Effects of Salts and Other Contaminants on Ciprofloxacin Removal Efficiency of Green Synthesized Copper Nanoparticles

Ciprofloxacin (CIP), a broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibiotic, is commonly used in aquaculture to prevent and treat bacterial infections in aquatic animals. For this reason, aquatic environments contain CIP and its derivatives, which lead to the development of drug-resistant bacteria. In the present study, copper nanoparticles were prepared using Garcinia mangostana extract (GME-CuNPs) as a reducing agent and evaluated for their CIP removal efficiency (CRE). The results demonstrate that within 20 min, GME-CuNPs at 25 mM possess a CRE of 92.02 ± 0.09% from CIP-containing aqueous media with pH 6-7. The CRE is influenced by both monovalent and divalent salts. A high salt concentration significantly reduces the CRE. Contaminants in fish wastewater can reduce the CRE, but phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, and ammonia do not affect the CRE. Our results reveal that the CRE is controlled by electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged GME-CuNPs and the cationic species of CIP. The CRE is reduced by wastewater with a pH higher than 8.0, in which the CIP molecules have a negative charge, resulting in a repulsive force due to the negative charge of GME-CuNPs. In fish wastewater with a pH lower than 7.0, GME-CuNPs show the potential to achieve a CRE above 80%. Therefore, pH adjustment to a range of 6-7 in fish wastewater before treatment is deemed imperative. It is concluded that the newly developed GME-CuNPs possess excellent activity in CIP elimination from actual fish wastewater samples. Our findings suggest that GME-CuNPs can be a promising tool to effectively eliminate antibiotics from the environment.

Alpha-mangostin decreases high glucose-induced damage on human umbilical vein endothelial cells by increasing autophagic protein expression

Objectives

Diabetes is a chronic disorder that occurs as a result of impaired glucose metabolism. In hyperglycaemic states, the balance between oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes is disrupted leading to oxidative damage and cell death. In addition, impaired autophagy leads to the storage of dysfunctional proteins and cellular organelles in the cell. Hence, the cytoprotective function of autophagy may be disrupted by high glucose conditions. Alpha-mangostin (A-MG) is an essential xanthone purified from the mangosteen fruit. The different pharmacological benefits of alpha-mangostin, including antioxidant, anti-obesity, and antidiabetic, were demonstrated.

Materials and Methods

We evaluated the protective influence of A-MG on autophagic response impaired by high concentrations of glucose in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The HUVECs were treated with various glucose concentrations (5-60 mM) and A-MG (1.25-10 μM) for three days. Then, HUVECs were treated with 60 mM of glucose+2.5 μM of A-MG to measure viability, ROS, and NO content. Finally, the levels of autophagic proteins including LC3, SIRT1, and beclin 1 were evaluated by western blot.

Results

The results expressed that high glucose condition (60 mM) decreased viability and increased ROS and NO content in HUVECs. In addition, LC3, SIRT1, and beclin 1 protein levels declined when HUVECs were exposed to the high concentration of glucose. A-MG reversed these detrimental effects and elevated autophagic protein levels.

Conclusion

Our data represent that A-MG protects HUVECs against high glucose conditions by decreasing ROS and NO generation as well as increasing the expression of autophagy proteins.

Effects of plant-based copper nanoparticles on the elimination of ciprofloxacin

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) is frequently detected in the environment and causes the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria. High levels of CIP in the environment are also harmful to humans and animals. Therefore, effective elimination of CIP is required. In this study, plant-based copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) have been fabricated for the purpose of eliminating CIP. Aqueous extracts of 6 plants were compared for their phytochemicals and reducing activity. Among all the extracts, Garcinia mangostana extract (GM) was the most potent with the highest total phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, and reducing activity. CuNPs synthesized using GM (GM-CuNPs) were characterized using UV-VIS spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering. The results showed that the maximum absorption of GM-CuNPs was at 340 nm. The average size of GM-CuNPs is in the nanoscale range of 159.2 ± 61 nm, with a narrow size distribution and a negative zeta potential of - 4.13 ± 6.97 mV. The stability of GM-CuNPs is not solely due to their zeta potential but also phytochemicals in the extract. GM-CuNPs at 25 mM showed the highest efficiency of 95% in removing CIP from aqueous medium pH 6-7 at 25-35°C within 20 min. The results indicated that the electrostatic attraction between the negative charge of GM-CuNPs and the positive charge of CIP controlled the drug adsorption on the nanoparticles. In conclusion, the developed GM-CuNPs have excellent CIP removal efficiency. These synthesized GM-CuNPs are expected to be environmentally friendly for the removal of antibiotics and other drugs.

Demethylcalabaxanthone from Garcinia mangostana Exerts Antioxidant Effects through the Activation of the Nrf2 Pathway as Assessed via Molecular Docking and Biological Evaluation

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway activation promotes the expression of antioxidant enzymes in response to rising oxidative stress, resulting in reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification and playing a central role in the maintenance of intracellular redox homeostasis and regulation of inflammation. Moreover, the biological effects of Nrf2 pathway activation contribute to reducing apoptosis and enhancing cell survival. The activity of Nrf2 is negatively regulated by Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1). Prompted by the recent results reporting the impact of xanthone metabolites on oxidative stress, cancer, and inflammation, the antioxidant properties of xanthones isolated from Garcinia mangostana (γ-mangostin, α-mangostin, 8-deoxygartanin, demethylcalabaxanthone, garcinone D) were assessed. In particular, the capability of these natural products to disrupt the interaction between Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), triggering the activation of the Nrf2-mediated pathway, was evaluated using molecular docking experiments and in vitro tests. The modulation of some key Nrf2-related mediators like glutathione (GSH) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) to highlight a possible direct antioxidant effect was investigated. Among the tested compounds, demethylcalabaxanthone showed an indirect antioxidant effect, as corroborated by a Western blot assay, displaying a significant increase in the translocated protein upon its administration.

[A new xanthone from hulls of Garcinia mangostana and its cytotoxic activity]

Eight compounds were isolated from ethyl acetate fraction of 80% ethanol extract of the hulls of Garcinia mangostana by silica gel, Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography, as well as prep-HPLC methods. By HR-ESI-MS, MS, 1D and 2D NMR spectral analyses, the structures of the eight compounds were identified as 16-en mangostenone E(1), α-mangostin(2), 1,7-dihydroxy-2-(3-methy-lbut-2-enyl)-3-methoxyxanthone(3), cratoxyxanthone(4), 2,6-dimethoxy-para-benzoquinone(5), methyl orselinate(6), ficusol(7), and 4-(4-carboxy-2-methoxyphenoxy)-3,5-dimethoxybenzoic acid(8). Compound 1 was a new xanthone, and compound 4 was a xanthone dimer, compound 5 was a naphthoquinone. All compounds were isolated from this plant for the first time except compounds 2 and 3. Cytotoxic bioassay suggested that compounds 1, 2 and 4 possessed moderate cytotoxicity, suppressing HeLa cell line with IC_(50) va-lues of 24.3, 35.5 and 17.1 μmol·L~(-1), respectively. Compound 4 also could suppress K562 cells with an IC_(50) value of 39.8 μmol·L~(-1).

Natural alternatives from your garden for hair care: Revisiting the benefits of tropical herbs

Hair shampoos containing botanical ingredients without synthetic additives, such as parabens, petrochemicals, sulfates and silicones are more skin- and environmentally friendly. In recent years, there is a growing demand for shampoo products with botanical extracts. Shampoos with botanical extracts are well-known for their perceived health benefits. They are also generally milder, non-toxic, natural, and less likely to disrupt the hair and scalp's natural pH and oil balance. Many also believe that shampoos with botanical origins have higher standards of quality. Numerous botanical extracts had been used as natural active ingredients in cosmetic formulations to meet consumer demands. In this review, we have revisited six tropical plants commonly added as natural active ingredients in shampoo formulations: Acacia concinna, Camellia oleifera, Azadirachta indica, Emblica officinalis, Sapindus mukorossi, and Garcinia mangostana. These plants have been traditionally used for hair care, and scientific research has shown that they exhibit relevant physicochemical properties and biological activities that are beneficial for hair care and scalp maintenance.

Injection administration of mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana, husk extract enhances physiological and immune-neuroendocrinological regulation of Macrobrachiumrosenbergii

The study aimed to investigate the effects of injecting mangosteen husk hot-water extracts (MHE) on immune and physiological factors in Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Different doses of MHE (10, 20, and 40 μg prawn-1) were injected into the prawns, and various immune and physiological parameters were evaluated. The results revealed that higher doses of MHE (20 and 40 μg prawn-1) led to significant increases in immune parameters, improved phagocytic activity, and clearance efficiency. However, certain parameters, such as phenoloxidase activity per granulocyte, plasma glucose, and lactate levels were decreased after injection. Moreover, prawns injected with MHE and subjected to hypothermal stress exhibited changes in haemolymph dopamine and norepinephrine. Prawns injected with MHE for 7 days showed increased survival rates when challenged with Lactococcus garvieae. The relative survival percentages were 11.8%, 46.6%, and 47.1% for MHE doses of 10, 20, and 40 μg prawn-1 injection, respectively, indicating enhanced resistance to the pathogen. In conclusion, injecting MHE can act as an immunostimulant and physiological and neuroendocrine regulator for prawns, enhancing their resistance to L. garvieae.

Dietary administration of mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana, peel extract enhances the growth, and physiological and immunoendocrinological regulation of prawn, Macrobrachiumrosenbergii

In this study, we investigated the potential immunostimulatory effects of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) peel extract on Macrobrachium rosenbergii, specifically in enhancing immunity and resistance against Lactococcus garvieae. We employed a dietary administration approach to assess the impact of different extract preparations from mangosteen peel, namely mangosteen peel powder (MPP), boiled mangosteen peel powder (MPB), and mangosteen peel extract (MPE). Following the administration of mangosteen peel extract, we evaluated growth performance, innate immune parameters, and disease resistance in the prawns. The results revealed a significant increase in total haemocyte count (THC), differential haemocyte count (DHC), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory bursts (RBs), as well as phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency against L. garvieae. Based on these findings, we suggest that mangosteen peel extract can be utilized as an immunostimulant for prawns through dietary administration, regulating immune responses and enhancing resistance against pathogens by modulating carbohydrate metabolism.

General toxicity studies of alpha mangostin from Garcinia mangostana: A systematic review

Alpha mangostin (AM), the main xanthone derivative contained in mangosteen pericarp (Garcinia mangostana/GM), has many pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antiproliferation, antiinflammatory, and anticancer. Several general toxicity studies of AM have been previously reported to assess the safety profile of AM. Toxicity studies were carried out by various methods such as on test animals, interventions, and various routes of administration, but the test results have not been well documented. Our study aimed to systematically summarizes research on the safety profile of GM containing AM through general toxicity tests to get the LD₅₀ and NOAEL values, and so, can be used as a database related to AM toxicity profiles. This could facilitate other researchers in determining further development of GM-or-AM-based products. Pubmed, Google scholar, ScienceDirect, and EBSCO were chosen to collect the articles while ARRIVE 2.0 was used to evaluate the quality and risk-of-bias of the in vivo toxicity studies included in this systematic review. A total of 20 articles met the eligibility criteria and were reviewed to predict the LD₅₀ and NOAEL of AM. The results showed that the LD₅₀ of AM is between >15.480 mg/kgBW to ≤6000 mg/kgBW while the NOAEL value is between <100 and ≤2000 mg/kgBW.

γ-Mangostin abrogates AINT-induced cholestatic liver injury: Impact on Nrf2/NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1/IL-1β/GSDMD signalling

γ-Mangostin (γ-MN) is one of the abundant xanthones separated from Garcinia mangostana (Clusiaceae) pericarps that has been reported to have varied bioactivities such as neuroprotective, cytotoxic, antihyperglycemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammation. Yet, its effect on cholestatic liver damage (CLI) has not been investigated. This study explored the protective activity of γ-MN against alpha-naphthyl isothiocyanate (ANIT)-induced CLI in mice. The results showed that γ-MN protected against ANIT-induced CLI as indicated by reduced serum levels of hepatic injury parameters (e.g., ALT, AST, γ-GT, ALP, LDH, bilirubin, and total bile acids). ANIT-induced pathological lesions were improved in γ-MN pre-treated groups. γ-MN exerted potent antioxidant effects as it lowered the parameters of lipid peroxidation (4-HNE, PC, and MDA) and intensified the content and activity of antioxidants (TAC, GSH, GSH-Px, GST, and SOD) in the hepatic tissue. Furthermore, γ-MN enhanced the signalling of Nrf2/HO-1 as it augmented the mRNA expression of Nrf2/downstream genes (HO-1/GCLc/NQO1/SOD). The binding capacity and the immuno-expression of Nrf2 were also increased. γ-MN showed anti-inflammatory capacity as it suppressed the activation of NF-κB signalling, it decreased mRNA expression and levels of NF-κB/TNF-α/IL-6 and the immuno-expression of NF-κB/TNF-α. In addition, γ-MN inhibited the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome as it lowered the mRNA expression of NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-1β along with their levels as well as the immuno-expression of caspase-1/IL-1β. γ-MN also reduced the level of the pyroptotic parameter GSDMD. Collectively, this study demonstrated the potent hepatoprotective potential of γ-MN against CLI which was linked to its ability to potentiate Nrf2/HO-1 and to offset NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1/IL-1β/GSDMD. Hence, γ-MN may be suggested as a new candidate for cholestatic patients.

mangostana): Critical assessments and an evolutionary-ecological perspective

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana var. mangostana) is a popular tropical fruit, yet many aspects of its biology and evolutionary history are little known. Its origin remains contentious, although recent findings suggest G. mangostana L. var. malaccensis (Hook. f.) Nazre (synonym: G. malaccensis Hook. f.) as the sole progenitor. We review hypotheses on the origin of mangosteen and clarify points that have been affected by errors of fact and interpretation. The narrow focus and lack of detail in published results make their interpretation difficult. When possible, we support our interpretations with field observations and examination of herbarium specimens. We outline the main biological traits (e.g., dioecy, facultative apomixis, and polyploidy) of mangosteen and its wild relatives to infer traits that might have evolved during domestication of mangosteen. We find no clear indication that apomixis and polyploidy evolved during domestication. Polyploidy is known in the wild relatives, but apomixis has not yet been demonstrated. Also, we propose a testable new evolutionary-ecological framework that we call "Forest-Dusun Interface" to infer processes in the origin of mangosteen. Dusun (Malay) refers to subsistence orchards in this context. Lastly, we propose future studies to address identified knowledge gaps.

Garcinone E Mitigates Oxidative Inflammatory Response and Protects against Experimental Autoimmune Hepatitis via Modulation of Nrf2/HO-1, NF-κB and TNF-α/JNK Axis

Garcinia mangostana L. (Clusiaceae), a popular tropical fruit for its juiciness and sweetness, is an opulent fountain of prenylated and oxygenated xanthones with a vast array of bio-activities. Garcinone E (GE), a xanthone derivative reported from G. mangostana, possesses cytotoxic and aromatase inhibitory activities. The present research endeavors to investigate the hepato-protection efficaciousness of GE on concanavalin-A (Con-A)-instigated hepatitis. Results showed that GE pretreating noticeably diminishes both the serum indices (transaminases, ALP, LDH, and γ-GT) and histopathological lesions of the liver. It counteracted neutrophil and CD4+ infiltration into the liver. GE furthered the Nrf2 genetic expression and its antioxidants' cascade, which resulted in amelioration of Con-A-caused oxidative stress (OS), lipid per-oxidative markers (4-HNE, MDA, PC) reduction, and intensified antioxidants (TAC, SOD, GSH) in the hepatic tissue. Additionally, GE prohibited NF-ĸB (nuclear factor kappa-B) activation and lessened the genetics and levels of downstream cytokines (IL1β and IL6). Moreover, the TNF-α/JNK axis was repressed in GE-treated mice, which was accompanied by attenuation of Con-A-induced apoptosis. These findings demonstrated the protective potential of GE in Con-A-induced hepatitis which may be associated with Nrf2/HO-1 signaling activation and OS suppression, as well as modulation of the NF-κB and TNF-α/JNK/apoptosis signaling pathway. These results suggest the potential use of GE as a novel hepato-protective agent against autoimmune hepatitis.

Anti-Acanthamoeba activity of a semi-synthetic mangostin derivative and its ability in removal of Acanthamoeba triangularis WU19001 on contact lens

Garcinia mangostana L., also known as the mangosteen tree, is a native medicinal plant in Southeast Asia having a wide variety of pharmacologically active compounds, including xanthonoid mangostin. In this study, we examined the pharmacological activities of the selected semi-synthetic mangostin derivative, namely, amoebicidal activity, encystation inhibition, excystation activity, and removal capacity of adhesive Acanthamoeba from the surface of contact lens (CL). Among the three derivatives, C1 exhibited promising anti-Acanthamoeba activity against Acanthamoeba triangularis WU19001 trophozoites and cysts. SEM images displayed morphological changes in Acanthamoeba trophozoites, including the loss of acanthopodia, pore formation in the cell membrane, and membrane damage. In addition, the treated cyst was shrunken and adopted an irregular flat cyst shape. Under a fluorescence microscope, acridine orange and propidium iodide (AO/PI) staining revealed C1 induced condensation of cytoplasm and chromatin with the loss of cell volume in the treated trophozoites, while calcofluor white staining demonstrated the leakage of cell wall in treated cysts, leading to cell death. Interestingly, at the concentration ranges in which C1 showed the anti-Acanthamoeba effects (IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.035-0.056 mg/mL), they were not toxic to Vero cells. C1 displayed the highest inhibitory effect on A. triangularis encystation at 1/16×MIC value (0.004 mg/mL). While C1 demonstrated the excystation activity at 1/128×MIC value with a high rate of 89.47%. Furthermore, C1 exhibited the removal capacity of adhesive Acanthamoeba from the surface of CL comparable with commercial multipurpose solutions (MPSs). Based on the results obtained, C1 may be a promising lead agent to develop a therapeutic for the treatment of Acanthamoeba infections and disinfectant solutions for CL.

Mangosteen Metabolites as Promising Alpha-Amylase Inhibitor Candidates: In Silico and In Vitro Evaluations

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by raised glucose levels in the blood, resulting in grave damage over time to various body organs, including the nerves, heart, kidneys, eyes, and blood vessels. One of its therapeutic treatment approaches involves the inhibition of enzymes accountable for carbohydrate digestion and absorption. The present work is aimed at evaluating the potential of some reported metabolites from Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen, Guttiferae) as alpha-amylase inhibitors. Forty compounds were assessed for their capacity to inhibit alpha-amylase using in silico studies as well as in vitro assays. Molecular docking was carried out to analyze their binding capacities in the 3D structure of alpha-amylase (PDB ID: 4GQR). Among the tested compounds, 6-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-2,4,6,3',4',6'-hexahydroxybenzophenone (8), aromadendrin-8-C-glucoside (5), epicatechin (6), rhodanthenone (4), and garcixanthone D (40) had a high XP G.score and a Glide G.score of -12.425, -11.855, -11.135, and -11.048 Kcal/mol, respectively. Compound 8 possessed the XP and Glide docking score of -12.425 Kcal/mol compared to the reference compounds myricetin and acarbose which had an XP and Glide docking score of -12.319 and 11.201 Kcal/mol, respectively. It interacted through hydrogen bond formations between its hydroxyl groups and the residues His 101, Asp 197, Glu 233, Asp 300, and His 305, in addition to water bridges and hydrophobic interactions. Molecular mechanics-generalized born surface area (MM-GBSA) was used to calculate the binding free energy and molecular dynamic studies that indicated the stability of the alpha-amylase-compound 8 complex during the 100 ns simulation in comparison with myricetin- and acarbose-alpha-amylase complexes. Additionally, the in vitro alpha-amylase inhibition assay findings validated the in silico study's findings. This could further validate the potential of G. mangostana as a candidate for diabetes management.

Garcixanthone E and Garcimangophenone C: New Metabolites from Garcinia mangostana and Their Cytotoxic and Alpha Amylase Inhibitory Potential

Garcinia mangostana (Clusiaceae) is a rich pool of metabolites with diversified bioactivities. A new xanthone, garcixanthone E (1), and a new benzophenone, rhamnoside, as well as garcimangophenone C (9) together with garcinone E (2), α-mangostin (3), γ-mangostin (4), garcinone C (5), garcixanthone C (6), gartanin (7), and 2,4,6,3',5'-pentahydroxybenzophenone (8) were purified from G. mangostana EtOAc extract. Their structural verification was accomplished utilizing assorted spectral tools and relating to the literature. The in vitro cytotoxic potential versus MCF-7, A549, and HCT-116 cell lines demonstrated the moderate potential of 1 (IC₅₀s 8.5, 5.4, and 5.7 µM, respectively) in comparison to doxorubicin (IC₅₀s 0.18, 0.6 and 0.2 µM, respectively) using a sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay. Additionally, 1 and 9 had AAI (α-amylase inhibition) with IC₅₀s 17.8 and 12.9 µM, respectively, compared to acarbose (IC₅₀ 6.7 µM). Further, their AAI mechanisms were inspected utilizing molecular-docking evaluation by employing the crystal structure of the human α-amylase (PDB-ID: 5EOF). Compound 9 possessed a reasonable docking score of -7.746 kcal/mol compared with the native ligand 7JR which had a docking score of -9.932 kcal/mol. These results could further provide new insight into the potential usage of G. mangostana as a functional food for regulating postprandial hyperglycemia via suppressing AA.

First report of Neopestalotiopsis clavispora Causing Leaf Spots on Garcinia mangostana in China

Garcinia mangostana L. is a famous tropical fruit in Asia. In April 2021, a leaf disease on G. mangostana cv. Huazhu was observed in Zhanjiang (21.17° N, 110.18° E), Guangdong province, China. Symptoms was on new leaves of 2 year old plants. The spots were circular to irregular, gray in the center, and brown on the lesion margin. The disease incidence was estimated 25% (n = 500 investigated plants from about 50-ha). Twenty diseased leaves were collected from the orchard. The margin of the diseased tissues was cut into 2 mm × 2 mm pieces; surface disinfected with 75% ethanol and 2% sodium hypochlorite for 30 and 60 s, respectively; and rinsed thrice with sterile water. The tissues were plated onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated at 28 ℃. Twenty-eight isolates were obtained (isolation frequency = 28/4×20 = 35%). Single-spore isolation method was used to recover pure cultures for three isolates (GMN-1, GMN-2, and GMN-3) (Liu et al. 2021). The colonies were initially white with cottony aerial mycelium at 7 days on PDA. Then, they developed black acervular conidiomata at 10 days. Conidia were clavate to fusiform, four-septate, straight or slightly curved, and measured 16.5 to 21.4 µm long (average 19.5 µm; n = 40) × 4.5 to 6.5 µm wide (average 5.2 µm; n = 40). The three median cells were versicolored, whereas the basal and apical cells were hyaline. Conidia had a single basal appendage (4.5 to 5.5 µm long; n = 40) and three apical appendages (19.2 to 24.5 µm long; n = 40). The morphological characteristics of the isolates are comparable with those of the genus Neopestalotiopsis (Sajeewa et al. 2012). Molecular identification was performed using the colony polymerase chain reaction method with MightyAmp DNA Polymerase (Takara-Bio, Dalian, China) (Lu et al. 2012). Sequences were generated from the isolates using primers for the rDNA ITS (ITS1/ITS4), TEF1-α (EF1-728F/EF1-986R), and β-tubulin (T1/βt2b) loci (Sajeewa et al. 2012). The sequences of the isolates were submitted to GenBank (ITS, MZ026535-MZ026537; TEF, MZ032203-MZ032205; β-tubulin, MZ032206-MZ032208). The sequences of the isolates were 100% identical to the type strain MFLUCC12-0281 (accession nos. JX398979, JX399014, and JX399045) through BLAST analysis. The isolates clustered with N. clavispora (MFLUCC12-0280 and MFLUCC12-0281). The pathogenicity was tested in vivo. Individual plants (cv. Huazhu) were grown (n = 2, 1-1.5 year old) in a greenhouse at 24 ℃-30 ℃ with 80% relative humidity. Wounded leaflets were inoculated with 5-mm-diameter mycelial plugs or agar plugs (as control). Besides, sterile cotton balls were immersed in the spore suspension (1 × 105 per mL) and sterile distilled water (control) for about 15 s before they were fixed on the leaves for 3 days. One plant employed for each isolate with nine leaves. The test was performed thrice. Disease symptoms were found on the leaflets after 10 days, whereas the controls remained healthy. The pathogen was re-isolated from infected leaves and phenotypically identical to the original isolates to fulfill Koch's postulates. Neopestalotiopsis clavispora and Pestalotiopsis clavispora are synonyms. The fungus appeared to have a wide host range and distribution including in Thailand, Malaysia, North Queensland, and Australia (Sajeewa et al. 2012;Shahriar et al. 2022). Thus, this is the first report of N. clavispora causing leaf spot on G. mangostana in China. This finding will help improve management strategies against the leaf spots on G. mangostana in China.

Alpha-Mangostin as a New Therapeutic Candidate for Concanavalin A-Induced Autoimmune Hepatitis: Impact on the SIRT1/Nrf2 and NF-κB Crosstalk

Alpha-mangostin (α-MN) is a xanthone obtained from Garcinia mangostana that has diverse anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory potentials. However, its pharmacological activity against autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) has not been investigated before. Concanavalin A (Con A) was injected into mice to induce AIH and two doses of α-MN were tested for their protective effects against Con A-induced AIH. The results demonstrated the potent hepatoprotective activity of α-MN evidenced by a remarkable decrease of serum indices of the hepatic injury and amendment of the histological lesions. α-MN significantly attenuated the level and immuno-expression of myeloperoxidase (MPO) indicating a decrease in the neutrophil infiltration into the liver. Additionally, the recruitment of the CD4+ T cell was suppressed in the α-MN pre-treated animals. α-MN showed a potent ability to repress the Con A-induced oxidative stress evident by the reduced levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and protein carbonyl (PC), as well as the enhanced levels of antioxidants as the reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). The ELISA, RT-PCR, and IHC analyses revealed that α-MN enhanced the sirtuin1/nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor-2 (SIRT1/Nrf2) signaling and its downstream cascade genes concurrently with the inhibition of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and the inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukine-6) signaling. Taken together, these results inferred that the hepatoprotective activity of α-MN could prevent Con A-induced AIH through the modulation of the SIRT1/Nrf2/NF-κB signaling. Hence, α-MN may be considered as a promising candidate for AIH therapy.

Prenylated xanthones with α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory effects from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana

Two new prenylated xanthones, mangoxanthones A-B (1-2), together with four known compounds 3-6, were isolated from the ethanol extract of the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana. The structures of these compounds have been elucidated based on spectroscopic analysis. The analysis results of chiral HPLC revealed compounds 1 and 2 were scalemic mixtures respectively. All isolated compounds were biologically evaluated for their α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory effects using in-vitro assays. Compound 1 showed moderate inhibitory activities against α-glucosidase and α-amylase with IC₅₀ of 29.06 ± 1.86 and 22.74 ± 2.07 μM, respectively. Molecular docking predicted the binding sites of compound 1 to α-glucosidase and α-amylase. A preliminary structure-activity relationship was discussed.

The Potential of α-Mangostin from Garcinia mangostana as an Effective Antimicrobial Agent-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This systematic review aims to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of α-mangostin derived from Garcinia mangostana against different microbes. A literature search was performed using PubMed and Science Direct until March 2022. The research question was developed based on a PICO (Population, Intervention, Control and Outcomes) model. In this study, the population of interest was microbes, α-mangostin extracted from Garcinia mangostana was used as exposure while antibiotics were used as control, followed by the outcome which is determined by the antimicrobial activity of α-mangostin against studied microbes. Two reviewers independently performed the comprehensive literature search following the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. A methodological quality assessment was carried out using a scoring protocol and the risk of bias in the studies was analyzed. Reward screening was performed among the selected articles to perform a meta-analysis based on the pre-determined criteria. Case groups where α-mangostin extracted from Garcinia mangostana was incorporated were compared to groups using different antibiotics or antiseptic agents (control) to evaluate their effectiveness. A total of 30 studies were included; they were heterogeneous in their study design and the risk of bias was moderate. The results showed a reduction in microbial counts after the incorporation of α-mangostin, which resulted in better disinfection and effectiveness against multiple microbes. Additionally, the meta-analysis result revealed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in their effectiveness when α-mangostin was compared to commercially available antibiotics. α-mangostin worked effectively against the tested microbes and was shown to have inhibitory effects on microbes with antibiotic resistance.

Facile Green Synthesis of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles by Upcycling Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) Pericarp Extract

In the present report, green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) was performed by upcycling mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) pericarp extract (methanol and ethyl acetate extracts). Field emission scanning electron microscopy images revealed an aggregated structure with a highly porous network of TiO₂ NPs. TiO₂ NPs synthesized with ethyl acetate extract (EtOAc-TiO₂ NPs) exhibited more monodispersity and possessed smoother surfaces than the control TiO₂ NPs (Con-TiO₂ NPs) and TiO₂ NPs synthesized with methanol extract (MeOH-TiO₂ NPs). High-resolution X-ray diffraction patterns clearly confirmed that TiO₂ NPs had a crystalline nature. A mixture of anatase and rutile was observed in Con-TiO₂ NPs and MeOH-TiO₂ NPs, while EtOAc-TiO₂ NPs had only anatase with the smallest size (12.50 ± 1.81 nm). Ethyl acetate extract contained the highest amount of α-mangostin; thus, the surface of TiO₂ NPs was functionalized with ethyl acetate extract. The functionalized TiO₂ NPs synthesized with ethyl acetate extract (EtOAc-TiO₂-αm) showed the highest 2,2-diphenyl-1-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity. In vitro cell viability on mouse fibroblast cells (NIH3T3) indicated that the newly synthesized TiO₂ NPs did not show any significant cytotoxicity. Therefore, the TiO₂ NPs in the present report have the potential to be used in cosmetic applications such as sunscreens.

Anti-α-Glucosidase and Antiglycation Activities of α-Mangostin and New Xanthenone Derivatives: Enzymatic Kinetics and Mechanistic Insights through In Vitro Studies

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by chronic hyperglycemia that promotes ROS formation, causing severe oxidative stress. Furthermore, prolonged hyperglycemia leads to glycation reactions with formation of AGEs that contribute to a chronic inflammatory state. This research aims to evaluate the inhibitory activity of α-mangostin and four synthetic xanthenone derivatives against glycation and oxidative processes and on α-glucosidase, an intestinal hydrolase that catalyzes the cleavage of oligosaccharides into glucose molecules, promoting the postprandial glycemic peak. Antiglycation activity was evaluated using the BSA assay, while antioxidant capacity was detected with the ORAC assay. The inhibition of α-glucosidase activity was studied with multispectroscopic methods along with inhibitory kinetic analysis. α-Mangostin and synthetic compounds at 25 µM reduced the production of AGEs, whereas the α-glucosidase activity was inhibited only by the natural compound. α-Mangostin decreased enzymatic activity in a concentration-dependent manner in the micromolar range by a reversible mixed-type antagonism. Circular dichroism revealed a rearrangement of the secondary structure of α-glucosidase with an increase in the contents of α-helix and random coils and a decrease in β-sheet and β-turn components. The data highlighted the anti-α-glucosidase activity of α-mangostin together with its protective effects on protein glycation and oxidation damage.

Cytotoxic effects of Garcinia mangostana pericarp extract in cancer cell lines

BACKGROUND

Garcinia mangostana, commonly also called mangosteen, is an evergreen tropical tree, and its pericarps have been used in traditional herbal medicine for different diseases. The anticancer efficacy of the ethanolic extract from pericarps of Garcinia mangostana was investigated in human prostate cancer cells (PC3), melanoma cells (B16F10), breast cancer cells (MCF7) and glioblastoma (U87) cell lines.

METHODS

3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was used to measure cell viability. propidium iodide (PI) staining and analysis on a flow cytometer was used to identify apoptosis. Action on cell migration was evaluated by scratch assay and gelatin zymography. Furthermore, the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was measured. Moreover, we investigated the synergistic efficacy with several combinations of Garcinia mangostana extract (GME) with doxorubicin.

RESULTS

GME reduced cell viability in malignant cell dose and time-dependently. GME-induced sub-G1 peak in flow cytometry histogram of treated cells control representing apoptotic cell death is involved in GME toxicity. Furthermore, GME exhibited inhibitory effects on the migration ability of U87 cells, which was accompanied by inhibition in the activity and expression of MMP2 (matrix metalloproteinase-2). Besides, GSH level and SOD activity was significantly reduced while there was an increase in ROS and MDA concentration following 24 hr GME treatment. Moreover, combination of GME (1.5-25μg/mL) with Dox (6 µg/mL) displayed synergistic efficacy and cell growth inhibition.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, GME could cause cell death in PC3, MCF7, U87, and B16F10 cell lines, in which apoptosis plays an imperative role. Plant extract decreased the migration ability of the cells by inhibiting the activity and expression of Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). G. mangostana could be a promising therapeutic strategy to treat cancer in the future.

The purple mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana): Defining the anticancer potential of selected xanthones

The purple mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) is a popular Southeast Asian fruit that has been used traditionally for its health promoting benefits for years. Unique to the mangosteen are a class of phytochemicals known as xanthones that have been reported to display significant anti-cancer and anti-tumor activities, specifically through the promotion of apoptosis, targeting of specific cancer-related proteins, or modulation of cell signaling pathways. α-Mangostin, the most abundant xanthone isolated from the mangosteen, has received substantial attention as it has proven to be a potent phytochemical, specifically as an anticancer agent, in numerous different cancer cell studies and cancer animal models. While the mechanisms for these anticancer effects have been reported in many studies, lesser xanthones, including gartanin, β-mangostin, γ-mangostin, garcinone C, and garcinone E, and mangosteen extracts from the pericarp, roots, rind, and stem show promise for their anticancer activity but their mechanisms of action are not as well developed and remain to be determined. Mangosteen products appear safe and have been well tolerated in human clinical trials where they show antioxidant activity, though their clinical anticancer activity has not yet been evaluated. This review summarizes the work that has been done to explore and explain the anticancer and antitumor activities of α-mangostin, lesser xanthones, and mangosteen extracts in vitro, in vivo, and in humans in various cancers.

Mangostanaxanthone IV Ameliorates Streptozotocin-Induced Neuro-Inflammation, Amyloid Deposition, and Tau Hyperphosphorylation via Modulating PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β Pathway

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by amyloid deposition and neurofibrillary tangles formation owing to tau protein hyperphosphorylation. Intra-cerebroventricular (ICV) administration of streptozotocin (STZ) has been widely used as a model of sporadic AD as it mimics many neuro-pathological changes witnessed in this form of AD. In the present study, mangostanaxanthone IV (MX-IV)-induced neuro-protective effects in the ICV-STZ mouse model were investigated. STZ (3 mg/kg, ICV) was injected once, followed by either MX-IV (30 mg/kg/day, oral) or donepezil (2.5 mg/kg/day, oral) for 21 days. Treatment with MX-IV diminished ICV-STZ-induced oxidative stress, neuro-inflammation, and apoptosis which was reflected by a significant reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) brain contents contrary to increased glutathione (GSH) content. Moreover, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase content and cleaved caspase-3 activity were reduced together with a marked decrement in amyloid plaques number and phosphorylated tau expression via PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β pathway modulation, leading to obvious enhancement in neuronal survival and cognition. Therefore, MX-IV is deemed as a prosperous nominee for AD management with obvious neuro-protective effects that were comparable to the standard drug donepezil.

extracts

Background and Aim:

Many plants contain bioactive substances with antibacterial and antifungal properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial and antifungal activity of Cocos nucifera shell liquid smoke (CSL), clove leaf extract (CLE), and mangosteen pericarp extract (MPE) alone and in combination against Escherichia coli and Candida utilis. The antioxidant activity, phenol, saponin, and tannin of CSL, CLE, MPE, and Phyllanthus niruri L. extract were also measured.

Materials and Methods:

The agar well-diffusion method was used to determine the antimicrobial and antifungal activities of CSL, methanolic MPE, and CLE and their combination CSL+MPE+CLE (COMBI) on bacteria E. coli and fungus (C. utilis). Antioxidant activity was measured by the diphenylpicrylhydrazyl method. Total phenol and total tannin were measured by the Folin–Ciocalteu method and total saponin was measured by the vanillin-sulphate method.

Results:

The results indicated that phenolic and tannin levels were greater in MPE than in CLE, whereas the saponin content was higher in CLE compared with MPE. Undiluted (100%) MPE exhibited lower antibacterial activity (p<0.05) than chloramphenicol against E. coli, however, undiluted CLE and COMBI showed similar activity compared with chloramphenicol against E. coli. COMBI caused significantly (p<0.05) higher inhibition compared with virginiamycin against E. coli. CSL, MPE, and COMBI exhibited significantly lower antifungal activity (p<0.05) than that of ketoconazole against C. utilis. In contrast, CLE showed improved antifungal activity (p<0.05) compared with ketoconazole.

Conclusion:

Cocos nucifera liquid smoke, Garcinia mangostana pericarp extract, and Syzygium aromaticum leaf extract, either alone or in combination, have the potential to be used as antibacterial and antifungal agents.

Mangosteen xanthone γ-mangostin exerts lowering blood glucose effect with potentiating insulin sensitivity through the mediation of AMPK/PPARγ

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is concomitant with significant morbidity and mortality and its prevalence is accumulative in worldwide. The conventional antidiabetic agents are known to mitigate the symptoms of diabetes; however, they may also cause side and adverse effects. There is an imperative necessity to conduct preclinical and clinical trials for the discovery of alternative therapeutic agents that can overcome the drawbacks of current synthetic antidiabetic drugs. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of lowering blood glucose and underlined mechanism of γ-mangostin, mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) xanthones. The results showed γ-Mangostin had a antihyperglycemic ability in short (2 h)- and long-term (28 days) administrations to diet-induced diabetic mice. The long-term administration of γ-mangostin attenuated fasting blood glucose of diabetic mice and exhibited no hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Moreover, AMPK, PPARγ, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase were found to be the potential targets for simulating binds with γ-mangostin after molecular docking. To validate the docking results, the inhibitory potency of γ-mangostin againstα-amylase/α-glucosidase was higher than Acarbose via enzymatic assay. Interestingly, an allosteric relationship between γ-mangostin and insulin was also found in the glucose uptake of VSMC, FL83B, C2C12, and 3T3-L1 cells. Taken together, the results showed that γ-mangostin exerts anti-hyperglycemic activity through promoting glucose uptake and reducing saccharide digestion by inhibition of α-amylase/α-glucosidase with insulin sensitization, suggesting that γ-mangostin could be a new clue for drug discovery and development to treat diabetes.

Green Synthesis of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles Stabilized by a Garcinia mangostana Fruit Peel Extract for Hyperthermia and Anticancer Activities

INTRODUCTION

Fe3O4 nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs) with multiple functionalities are intriguing candidates for various biomedical applications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study introduced a simple and green synthesis of Fe3O4 NPs using a low-cost stabilizer of plant waste extract rich in polyphenols content with a well-known antioxidant property as well as anticancer ability to eliminate colon cancer cells. Herein, Fe3O4 NPs were fabricated via a facile co-precipitation method using the crude extract of Garcinia mangostana fruit peel as a green stabilizer at different weight percentages (1, 2, 5, and 10 wt.%). The samples were analyzed for magnetic hyperthermia and then in vitro cytotoxicity assay was performed.

RESULTS

The XRD planes of the samples were corresponding to the standard magnetite Fe3O4 with high crystallinity. From TEM analysis, the green synthesized NPs were spherical with an average size of 13.42±1.58 nm and displayed diffraction rings of the Fe3O4 phase, which was in good agreement with the obtained XRD results. FESEM images showed that the extract covered the surface of the Fe3O4 NPs well. The magnetization values for the magnetite samples were ranging from 49.80 emu/g to 69.42 emu/g. FTIR analysis verified the functional groups of the extract compounds and their interactions with the NPs. Based on DLS results, the hydrodynamic sizes of the Fe3O4 nanofluids were below 177 nm. Furthermore, the nanofluids indicated the zeta potential values up to -34.92±1.26 mV and remained stable during four weeks of storage, showing that the extract favorably improved the colloidal stability of the Fe3O4 NPs. In the hyperthermia experiment, the magnetic nanofluids showed the acceptable specific absorption rate (SAR) values and thermosensitive performances under exposure of various alternating magnetic fields. From results of in vitro cytotoxicity assay, the killing effects of the synthesized samples against HCT116 colon cancer cells were mostly higher compared to those against CCD112 colon normal cells. Remarkably, the Fe3O4 NPs containing 10 wt.% of the extract showed a lower IC50 value (99.80 µg/mL) in HCT116 colon cancer cell line than in CCD112 colon normal cell line (140.80 µg/mL).

DISCUSSION

This research, therefore, introduced a new stabilizer of Garcinia mangostana fruit peel extract for the biosynthesis of Fe3O4 NPs with desirable physiochemical properties for potential magnetic hyperthermia and colon cancer treatment.

Garcinoxanthones SV, new xanthone derivatives from the pericarps of Garcinia mangostana together with their cytotoxic and antioxidant activities

Xanthones (9H-xanthene-9-ones) are considered to be very promising compounds due to a variety of interesting biological and pharmacological activities. In this study, column chromatography of the methanol extract of the Garcinia mangostana L. pericarps resulted in the isolation of four new xanthones (garcinoxanthones SV, 1-4) and five known analogs including garcinone E (5), 11-hydroxy-1-isomangostin (6) mangostenone E (7), 1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone (8), and α-mangostin (9). The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by NMR, HRESIMS, and ECD spectra. Compound 8 (1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone) was found from the G. mangostana pericarps for the first time. All the isolated compounds (1-8) were evaluated for their 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging capacity and cytotoxicity in vitro against three human cancer cell lines including SK-LU-1, MCF7, and HT-29 cell lines. Compounds 3, 5, and 8 exhibited significant DPPH scavenging capacity with IC₅₀ values of 68.55, 63.05, and 28.45 μM, respectively, in comparison with ascorbic acid (IC₅₀ = 48.03 μM). Compounds 5 and 8 showed moderate cytotoxic effects against the three human cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ value ranges of 19.86-27.38 μM.

LC-QTOF-MS analysis of xanthone content in different parts of Garcinia mangostana and its influence on cholinesterase inhibition

Mangosteen is one of the best tasting tropical fruit widely cultivated in Southeast Asia. This study aimed to quantify xanthone content in different parts of Garcinia mangostana by LC-QTOF-MS and determine its influence on their cholinesterase inhibitory activities. The total xanthone content in G. mangostana was in the following order: pericarp > calyx > bark > stalk > stem > leaves > aril. The total xanthone content of pericarp was 100 times higher than the aril. Methanol extracts of the pericarp and calyx demonstrated the most potent inhibitory activities against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) with IC₅₀ values of 0.90 and 0.37 µg/mL, respectively. Statistical analysis showed a strong correlation between xanthone content and cholinesterase inhibition. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling analysis revealed α-mangostin and γ-mangostin of pericarp as the key metabolites contributing to cholinesterase inhibition. Due to the increasing demand of mangosteen products, repurposing of fruit waste (pericarp) has great potential for enhancement of the cognitive health of human beings.

Effects of alpha-mangostin on memory senescence induced by high glucose in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Objective(s):

Hyperglycemia induces cellular senescence in various body cells, such as vascular endothelial cells. Since the vessels are highly distributed in the body and nourish all tissues, vascular damages cause diabetes complications such as kidney failure and visual impairment. Alpha-mangostin is a xanthone found in mangosteen fruit with protective effects in metabolic syndrome and diabetes. This paper has investigated the protective effect of this xanthone against high glucose-induced memory senescence in human vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) in the presence of metformin, as a positive control.

Materials and Methods:

To induce the memory senescence model, HUVECs, after three days incubation with high glucose, were incubated with normal glucose for another three days, and for whole six days, cells were treated with metformin (50 µM) or alpha-mangostin (1.25 µM). On the last day, cell viability by MTT assay, oxidative stress by fluorimetric assay, the number of senescent cells by SA beta-galactosidase staining kit, and secretory interleukin-6 by ELISA kit were measured. SIRT1 and P53 proteins were also evaluated by Western blotting.

Results:

Metformin and alpha-mangostin significantly increased cell viability, decreased reactive oxygen species, and senescence-associated beta-galactosidase in HUVECs incubated in metabolic memory condition. Generally, metabolic memory increased p53 and acetyl-P53 and decreased SIRT1 proteins in HUVECs, which were reversed by alpha-mangostin and metformin.

Conclusion:

These data exhibit that alpha-mangostin, comparable to metformin, protects endothelial cells against metabolic memory-induced senescence, which is likely via SIRT1.

Catechol-Functionalized Alginate Nanoparticles as Mucoadhesive Carriers for Intravesical Chemotherapy

This research aimed to synthesize and evaluate mucoadhesive catechol-functionalized alginate (Cat-Alg) nanoparticles (NPs) for bladder cancer. Cat-Alg was synthesized using coupling chemistry, and the structure was verified using NMR and FT-IR. Cat-Alg NPs were generated by ionic gelation between the synthesized Cat-Alg and calcium chloride. Garcinia mangostana L. extract (GM extract) was entrapped into the NPs during particle formation. The physical characteristics, mucoadhesive properties, drug loading and release, cellular uptake, and anticancer activity of the GM extract-loaded NPs were investigated. The Cat-Alg NPs were spherical with sizes in the range of 155-186 nm. The slightly negative surface charge of the NPs provided them with excellent stability. The Cat-Alg NPs could be retained on a porcine bladder mucosa to a greater extent compared with unmodified Alg NPs. High loading efficiency (71.6%) and loading capacity (292 μg/mg) of GM extract in the NPs were achieved, and a constant release of GM extract was obtained for up to 8 h with zero-order kinetics. Moreover, the GM extract-loaded NPs were deposited in bladder tissue and accumulated in MB49 cells at a higher rate compared with GM extract suspension. In addition, the NPs could kill a mouse urothelial carcinoma cell line with low IC₅₀. Therefore, these NPs have the potential to be a mucoadhesive drug delivery system for bladder cancer treatment. However, additional in vivo investigations are needed for clinical application in cancer treatment. Graphical abstract.

Inhibition of CDK2/CyclinE1 by xanthones from the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana): a structure-activity relationship study

Uncontrolled regulation of cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) has negative implications in many cancers and malignancies and has recently led to the approval of select CDK inhibitors. Herein we present data reporting that xanthones, a class of compounds isolated from the purple mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) fruit, can inhibit CDK2/CyclinE1. We evaluated nine different xanthones, including α-mangostin, β-mangostin, γ-mangostin, gartanin, 8-desoxygartanin, garcinone C, garcinone D, 9-hydroxycalabaxanthone, and 3-isomangostin for toxicity in 22Rν1 (prostate cancer cells) and MDA-MB-231 (breast cancer cells). All compounds dose-dependently inhibited the viability of both cell lines. A cell free biochemical assay was performed to determine if selected phytochemicals inhibited CDK2/CyclinE1. γ-Mangostin and α-mangostin were the strongest inhibitors, respectively. The results suggest that the position of key functional groups including hydroxyl and isoprenyl groups contribute to the CDK2 inhibitory effect. Taken together, the evidence suggests that xanthones can directly target CDK2 providing a possible explanation for their therapeutic potential.

Nanoparticle Drug Delivery Systems for α-Mangostin

α-Mangostin, a xanthone derivative from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana L., has numerous bioactivities and pharmacological properties. However, α-mangostin has low aqueous solubility and poor target selectivity in the human body. Recently, nanoparticle drug delivery systems have become an excellent technique to improve the physicochemical properties and effectiveness of drugs. Therefore, many efforts have been made to overcome the limitations of α-mangostin through nanoparticle formulations. Our review aimed to summarise and discuss the nanoparticle drug delivery systems for α-mangostin from published papers recorded in Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar. We examined various types of nanoparticles for α-mangostin to enhance water solubility, provide controlled release and create targeted delivery systems. These forms include polymeric nanoparticles, nanomicelles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanofibers and nanoemulsions. Notably, nanomicelle modification increased α-mangostin solubility increased more than 10,000 fold. Additionally, polymeric nanoparticles provided targeted delivery and significantly enhanced the biodistribution of α-mangostin into specific organs. In conclusion, the nanoparticle drug delivery system could be a promising technique to increase the solubility, selectivity and efficacy of α-mangostin as a new drug candidate in clinical therapy.

Short-Time Administration of Xanthone From Garcinia mangostana Fruit Pericarp Attenuates the Hepatotoxicity and Renotoxicity of Type II Diabetes Mice

Objective: Our previous studies reported that xanthone can protect from hyperglycemia-induced diabetes mellitus (DM) via possessing antioxidant activity. An attempt has been made to evaluate the protective effect of xanthone against hepatotoxicity and renotoxicity of high-fat-diet and single-dose-streptozotocin-induced DM mice.Method: In this research, in vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic assays were performed. In vivo oral glucose and maltose tolerance test, metabolic parameters, plasma biochemical markers, oxidative status, etc. were evaluated in experimental mice. In addition, liver/kidney tissue histology and kidney apoptosis were observed using hematoxylin and eosin staining and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assays, respectively.Results: Xanthone exhibited potent in vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic activity. Xanthone treatments to diabetic mice significantly (p < 0.05) improved the biochemical and antioxidant parameters compared to that of the control group. Moreover, xanthone treatments also significantly (p < 0.05) reformed the liver and kidney histological alterations as well as reduced the cellular apoptosis of kidney tissue.Conclusions: All findings together concluded that xanthone could be a dietary supplement for the patient with diabetic complications.

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) flesh supplementation attenuates biochemical and morphological changes in the liver and kidney of high fat diet-induced obese rats

Background

Mangosteen is a native fruit from Southeast Asia. It is rich in phenolic compounds such as xanthones, anthocyanins and phenolic acids. Mangosteen pericarp extract showed inhibitory activity towards pancreatic lipase and may have potential use for obesity treatment. However, there is limited study on the beneficial effects of mangosteen flesh against obesity. This study aimed to investigate the effects of Garcinia mangostana flesh (GMF) on biochemical and morphological changes in the liver and kidney of high-fat diet-induced obese rats.

Methods

Forty healthy Sprague-Dawley rats were randomised into five groups (n = 8) with four groups were fed with high-fat diet (HFD) for 10 weeks and a control group was fed with rat chow diet. Supplementation with GMF in obese rats was continued for 7 weeks starting from week 10th after the initiation of HFD at different doses (200 mg/kg, 400 mg/kg and 600 mg/kg). The positive and negative control rats were given distilled water via oral gavage. Plasma lipid profile, antioxidant enzymes and pro-inflammatory markers were determined using commercial kits. Liver and kidney structure were defined by histology.

Results

The rats fed with HFD for 10 weeks increased plasma LDL-cholesterol, reduced plasma glutathione peroxidase level and had significantly higher body weight compared to normal control rats (p < 0.05). Obese rats also showed elevated level of TNF-α and IL-6 after 17 weeks of HFD. Supplementation with GMF for 7 weeks in obese rats reduced their body weight, improved lipid profile, increased total antioxidant capacity and glutathione peroxidase level and lowered plasma pro-inflammatory markers (TNF-α and IL-6) (p < 0.05). In addition, GMF supplementation attenuated the abnormalities of the liver and kidney tissue caused by high fat diet.

Conclusion

Taken together, the findings suggest that supplementation of Garcinia mangostana flesh may help in reducing body weight and has the potential to ameliorate the biochemical changes of the high fat diet-induced obesity in rats. Further studies on pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic are required before the results are translated to human.

Mangostanaxanthone VII, a new cytotoxic xanthone from Garcinia mangostana

Garcinia mangostana L. (the queen of fruits, mangosteen, family Guttiferae) is a wealthy source of xanthones. The CHCl3 soluble fraction of the air-dried pericarps of G. mangostana provided a new xanthone: mangostanaxanthone VII (5), along with four known xanthones: mangostanaxanthones I (1) and II (2), gartanin (3) and γ-mangostin (4). The structural verification of these metabolites was achieved by different spectral techniques, including UV, IR, 1D and 2D NMR and HRESIMS. The new metabolite was assessed for cytotoxic potential, using sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay towards the A549 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines. Moreover, its antimicrobial effects were evaluated against various bacterial and fungal strains, using agar disc diffusion assay. Mangostanaxanthone VII showed moderate cytotoxic activity against the A549 and MCF7 cell lines with IC50s 26.1 and 34.8 μM, respectively, compared with doxorubicin (0.74 and 0.41 μM, respectively).

A metabolomics-based approach for the evaluation of off-tree ripening conditions and different postharvest treatments in mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana)

INTRODUCTION

Metabolomics is an important tool to support postharvest fruit development and ripening studies. Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is a tropical fruit with high market value but has short shelf-life during postharvest handling. Several postharvest technologies have been applied to maintain mangosteen fruit quality during storage. However, there is no study to evaluate the metabolite changes that occur in different harvesting and ripening condition. Additionally, the effect of postharvest treatment using a metabolomics approach has never been studied in mangosteen.

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this study were to evaluate the metabolic changes between different harvesting and ripening condition and to evaluate the effect of postharvest treatment in mangosteen.

METHODS

Mangosteen ripening stage were collected with several different conditions ("natural on-tree", "random on-tree" and "off-tree"). The metabolite changes were investigated for each ripening condition. Additionally, mangosteen fruit was harvested in stage 2 and was treated with several different treatments (storage at low temperature (LT; 12.3 ± 1.4 °C) and stress inducer treatment (methyl jasmonate and salicylic acid) in comparison with control treatment (normal temperature storage) and the metabolite changes were monitored over the course of 10 days after treatment. The metabolome data obtained from gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry were analyzed by multivariate analysis, including hierarchical clustering analysis, principal component analysis, and partial to latent squares analysis.

RESULTS

"On-tree" ripening condition showed the progression of ripening process in accordance with the accumulation of some aroma precursor metabolites in the flesh part and pectin breakdown in the peel part. Interestingly, similar trend was found in the "off-tree" ripening condition although the progression of ripening process observed through color changes occurred much faster compared to "on-tree" ripening. Additionally, low-temperature treatment is shown as the most effective treatment to prolong mangosteen shelf-life among all postharvest treatments tested in this study compared to control treatment. After postharvest treatment, a total of 71 and 65 metabolites were annotated in peel and flesh part of mangosteen, respectively. Several contributed metabolites (xylose, galactose, galacturonic acid, glucuronate, glycine, and rhamnose) were decreased after treatment in the peel part. However, low-temperature treatment did not show any significant differences compared to a room temperature treatment in the flesh part.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings clearly indicate that there is a similar trend of metabolic changes between on-tree and off-tree ripening conditions. Additionally, postharvest treatment directly or indirectly influences many metabolic processes (cell-wall degrading process, sweet-acidic taste quality) during postharvest treatment.

Mangosteen Vinegar Rind from Garcinia mangostana Prevents High-Fat Diet and Streptozotocin-Induced Type II Diabetes Nephropathy and Apoptosis

Type II diabetes (T2D) nephropathy, a major cause of end-stage kidney disease, progresses and develops from oxidative stress. Natural polyphenols can protect the kidney from diabetic nephropathy exerting antioxidant activities. The present approach enumerates the reno-protective and anti-apoptotic effects of mangosteen vinegar rind (MVR, a phenolic aqueous extract) against high-fat diet (5 g/day up to five weeks)-/streptozotocin (single ip, dose 30 mg/kgBW)-induced T2D nephropathy of albino mice. In vitro total phenolic content, 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) activity, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) antioxidant capacity, and α-amylase inhibition activity as antidiabetic assay of MVR were performed. In vivo mice body weight, oral glucose, and maltose tolerance test, metabolic parameters (plasma glucose, insulin level, omeostasis model assessment-estimated insulin resistance), biochemical parameters (kidney hypertrophy, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine), oxidative stress parameters (malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, catalase) were estimated in an intervention study. Additionally, renal morphology and early apoptosis were observed following the H & E staining and TUNEL assay of the tissue frozen section. We found that the aqueous extract of MVR possesses potent in vitro antioxidative and antidiabetic activities. Animal intervention results showed that MVR 100, 200 mg/kgBW, and Glibenclamide 60 mg/kgBW treatments significantly improved (P < 0.05) the abovementioned parameters compared to the diabetic control group. Furthermore, treatments also significantly restored (P < 0.05) kidney histological alterations and reduced cellular apoptosis compared to the diabetic control group. These findings concluded that MVR treatments significantly modulated the glucose intolerance, metabolic alterations, and oxidative stress-induced pathological alterations and cellular apoptosis of diabetic kidney. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Garcinia mangostana, a polyphenol rich natural product, is obtained from the tropical rain forest area of Southeast Asian countries and processes diverse biological activities including antioxidant, anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, and so on. This research first time focuses on the nephro-protective and anti-apoptotic effects of mangosteen vinegar rind (MVR) from the mangosteen fruit pericarp. Our study provides the efficient data to prove the beneficial effect of MVR as a dietary supplement for the prevention and management of diabetic nephropathy.

α-Amylase inhibition of xanthones from Garcinia mangostana pericarps and their possible use for the treatment of diabetes with molecular docking studies

Chromatographic separation of the methanol extract of Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen, Guttiferae) dried pericarps led to the isolation and structural characterization of a new xanthone, namely garcimangostin A (5), together with garcixanthone A (1), gartanin (2), normangostin (3), and garcinone C (4). Their structural characterization was achieved using various NMR spectroscopic tools as well as HRMS. Their α-amylase inhibitory (AAI) potential was assessed. It is noteworthy that 5 had the most potent inhibitory effect with % inhibition 94.1 compared to acarbose (96.7%). Moreover, the molecular modeling studies were estimated. The observed scoring results correlated to those results of the AAI assay. Interestingly, 5 was completely fitting with acarbose structure and a superimposition of acarbose complexed structure with 5 in the enzyme binding site was observed. The AAI activity of 5 could be attributed to the xanthone moiety insertion in the active site of the enzyme via H-bonds network and pi-pi interactions. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Garcinia mangostana is a widely consumed fruit for its unique pleasant aroma and sweet taste. Also, it contains valuable nutritious compounds that are advantageous for human body. It is used as various traditional medicines for treating several ailments such as skin infection, hyperkeratosis, eczema, wounds, psoriasis, amebic dysentery, cholera, diarrhea, and suppuration. The findings of this work can demonstrate the significant AAI potential of G. mangostana xanthones. Therefore, mangosteen as a functional food could help in lowering the postprandial glucose absorption and identifying lead compounds from α-amylase inhibition for the treatment and/or prevention of diabetes and obesity.

Green synthesis and characterization of bioinspired silver, gold and platinum nanoparticles and evaluation of their synergistic antibacterial activity after combining with different classes of antibiotics

A facile one step green synthesis of silver (AgNP), gold (AuNP) and platinum (PtNP) nanoparticles has been attempted using the rind extract of the fruit of Garcinia mangostana L. The rind of the fruit is enriched with wide varieties of natural resources which could be conveniently exploited as alternative for synthesis of nanoparticles eliminating the need for hazardous chemical methods. The formation of gold nanoparticles occurred at room temperature within a few seconds while the formation of silver and platinum nanoparticles was obtained after heating the solution for 20 min at 80 °C. Parameters such as contact time, temperature and pH were optimized to obtain the precise nanoparticles. The green synthesized nanoparticles were characterized using several state-of-the-art techniques like UV-Vis spectroscopic, FT-IR, HR-SEM and HR-TEM, XRD analyses and zeta potential measurements. Attempt has also been made to evaluate the antibacterial activity of the metal nanoparticles before and after combining with commercially used antibiotics as well as free antibiotics against human pathogenic bacteria. The bare silver nanoparticles (AgNP) showed relatively higher antibacterial activity than AuNP and PtNP and this activity was found to be more pronounced against gram negative bacteria than gram positive ones. Interestingly, all the three metal nanoparticles combined with antibiotics showed enhanced antibacterial activity against the pathogenic bacteria which suggested synergism between the nanoparticles and antibiotics. The high point of the present investigation has been that the Bacillus sp. which is highly resistant to streptomycin becomes highly susceptible to the same antibiotic when combined with gold nanoparticles. This particular observation opens up windows for the treatment of antibiotic resistant bacteria after combining with different nanoparticles under clinical set up.

Combined extracts of Garcinia mangostana fruit rind and Cinnamomum tamala leaf supplementation enhances muscle strength and endurance in resistance trained males

Background

A proprietary composition GMCT contains extracts of two popular Asian herbs viz., Garcinia mangostana (GM) fruit rind and Cinnamomum tamala (CT) leaf. We systematically evaluated physical performance and muscle strength enhancing ability of GMCT in a preclinical mouse model followed by a 42-days double-blind placebo controlled human trial in resistance trained adult males.

Methods

Four groups of Swiss albino mice (20–30 g body weight) (n = 6) were fed a standard laboratory diet and given Carboxymethylcellulose sodium (CMC), 150 mg/kg GMCT (GMCT-150), 300 mg/kg GMCT (GMCT-300) or 50 mg/kg Oxymetholone (OXY) via oral gavage for 21 days. On day 22, the animals’ physical performance and muscle strength were assessed in a forced swimming test (FST) and forelimb grip strength experiment, respectively.

In the human trial, thirty-eight resistance-trained young adults (mean age 26.32 ± 4.39 years, body weight 67.79 ± 12.84 kg, BMI 22.92 ± 3.54 kg/m²) completed the trial. The participants received either GMCT (n = 19; 800 mg daily) or matched placebo (n = 19) for 42 days. As primary variables, 1-RM bench press, 1-RM leg press, and leg extension repetitions were measured at baseline and on days 14, 28 and 42 of the intervention. Anthropometric parameters and serum markers such as free testosterone, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), insulin and lactate were also measured before and after the intervention.

Results

GMCT-300 mice showed significant improvement in swimming time (GMCT: 395.3 ± 81.70 s vs. CMC: 271.6 ± 56.86 s; p = 0.0166), distance (GMCT: 341.22 ± 65.88 m vs. CMC: 260.84 ± 49.15 m; p = 0.0461) and grip strength (GMCT: 43.92 ± 6.97 N vs. CMC: 35.0 ± 6.92 N; p = 0.0490), compared with the CMC group.

At the end of the 42-day human trial, the per protocol analyses reveal that mean changes from baseline 1-RM bench press (GMCT: 23.47 ± 10.07 kg vs. PL: 3.42 ± 2.06 kg; p < 0.0001), leg press (GMCT: 29.32 ± 16.17 kg vs. PL: 5.21 ± 1.72 kg; p < 0.0001), number of leg extension repetitions (GMCT: 6.58 ± 2.57 vs. PL: 2.05 ± 1.22; p < 0.0001) in GMCT group were significantly improved, compared with placebo. Intergroup difference analyses show that the changes from baseline left arm (GMCT: 1.09 ± 0.36 cm vs. PL: 0.68 ± 0.42 cm; p = 0.0023), right arm (GMCT: 1.50 ± 0.44 cm vs. PL: 1.11 ± 0.43 cm; p = 0.0088) circumference and lean mass (GMCT: 2.29 ± 2.09 kg vs. PL: 0.52 ± 2.58 kg; p = 0.0404) in GMCT group were also significantly improved, compared with placebo. In comparison to placebo, GMCT supplementation did not improve free testosterone, IGF-1, insulin or lactate levels. Parameters of clinical biochemistry, hematology, urine and vital signs of the participants were within the normal range.

Conclusion

GMCT supplementation is effective in increasing muscle strength, muscle size and, total lean mass, as well as endurance performance.

Trial Registration.

Clinical Trial Registry of India (CTRI/2015/01/005374), Registered on Jan 07, 2015; CTRI Website URL - http://ctri.nic.in

Mangosteen peel extract (Garcinia mangostana L.) as protective agent in glucose-induced mesangial cell as in vitro model of diabetic glomerulosclerosis

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to evaluate the activity of mangosteen peels extract (MPE) as protection agent on induced-glucose mesangial cells (SV40 MES 13 cell line (Glomerular Mesangial Kidney, Mus Musculus)).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MPE was performed based on maceration method. Cytotoxic assay was performed based on MTS (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium) method, while the level of TGF-β1 (Transforming growth factor-β1) and fibronectin in glucose-induced mesangial cells were assayed and determined using ELISA KIT.

RESULTS

In viability assay, MPE 5 and 20 µg/ml has the highest activity to increase cells proliferation in glucose-induced mesangial cells at 5, 10, and 15 days of incubation in glucose concentration (5 and 25 mM) (P<0.05). In inhibitory activity of TGF-β1 and fibronectin level, MPE 5 µg/ml (glucose-induced 5 mM) show the lowest level compared to positive control and other treatments (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

MPE can increase cell proliferation in glucose-induced mesangial cells and significantly reduce the level of TGF-β1 and fibronectin. MPE activity has correlates to inhibit the diabetic glomerulosclerosis condition and may increase mesangial cell proliferation.

Mangosteen Extract Shows a Potent Insulin Sensitizing Effect in Obese Female Patients: A Prospective Randomized Controlled Pilot Study

There is a widely acknowledged association between insulin resistance and obesity/type 2 diabetes (T2DM), and insulin sensitizing treatments have proved effective in preventing diabetes and inducing weight loss. Obesity and T2DM are also associated with increased inflammation. Mangosteen is a tropical tree, whose fruits—known for their antioxidant properties—have been recently suggested having a possible further role in the treatment of obesity and T2DM. The objective of this pilot study has been to evaluate safety and efficacy of treatment with mangosteen extract on insulin resistance, weight management, and inflammatory status in obese female patients with insulin resistance. Twenty-two patients were randomized 1:1 to behavioral therapy alone or behavioral therapy and mangosteen and 20 completed the 26-week study. The mangosteen group reported a significant improvement in insulin sensitivity (homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance, HOMA-IR −53.22% vs. −15.23%, p = 0.004), and no side effect attributable to treatment was reported. Given the positive preliminary results we report and the excellent safety profile, we suggest a possible supplementary role of mangosteen extracts in the treatment of obesity, insulin resistance, and inflammation.

On Diethylnitrosamine-Induced Hepatic Carcinoma

Background

Garcinia mangostana is extensively used in most of the Indian herbal pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals.

Objective

The objective of this study was to elucidate the underlying biochemical protective mechanism of G. Mangostana Linn. fruit extract (GME) in deterioration of diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced hepatic carcinoma (HCC) in rats.

Materials and Methods

The cancer was induced using DEN to the experimental rats and treated with GME (200, 400, and 600 mg/kg) to find its anticancer property. The cancer biomarkers such as alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), hepatic hydroxyl proline, total tissue protein, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels were measured using ELISA. The vascular endothelial growth factor expressions were also seen in liver tissues using immunohistochemistry.

Results

In addition, there was a significant increase in serum AFP, CEA, hepatic hydroxylproline, and total tissue protein levels in HCC group versus the negative control group. In contrast, the groups with HCC subjected to either high or low dose of GME elicited significant reduction of AFP, CEA, hepatic hydroxylproline, and increase in total protein in serum compared to the untreated HCC rats. Interestingly, treatment with GME elicited marked improvement in the liver histological feature and downregulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels in HCC groups. GME extract may have chemopreventive benefits by reducing the tumor promoting growth factor levels in HCC-induced group.

Conclusion

To sum up, all findings on curative groups had proved clearly that the GME has anticarcinogenic effect on the development of liver cancer induced by DEN in rats.

SUMMARY

Garcinia mangostana Linn. (GME) may have chemopreventive property by reducing the tumor promoting growth factor and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels in diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced hepatic cancerThe suppression in the levels of cancer biomarkers by GME due to the presence of anticancer phytoconstituentsThe histological studies proved the effective dose of GME against DEN-induced experimental hepatic cancer. Abbreviations used: TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, PBS: Phosphate buffered saline, ROS: Reactive oxygen species, DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, GSH: Glutathione, VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor.

against Staphylococcus aureus

OBJECTIVE

To isolate α-mangostin (AMG) from the peels of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.), grown in Vietnam, and to investigate antibiofilm activity of this compound against three Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) strains, one of which was methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and the other two strains were methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA).

METHODS

AMG in n-hexane fraction was isolated on a silica gel column and chemically analyzed by HPLC and NMR. The antibiofilm activity of this compound was investigated by using a 96-well plate model for the formation of biofilms. Biofilm biomass was quantified using crystal violet. The viability of cells was observed under confocal microscopy using LIVE/DEAD BacLight stains. Biofilm composition was determined using specific chemical and enzyme tests for polysaccharide, protein and DNA. Membrane-damaging activity was assayed by measuring the hemolysis of human red blood cells in presence of AMG.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the isolated AMG, with a purity that exceeded 98%, had minimal inhibitory concentrations in the range of 4.6-9.2 μmol/L for the three strains tested. Interestingly, the MSSA strains were more sensitive to AMG than the MRSA strain. Minimal bactericidal concentrations were 2-fold higher than the minimal inhibitory concentration values for the three strains, indicating that AMG was a bactericidal compound. AMG also prevented biofilm formation effectively, albeit that again the MRSA strain was the most resistant. Interestingly, biofilms of the MRSA strain contained protein as a main component of the extracellular matrix, whereas this was polysaccharide in the MSSA strains. This might relate to the resistance of the MRSA 252 strain to AMG. Assays using human red blood cells indicated that AMG caused significant membrane damage with 50% of cell lysis occurred at concentration of about 36 μmol/L.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide evidence that the isolated AMG has inhibitory activity against biofilm formation by S. aureus, including MRSA. Thus, isolated AMG proposes a high potential to develop a novel phytopharmaceutical for the treatment of MRSA.

The complete plastome of tropical fruit Garcinia mangostana (Clusiaceae)

The complete plastome sequence of Garcinia mangostana L. (Clusiaceae) is completed in this study (NCBI acc. no. KX822787). This is a first complete plastome sequence from the Clusiaceae. The complete plastome size is 158,179 bp in length and consists of a large single copy of 86,458 bp and a small single copy of 17,703 bp, separated by two inverted repeats of 27,009 bp. The G. mangostana plastome shows four minor structural modifications including infA gene loss, rpl32 gene loss, ycf3 gene intron loss and a 363 bp inversion between trnV-UAC and atpE gene. The plastome contains 111 genes, of which 77 are protein-coding genes, 30 are tRNA genes and four are rRNA genes. The average A-T content of the plastome is 63.9%. A total of 110 simple sequence loci are identified from the genome. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that G. mangostana is a sister group of Erythroxylum novogranatense (Erythroxylaceae) with 78% bootstrap support.

Metabolic profiling of Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen) based on ripening stages

Metabolomics is an emerging research field based on exhaustive metabolite profiling that have been proven useful to facilitate the study of postharvest fruit development and ripening. Specifically, tracking changes to the metabolome as fruit ripens should provide important clues for understanding ripening mechanisms and identify bio-markers to improve post-harvest technology of fruits. This study conducted a time-course metabolome analysis in mangosteen, an economically important tropical fruit valued for its flavor. Mangosteen is a climacteric fruit that requires an important plant hormone ethylene to regulate ripening processes and rate. We first categorized mangosteen samples in different ripening stages based on color changes, an established indicator of ripening. Using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, small hydrophilic metabolites were profiled from non-ripened to fully ripened (ripening stages 0-6). These metabolites were then correlated with color changes to verify their involvement mangosteen ripening. Our results suggest that the increase of 2-aminoisobutyric acid, psicose, and several amino acids (phenylalanine, valine, isoleucine, serine, and tyrosine) showed a correlation with the progression of mangosteen ripening. This is the first report of the application of non-targeted metabolomics in mangosteen.

Asymmetric dumbbell-shaped silver nanoparticles and spherical gold nanoparticles green-synthesized by mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) pericarp waste extracts

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) pericarp waste extract was used to synthesize gold and silver nanoparticles by a green strategy. The extract was both a reducing and stabilizing agent during synthesis. Phytochemical screening of the extract was conducted to obtain information regarding the presence/absence of primary and secondary metabolites in the extract. The in vitro antioxidant activity results demonstrated that the extract had excellent antioxidant activity, which was comparable to a standard (butylated hydroxy toluene). Spherical gold nanoparticles (gold nanoparticles green synthesized by mangosteen pericarp extract [GM-AuNPs]) with an average size of 15.37±3.99 to 44.20±16.99 nm were observed in high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) images. Most interestingly, the silver nanoparticles (silver nanoparticles green synthesized by mangosteen pericarp extract [GM-AgNPs]) had asymmetric nanodumbbell shapes where one tail grew from a spherical head. The average head size was measured to be 13.65±5.07 to 31.08±3.99 nm from HR-TEM images. The hydrodynamic size of both nanoparticles tended to increase with increasing extract concentration. Large negative zeta potentials (−18.92 to −34.77 mV) suggested that each nanoparticle solution possessed excellent colloidal stability. The reaction yields were 99.7% for GM-AuNPs and 82.8% for GM-AgNPs, which were assessed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. A high-resolution X-ray diffraction pattern confirmed the face-centered cubic structure of both nanoparticles. Based on phytochemical screening and Fourier transform infrared spectra, the hydroxyl functional groups of carbohydrates, flavonoids, glycosides, and phenolic compounds were most likely involved in a reduction reaction of gold or silver salts to their corresponding nanoparticles. The in vitro cytotoxicity (based on a water-soluble tetrazolium assay) demonstrated that GM-AgNPs were toxic to both A549 (a human lung cancer cell) and NIH3T3 (a mouse fibroblast cell). The cytotoxicity of GM-AgNPs on A549 cells was related to apoptotic cell death. However, GM-AuNPs did not show any significant cytotoxicity to either cell. These results suggest that GM-AuNPs have the potential to be drug delivery vehicles or carriers for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications.

RNA-seq assembly and analysis of Garcinia mangostana transcriptome during seed germination

Garcinia mangostana is a tropical fruit plant rich in antioxidant and bears recalcitrant seeds. The extent of water loss and low temperature tolerable by recalcitrant seed varies from regular orthodox seeds. Present study generates transcriptome resources for G. mangostana to postulate potential transcriptome differences between recalcitrant and orthodox seeds during seed germination process. Raw reads of pooled samples used for the assembly have been deposited in genbank accession SRR5412332.

Against Pancreatic Cholesterol Esterase Activity: An In Silico Approach

Hypercholesterolemia is one of the major risk factors for the development and progression of atherosclerosis. Hence, inhibitors of cholesterol absorption have been investigated for decades as a strategy to prevent and treat cardiovascular diseases associated with hypercholesterolemia. Cholesterol esterase (CEase) in pancreatic juice plays a vital role in the hydrolysis of dietary cholesterol esters to cholesterol and fatty acids. Since inhibition of CEase might lead to a reduction of cholesterol absorption, an attempt is made in this study to identify lead molecules of Garcinia mangostana by the in silico approach. The study employed software applications viz., AutoDock 4.2 and GOLD Suite of Programs 5.2. The study revealed the efficacy of three compounds viz., epicatechin, euxanthone, and 1,3,5,6-tetrahydroxy-xanthone, which exhibited least binding energy in AutoDock and moderate scoring in GOLD. The molecular properties as well as biological activity of these three compounds were predicted by molinspiration prediction tool. The results show the crucial role of polyphenolic compounds to limit the activity of CEase. The drug-likeness prediction revealed the prospects of the identified lead molecules as potential drug candidates.