomic responses triggered by mycorrhizal (Funneliformis mosseae) inoculation of durum (Triticum durum Desf.; cv. 'Mongibello') and bread wheat cultivars (Triticum aestivum L.; cv. 'Chinese Spring') under full irrigation and water deficit regimes. Metabolomics indicated a similar regulation of secondary metabolism in both bread and durum wheat cultivars following water limiting conditions. Nonetheless, a mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) x cultivar interaction could be observed, with the bread wheat cultivar being more affected by arbuscular colonization under water limiting conditions. Discriminant compounds could be mostly related to sugars and lipids, both being positively modulated by AMF colonization under water stress. Moreover, a regulation of metabolites related to oxidative stress and a tuning of crosstalk between phytohormones were also evidenced. Among the latter, the stimulation of the brassinosteroids biosynthetic pathway was particularly evident in inoculated wheat roots, supporting the hypothesis of their involvement in enhancing plant response to water stress and modulation of oxidative stress conditions. This study proposes new insights on the modulation of the tripartite interaction plant-AMF-environmental stress.

Inoculation of Rhizoglomus irregulare or Trichoderma atroviride differentially modulates metabolite profiling of wheat root exudates

Root exudation patterns are linked to, among other things, plant growth, plant-microbe interaction and the priming effect. In this work, two complementary metabolomic approaches (both liquid and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry) were applied to investigate the modulation of root exudation imposed by two beneficial fungi (substrate treatment of Trichoderma atroviride AT10, substrate application of Rhizoglomus irregulare BEG72 and seed treatment with T. atroviride AT10) on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The inoculation with R. irregulare elicited significant increases (by 18%, 39% and 20%) in the shoot, root dry biomass and root-to-shoot ratio compared to untreated plants, whereas inoculation with T. atroviride, as a substrate drench or as a seed coating, exhibited intermediate values for these parameters. The metabolomic approach demonstrated a broad chemical diversity, with more than 2900 compounds annotated in the root exudates. Overall, the Orthogonal Projections to Latent Structures Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) supervised modelling highlighted a distinctive modulation of the metabolic profile in the root exudates as a function of both fungal inoculation and means of application. Most of the differences could be ascribed to lipids (sterols and membrane lipids), phenolic compounds and terpenoids, siderophores and chelating acids, derivatives of amino acids and phytohormones, and as such, the interaction between the wheat roots and beneficial fungi resulted in a complex response in terms of root exudates, likely involving a cascade of processes. Nonetheless, the changes imposed by plant-microbe interactions can contribute to the support of the biostimulant effects of both T. atroviride and R. irregulare.

Omics approaches revealed how arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis enhances yield and resistance to leaf pathogen in wheat

Besides improved mineral nutrition, plants colonised by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi often display increased biomass and higher tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Notwithstanding the global importance of wheat as an agricultural crop, its response to AM symbiosis has been poorly investigated. We focused on the role of an AM fungus on mineral nutrition of wheat, and on its potential protective effect against Xanthomonas translucens. To address these issues, phenotypical, molecular and metabolomic approaches were combined. Morphological observations highlighted that AM wheat plants displayed an increased biomass and grain yield, as well as a reduction in lesion area following pathogen infection. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the mycorrhizal phenotype, we investigated changes of transcripts and proteins in roots and leaves during the double (wheat-AM fungus) and tripartite (wheat-AM fungus-pathogen) interaction. Transcriptomic and proteomic profiling identified the main pathways involved in enhancing plant biomass, mineral nutrition and in promoting the bio-protective effect against the leaf pathogen. Mineral and amino acid contents in roots, leaves and seeds, and protein oxidation profiles in leaves, supported the omics data, providing new insight into the mechanisms exerted by AM symbiosis to confer stronger productivity and enhanced resistance to X. translucens in wheat.

The Caryopsis of Red-Grained Rice Has Enhanced Resistance to Fungal Attack

Seed persistence in the soil is threatened by microorganisms, but the seed coat helps protect the seed from them. Although modern rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars have a whitish caryopsis, some varieties have a red caryopsis coat, a trait typical of wild Oryza species. The red colour is due to the oxidation of proanthocyanidins, a class of flavonoids that is found in the outer layers of the seed in many species. We aimed to assess whether these natural compounds (proanthocyanidins and proanthocyanidin-derived pigment) have some protective effect against microbial attacks. Dehulled caryopses of white-grained and red-grained rice genotypes were employed to assay fungal infection. Specifically, three white-grained rice cultivars (Perla, Augusto, and Koral) and three red-grained rice varieties (Perla Rosso, Augusto Rosso, and Koral Rosso) were used. In a first test, the caryopses were infected with Epicoccum nigrum at 10 °C, and seedling growth was then assessed at 30 °C. In a second test, the degree of infection by the mycotoxigenic fungus Fusarium sporotrichioides was assayed by measuring the accumulation of T-2/HT-2 toxins in the caryopses. Infection was performed at 10 °C to prevent rice germination while allowing fungal growth. In both the tests, red caryopses showed reduced, or delayed, infection with respect to white ones. One black-grained cultivar (Venere) was assayed for the accumulation of T-2/HT-2 toxins as well, with results corresponding to those of the red-grained rice varieties. We argue that the red pigment accumulating in the caryopsis coat, and/or the proanthocyanidins associated with it, provides a protective barrier against challenging microorganisms.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis complicated by multiorgan failure: A case report

RATIONALE

We present a case of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) with severe pulmonary complication and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) hospitalized in our intensive care unit (ICU) in 2014; distinctive trait of this case has been the challenging diagnosis, with a bone marrow biopsy always negative, the severe pulmonary complication with ARDS and severe pulmonary hypertension, and the ferritin temporal kinetics that precisely followed the clinical course of disease.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 32-year-old woman from the Philippines first diagnosed with upper airway infection, was subsequently hospitalized in infectious disease department and treated for community acquired pneumonia.

DIAGNOSES

After clinical picture worsened with a profound respiratory insufficiency, the patient was intubated and transferred to our ICU. During this hospitalization, the clinical picture of fever, cutaneous rashes, lymphadenitis, hepatitis, leukopenia, anemia, hyperferritinemia, hypertriglyceridemia, high level of auto-antibodies, and low NK activity suggested an hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis syndrome, even if bone marrow biopsy was negative for hemophagocytosis.

INTERVENTIONS

Immunosuppressive therapy with dexamethasone and etoposide was started, and the patient was discharged from ICU 4 months after admission.

LESSONS

HLH is a rare disorder of the mononuclear phagocytic system, characterized by systemic proliferation of non- neoplastic histiocytes. The diagnosis is often challenging and not all of the diagnostic criteria may be present at the same time; this case shows how complex the diagnosis could be, how hematic ferritin levels could help in following the course of the disease, and the possibility of severe pulmonary complication either due to the disease itself and to possible sovra infections.

Proteomic insight into the mitigation of wheat root drought stress by arbuscular mycorrhizae

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are plant growth promoters that ameliorate plant-water relations and the nutrient uptake of wheat. In this work, two cultivars of Triticum spp., a bread and a durum wheat, grown under drought stress and inoculated or not by AMF, are evaluated through a shotgun proteomic approach. The AMF association had beneficial effects as compared to non-mycorrhizal roots, in both bread and durum wheat. The beneficial symbiosis was confirmed by measuring morphological and physiological traits. In our work, we identified 50 statistically differential proteins in the bread wheat cultivar and 66 differential proteins in the durum wheat cultivar. The findings highlighted a modulation of proteins related to sugar metabolism, cell wall rearrangement, cytoskeletal organization and sulphur-containing proteins, as well as proteins related to plant stress responses. Among differentially expressed proteins both cultivars evidenced a decrease in sucrose:fructan 6-fructosyltransferas. In durum wheat oxylipin signalling pathway was involved with two proteins: increased 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid reductase and decreased jasmonate-induced protein, both related to the biosynthesis of jasmonic acid. Interactome analysis highlighted the possible involvement of ubiquitin although not evidenced among differentially expressed proteins. The AMF association helps wheat roots reducing the osmotic stress and maintaining cellular integrity.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Drought is one of the major constraints that plants must face in some areas of the world, associated to climate change, negatively affecting the worldwide plant productivity. The adoption of innovative agronomic protocols may represent a winning strategy in facing this challenge. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation may represent a natural and sustainable way to mitigate the negative effects due to drought in several crop, ameliorating plant growth and development. Studies on the proteomic responses specific to AMF in drought-stressed plants will help clarify how mycorrhization elicits plant growth, nutrient uptake, and stress-tolerance responses. Such studies also offer the potential to find biological markers and genetic targets to be used during breeding for new drought-resistant varieties.

Population structure and genome-wide association analysis for frost tolerance in oat using continuous SNP array signal intensity ratios

Infinium SNP data analysed as continuous intensity ratios enabled associating genotypic and phenotypic data from heterogeneous oat samples, showing that association mapping for frost tolerance is a feasible option. Oat is sensitive to freezing temperatures, which restricts the cultivation of fall-sown or winter oats to regions with milder winters. Fall-sown oats have a longer growth cycle, mature earlier, and have a higher productivity than spring-sown oats, therefore improving frost tolerance is an important goal in oat breeding. Our aim was to test the effectiveness of a Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) for mapping QTLs related to frost tolerance, using an approach that tolerates continuously distributed signals from SNPs in bulked samples from heterogeneous accessions. A collection of 138 European oat accessions, including landraces, old and modern varieties from 27 countries was genotyped using the Infinium 6K SNP array. The SNP data were analyzed as continuous intensity ratios, rather than converting them into discrete values by genotype calling. PCA and Ward's clustering of genetic similarities revealed the presence of two main groups of accessions, which roughly corresponded to Continental Europe and Mediterranean/Atlantic Europe, although a total of eight subgroups can be distinguished. The accessions were phenotyped for frost tolerance under controlled conditions by measuring fluorescence quantum yield of photosystem II after a freezing stress. GWAS were performed by a linear mixed model approach, comparing different corrections for population structure. All models detected three robust QTLs, two of which co-mapped with QTLs identified earlier in bi-parental mapping populations. The approach used in the present work shows that SNP array data of heterogeneous hexaploid oat samples can be successfully used to determine genetic similarities and to map associations to quantitative phenotypic traits.

Copy number variation at the HvCBF4-HvCBF2 genomic segment is a major component of frost resistance in barley

A family of CBF transcription factors plays a major role in reconfiguring the plant transcriptome in response to low-freezing temperature in temperate cereals. In barley, more than 13 HvCBF genes map coincident with the major QTL FR-H2 suggesting them as candidates to explain the function of the locus. Variation in copy number (CNV) of specific HvCBFs was assayed in a panel of 41 barley genotypes using RT-qPCR. Taking advantage of an accurate phenotyping that combined Fv/Fm and field survival, resistance-associated variants within FR-H2 were identified. Genotypes with an increased copy number of HvCBF4 and HvCBF2 (at least ten and eight copies, respectively) showed greater frost resistance. A CAPS marker able to distinguish the CBF2A, CBF2B and CBF2A/B forms was developed and showed that all the higher-ranking genotypes in term of resistance harbour only CBF2A, while other resistant winter genotypes harbour also CBF2B, although at a lower CNV. In addition to the major involvement of the HvCBF4-HvCBF2 genomic segment in the proximal cluster of CBF elements, a negative role of HvCBF3 in the distal cluster was identified. Multiple linear regression models taking into account allelic variation at FR-H1/VRN-H1 explained 0.434 and 0.550 (both at p < 0.001) of the phenotypic variation for Fv/Fm and field survival respectively, while no interaction effect between CNV at the HvCBFs and FR-H1/VRN-H1 was found. Altogether our data suggest a major involvement of the CBF genes located in the proximal cluster, with no apparent involvement of the central cluster contrary to what was reported for wheat.

Occurrence of Fusarium langsethiae and T-2 and HT-2 Toxins in Italian Malting Barley

T-2 and HT-2 toxins are two of the most toxic members of type-A trichothecenes, produced by a number of Fusarium species. The occurrence of these mycotoxins was studied in barley samples during a survey carried out in the 2011-2014 growing seasons in climatically different regions in Italy. The percentage of samples found positive ranges from 22% to 53%, with values included between 26 and 787 μg/kg. The percentage of samples with a T-2 and HT-2 content above the EU indicative levels for barley of 200 μg/kg ranges from 2% to 19.6% in the 2011-2014 period. The fungal species responsible for the production of these toxins in 100% of positive samples has been identified as Fusarium langsethiae, a well-known producer of T-2 and HT-2 toxins. A positive correlation between the amount of F. langsethiae DNA and of the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins was found. This is the first report on the occurrence of F. langsethiae-and of its toxic metabolites T-2 and HT-2-in malting barley grown in Italy.

Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome Complicating Traumatic Pancreatitis: A Pediatric Case Report

We are reporting a case of posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) developed in an unusual clinical scenario without the presence of the most described symptoms. PRES is a neurological and radiological syndrome described in many different clinical conditions. In children it has been mostly reported in association with hematological and renal disorders.Our patient was a 15 years old boy, admitted to our intensive care unit for pancreatitis after blunt abdominal trauma.During the stay in the intensive care unit, he underwent multiple abdominal surgical interventions for pancreatitis complications. He had a difficult management of analgesia and sedation, being often agitated with high arterial pressure, and he developed a bacterial peritonitis. After 29 days his neurological conditions abruptly worsened with neuroimaging findings consistent with PRES. His clinical conditions progressively improved after sedation and arterial pressure control.He was discharged at home with complete resolution of the neurological and imaging signs 2 months later.The pathophysiology of PRES is controversial and involves disordered autoregulation ascribable to hypertension and endothelial dysfunction. In this case both hypertension and endothelial activation, triggered by sepsis and pancreatitis, could represent the culprits of PRES onset. Even if there is no specific treatment for this condition, a diagnosis is mandatory to start antihypertensive and supportive treatment. We are therefore suggesting to consider PRES in the differential diagnosis of a neurological deterioration preceded by hypertension and/or septic state, even without other "typical" clinical features.

Germination of Fusarium graminearum Ascospores and Wheat Infection are Affected by Dry Periods and by Temperature and Humidity During Dry Periods

The effects of temperature and relative humidity (RH) on germination of Fusarium graminearum ascospores, and of dry periods (DP) of different lengths and of temperature and RH during DP on ascospore survival were studied both in vitro and in planta. Optimal temperatures for ascospore germination at 100% RH were 20 and 25°C; germination was ≤5% when ascospores were incubated at 20°C and RH ≤ 93.5%. Viable ascospores were found at all tested combinations of DP duration (0 to 48 h) × temperature (5 to 40°C) or RH (32.5 to 100% RH). Germination declined as DP duration and temperature increased. Germination was lower for ascospores kept at 65.5% RH during the DP than at 76.0, 32.5, or 93.5% RH. Equations were developed describing the relationships between ascospore germination, DP duration and temperature or RH during DP. Durum wheat spikes were inoculated with ascospores and kept dry for 0 to 48 h at approximately 15°C and 65% RH; plants were then kept in saturated atmosphere for 48 h to favor infection. Fungal biomass, measured as F. graminearum DNA by quantitative polymerase chain reaction, declined as DP increased to 24 and 48 h at 3 and 9 days postinfection but not in spikes at maturity.

Draft genome sequence and chemical profiling of Fusarium langsethiae, an emerging producer of type A trichothecenes

Fusarium langsethiae is a widespread pathogen of small grain cereals, causing problems with T-2 and HT-2 toxin contamination in grains every year. In an effort to better understand the biology of this fungus, we present a draft genome sequence of F. langsethiae Fl201059 isolated from oats in Norway. The assembly was fragmented, but reveals a genome of approximately 37.5 Mb, with a GC content around 48%, and 12,232 predicted protein-coding genes. Focusing on secondary metabolism we identified candidate genes for 12 polyketide synthases, 13 non-ribosomal peptide synthetases, and 22 genes for terpene/isoprenoid biosynthesis. Some of these were found to be unique compared to sequence databases. The identified putative Tri5 cluster was highly syntenic to the cluster reported in F. sporotrichioides. Fusarium langsethiae Fl201059 produces a high number of secondary metabolites on Yeast Extract Sucrose (YES) agar medium, dominated by type A trichothecenes. Interestingly we found production of glucosylated HT-2 toxin (Glu-HT-2), previously suggested to be formed by the host plant and not by the fungus itself. In greenhouse inoculations of F. langsethiae Fl201059 on barley and oats, we detected the type A trichothecenes: neosolaniol, HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, Glu-HT-2 and numerous derivatives of these.

Study of the natural occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and their glucosyl derivatives from field barley to malt by high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry

This paper reports a new method for the determination of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and their glucosylated derivatives in cereals, and some survey data aimed at obtaining more comprehensive information on the co-occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and their glucosylated derivatives in naturally contaminated cereal samples. For these purposes, barley samples originating from a Northern Italian area were analysed by LC-HRMS for the presence of T-2, HT-2 and relevant glucosyl derivatives. Quantitative analysis of T-2 and HT-2 glucosides was performed for the first time using a recently made available standard of T-2 glucoside. The glucosyl derivative of HT-2 was detected at levels up to 163 µg kg(-1) in 17 of the 18 analysed unprocessed barley grains, whereas the monoglucosyl derivative of T-2 toxin was detected in only a few samples and at low µg kg(-1) levels. The ratio between glucosylated toxins (sum of T-2 and HT-2 glucosides) and native toxins (sum of T-2 and HT-2) ranged from 2% to 283%. Moreover, taking advantage of the possibility of retrospective analysis of full-scan HRMS chromatograms, samples were also screened for the presence of other type-A trichothecenes, namely neosolaniol, diacetoxyscirpenol and their monoglucosyl derivatives, which were detected at trace levels. A subset of nine different samples was subjected to micro-maltation in order to carry out a preliminary investigation on the fate of T-2, HT-2 and relevant glucosides along the malting process. Mycotoxin reduction from cleaned barley to malt was observed at rates ranging from 4% to 87%.

Rescue therapy with polymyxin B hemoperfusion in high-dose vasopressor therapy refractory septic shock

BACKGROUND

Refractory septic shock (RSS) requiring major vasopressor support is associated with high mortality, especially in Gram-negative infections. The study aim was to describe hemodynamics, organ failure, and clinical outcomes in high-dose vasopressor therapy (HDVT) RSS patients treated with Polymyxin B hemoperfusion (PMX-HP) as rescue therapy.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed 52 patients, unresponsive to conventional therapy, treated with two sessions of PMX-HP requiring HDVT (norepinephrine and/or epinephrine requirement (NEP+EP) ≥ 0.5 µg/kg/min), ≥ 2 organ failures, and suspected/confirmed Gram-negative infection from any source.

RESULTS

At baseline, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was 80 ± 13 mmHg and NEP + EP requirement was 1.11 ± 0.56 µg/kg/min. After two PMX-HP sessions, at 72 h, MAP significantly increased and NEP + EP requirement decreased respectively by 12% and 76%. Pulmonary and renal function also improved significantly. Thirty patients (58%) showed a ≥ 50% reduction in NEP + EP dose within only 24 h after the first PMX-HP session (early responders), and 22 did not or died from irreversible shock in the same time frame (early non-responders). The 30-day hospital mortality was 29%; it was 16% in early responders and 45% in early non-responders. On multivariate analysis, SAPS II score, vasopressin, and central venous pressure significantly affected 30-day hospital mortality.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study describing the use of PMX-HP as a rescue therapy in RSS patients with HDVT and MOF. Our results suggest a possible role for PMX-HP in improving hemodynamics, organ function, and mortality in RSS, with a 30-day survival of up to 70%.

In vitro evaluation of the activity of thiosemicarbazone derivatives against mycotoxigenic fungi affecting cereals

With a steadily increasing world population, a more efficient system of food production is of paramount importance. One of the major causes of food spoilage is the presence of fungal pathogens and the production and accumulation of mycotoxins. In the present work we report a study on the activity of a series of functionalized thiosemicarbazones (namely cuminaldehyde, trans-cinnamaldehyde, quinoline-2-carboxyaldehyde, 5-fluoroisatin thiosemicarbazone and 5-fluoroisatin N(4)-methylthiosemicarbazone), as antifungal and anti-mycotoxin agents, against the two major genera of cereal mycotoxigenic fungi, i.e. Fusarium and Aspergillus. These thiosemicarbazones display different patterns of efficacy on fungal growth and on mycotoxin accumulation depending on the fungal species. Some of the molecules display a greater effect on mycotoxin synthesis than on fungal growth.

Metabolite profiling elucidates communalities and differences in the polyphenol biosynthetic pathways of red and white Muscat genotypes

The chemical composition of grape berries is varietal dependent and influenced by the environment and viticulture practices. In Muscat grapes, phenolic compounds play a significant role in the organoleptic property of the wine. In the present study, we investigated the chemical diversity of berries in a Muscat collection. Metabolite profiling was performed on 18 Moscato bianco clones and 43 different red and white grape varieties of Muscat using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) coupled with SNP genotyping. Principle component analysis and hierarchical clustering showed a separation of the genotypes into six main groups, three red and three white. Anthocyanins mainly explained the variance between the different groups. Additionally, within the white varieties mainly flavonols and flavanols contributed to the chemical diversity identified. A genotype-specific rootstock effect was identified when separately analyzing the skin of the clones, and it was attributed mainly to resveratrol, quercetin 3-O-galactoside, citrate and malate. The metabolite profile of the varieties investigated reveals the chemical diversity existing among different groups of Muscat genotypes. The distribution pattern of metabolites among the groups dictates the abundance of precursors and intermediate metabolite classes, which contribute to the organoleptic properties of Muscat berries.

In vitro antifungal activity of terpinen-4-ol, eugenol, carvone, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) and thymol against mycotoxigenic plant pathogens

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of five naturally occurring compounds from essential oils on 10 different species of mycotoxigenic fungi involved in several plant diseases. The antifungal activities of terpinen-4-ol, eugenol, carvone, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) and thymol were observed in vitro on Fusarium subglutinans, Fusarium cerealis, Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium proliferatum, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium sporotrichioides, Aspergillus tubingensis, Aspergillus carbonarius, Alternaria alternata and Penicillium sp. The naturally occurring compounds tested showed toxic effects on in vitro mycelium growth of all fungal species but with different level of potency. The results are encouraging for further investigations of in planta antifungal activities of these essential oils components.

Endotoxin activity level and septic shock: a possible role for specific anti-endotoxin therapy?

Endotoxin activity (EA) plays an essential role in sepsis syndrome pathogenesis. There has been considerable interest in measuring and removing EA to predict and improve the morbidity and mortality of patients with sepsis. We performed a prospective study to assess the prevalence of EA in critically ill patients and its association with organ dysfunction and outcome, as well as in septic shock. EA (EAA(TM)) was measured within 24 h from onset of refractory septic shock in an intensive care unit. Our study demonstrated that EA level is independent from the type or the source of infection, but reflects the severity of illness in critically ill septic shock patients. Extracorporeal EA removal (PMX-HP) was assessed following our ICU clinical practice. PMX-HP seems to have better outcome, but further studies are required to verify this hypothesis.

Assessment ofFusariuminfection in wheat heads using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay

The accuracy of a quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay in quantifying the DNA of trichothecene-producing F. culmorum and F. graminearum within harvested wheat grains and head tissue was evaluated in comparison with incidences of infected kernels and deoxynivalenol levels. In a first experiment, six durum and bread wheat varieties were grown in randomized plots for a 2-year period, and inoculated with Fusarium macroconidia at six growth stages between heading and dough ripening, to obtain a wide range of Fusarium head blight incidences. There was a close relationship between fungal DNA and the amount of deoxynivalenol, and this relationship was consistent over Fusarium species, wheat species and varieties, and over a wide range of Fusarium head blight infection. In a second experiment potted wheat plants were grown under environmentally controlled conditions and inoculated with the two Fusarium species at full flowering; head samples were collected before inoculation and after 6 h to 12 days, and processed by the quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay. This assay made it possible to detect the dynamic of fungal invasion in planta after infection had occurred, and to single out the presence of infection before the onset of the disease symptoms: A robust detection of the infection occurred within 18-24 h for F. culmorum, and within 2-9 days for F. graminearum.

In vitro antifungal activity of the tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil and its major components against plant pathogens

AIMS

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil (TTO) and its principal components on four cereal-pathogenic fungi.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The antimycotic properties of TTO and of terpinen-4-ol, gamma-terpinen and 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) were evaluated in vitro on Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium culmorum and Pyrenophora graminea. Moreover, barley leaves infected with Blumeria graminis were treated with whole TTO. All the tested fungi were susceptible to TTO and its components.

CONCLUSIONS

TTO exerted a wide spectrum of antimycotic activity. Single TTO purified components were more active than the whole oil in reducing in vitro growth of fungal mycelium and, among the tested compounds, terpinen-4-ol was the most effective.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

TTO and its components can be considered potential alternative natural fungicides.

Genetically modified soya bean in rabbit feeding: detection of DNA fragments and evaluation of metabolic effects by enzymatic analysis

The presence of DNA fragments in tissues from rabbits given genetically modified (GM) soya-bean meal (solvent extracted) was investigated by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) approach. Moreover, the possible effects on cell metabolism were evaluated by determination of several specific enzymes in serum, heart, skeletal muscle, liver and kidney. The chloroplast sequence for tRNA Leu by using the Clor1/Clor2 primers designed on chloroplast trnL sequence was clearly detected. On the contrary, two couples of species specific primers for conventional (Le1-5/Le 1-3 which amplifies the soya bean lectin gene) and genetically modified (35S1/35S2 which amplifies the 35S CMV promoter that is present in the genomic structure of GM soya bean) soya bean were not found in all samples. No differences in enzyme levels were detected in serum, but a significant increase of lactic dehydrogenase, mainly concerning the LDH1 isoenzyme was found in particular in kidney and heart but not in the muscle, thus suggesting a potential alteration in the local production of the enzyme. Finally, no significant differences were detected concerning body weight, fresh organ weights and no sexual differences were detected.

A combined strategy of "in silico" transcriptome analysis and web search engine optimization allows an agile identification of reference genes suitable for normalization in gene expression studies

Traditionally housekeeping genes have been employed as endogenous reference (internal control) genes for normalization in gene expression studies. Since the utilization of single housekeepers cannot assure an unbiased result, new normalization methods involving multiple housekeeping genes and normalizing using their mean expression have been recently proposed. Moreover, since a gold standard gene suitable for every experimental condition does not exist, it is also necessary to validate the expression stability of every putative control gene on the specific requirements of the planned experiment. As a consequence, finding a good set of reference genes is for sure a non-trivial problem requiring quite a lot of lab-based experimental testing. In this work we identified novel candidate barley reference genes suitable for normalization in gene expression studies. An advanced web search approach aimed to collect, from publicly available web resources, the most interesting information regarding the expression profiling of candidate housekeepers on a specific experimental basis has been set up and applied, as an example, on stress conditions. A complementary lab-based analysis has been carried out to verify the expression profile of the selected genes in different tissues and during heat shock response. This combined dry/wet approach can be applied to any species and physiological condition of interest and can be considered very helpful to identify putative reference genes to be shortlisted every time a new experimental design has to be set up.

Treatment of critical bleeding in trauma patients

AIM

Massive haemorrhage after trauma is a big challenge for care-givers, being a leading cause of early in-hospital mortality. Surgical bleeding may be easily controlled with several techniques. Otherwise, consumptive coagulopathy is often extremely difficult to stop. An adjunctive strategy to treat traumatic coagulopathic bleeding is recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) (NovoSeven, Novo Nordisk A/S, Bagsvaerd, Denmark).

METHODS

All major trauma victims haemodinamically unstable (systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg or > 90 mmHg with massive infusions or vasopressors) admitted to the Emergency Department of the Niguarda Ca' Granda Hospital in Milan from October 2002 to September 2005 were reviewed. Mechanical bleeding was controlled with interventional techniques when indicated. Blood derivatives were administrated to maintain haemoglobin> 7 g/dL, INR < 1.5, fibrinogen > 1 and platelet count > 50 x 109. Off-label administration of rFVIIa was performed in the last year in any coagulopathic salvageable patient when all other strategies failed to control bleeding.

RESULTS

Major trauma were 942, mean age 32.49+/-18.44 years, 94% blunt trauma, 25.13% haemodynamically unstable. Deaths occurred in 17.02% of cases before any procedure. Emergency invasive treatments were performed in 72.34% of cases. Infusions restored haemodynamic stability in 10.63% of patients. In average 9.4+/-4.1 units of red blood cells were transfused in unstable patients. rFVIIa (dosing 60-100 mg/kg) was administrated in 12 patients. Mortality occurred in 33.33% of cases. The principal cause of death was brain injury. A femoral artery thrombosis was observed in a mangled leg. No other adverse effects due to rFVIIa were documented.

CONCLUSIONS

Off-label administration of rFVIIa was able to reverse life-threatening bleeding not manageable with standard strategies in our series of major trauma patients without systemic adverse effects.

From single genes to co-expression networks: extracting knowledge from barley functional genomics

The paper reports an 'in silico' approach to gene expression analysis based on a barley gene co-expression network resulting from the study of several publicly available cDNA libraries. The work is an application of Systems Biology to plant science: at the end of the computational step we identified groups of potentially related genes. The communities of co-expressed genes constructed from the network are remarkably characterized from the functional point of view, as shown by the statistical analysis of the Gene Ontology annotations of their members. Experimental, lab-based testing has been carried out to check the relationship between network and biological properties and to identify and suggest effective strategies of information extraction from the network-derived data.