Tricholoma matsutake polysaccharides suppress excessive melanogenesis via JNK-mediated pathway: Investigation in 8- methoxypsoralen induced B16-F10 melanoma cells and clinical study

Skin hyperpigmentation is a worldwide condition associated with augmented melanogenesis. However, conventional therapies often entail various adverse effects. Here, we explore the safety range and depigmentary effects of polysaccharides extract of Tricholoma matsutake (PETM) in an in vitro model and further evaluated its efficacy at the clinical level. An induced-melanogenesis model was established by treating B16-F10 melanoma cells with 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP). Effects of PETM on cell viability and melanin content were examined and compared to a commonly used depigmentary agent, α-arbutin. Expressions of key melanogenic factors and upstream signaling pathway were analysed by quantitative PCR and western blot. Moreover, a placebo-controlled clinical study involving Chinese females with skin hyperpigmentation was conducted to measure the efficacy of PETM on improving facial pigmented spots, melanin index, and individual typology angle (ITA°). Results demonstrated that PETM (up to 0.5 mg/mL) had little effect on the viability and motility of B16-F10 cells. Notably, it significantly suppressed the melanin content and expressions of key melanogenic factors induced by 8-MOP in B16-F10 melanoma cells. Western blotting results revealed that PETM inhibited melanogenesis by inactivating c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and this inhibitory role could be rescued by JNK agonist treatment. Clinical findings showed that PETM treatment resulted in a significant reduction of facial hyperpigmented spot, decreased melanin index, and improved ITA° value compared to the placebo-control group. In conclusion, these in vitro and clinical evidence demonstrated the safety and depigmentary efficacy of PETM, a novel polysaccharide agent. The distinct mechanism of action of PETM on melanogenic signaling pathway positions it as a promising agent for developing alternative therapies.

Effect of Antibacterial Peptide Microsphere Coating on the Microbial and Physicochemical Characteristics of Tricholoma matsutake during Cold Storage

The effect of novel antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and antimicrobial peptide microspheres (AMS) on the physicochemical and microbial quality of Tricholoma matsutake wild edible mushrooms was investigated. In the experiments, 1.0 g/L, 0.5 g/L of AMS, and 1.0 g/L AMPs were used as preservatives. Mushrooms coated with 1.0 g/L and 0.5 g/L of AMS as a preservative had better physicochemical and sensory qualities than did mushrooms coated with 1.0 g/L of AMPs. In the experiment, 1.0 g/L of blank microspheres without cathelicidin-BF-30 (PLGA-1.0) and distilled water was used as the control. Samples with these two treatments had minimal changes in texture, weight loss, total bacteria count, and sensory attributes. Research results suggests that the use of AMS can maintain the quality of Tricholoma matsutake wild edible mushrooms and could extend the postharvest life to 20 d.

Tricholoma matsutake-Derived Peptides Ameliorate Inflammation and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in RAW264.7 Macrophages by Modulating the NF-κB/COX-2 Pathway

Tricholoma matsutake is an edible fungus that contains various bioactive substances, some of them with immunostimulatory properties. Presently, there is limited knowledge about the functional components of T. matsutake. Our aim was to evaluate the protective effects and molecular mechanisms of two T. matsutake-derived peptides, SDLKHFPF and SDIKHFPF, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation in RAW264.7 macrophages. Tricholoma matsutake peptides significantly ameliorated the production of inflammatory cytokines and inhibited the expression of COX-2, iNOS, IKKβ, p-IκB-α, and p-NF-κB. Immunofluorescence assays confirmed the inhibitory effect of T. matsutake peptides on NF-κB/p65 nuclear translocation. Furthermore, the treatment with T. matsutake peptides prevented the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, increased the Bcl-2/Bax ratio, reversed the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and rescued abnormalities in cellular energy metabolism. These findings indicate that T. matsutake peptides can effectively inhibit the activation of NF-κB/COX-2 and may confer an overall protective effect against LPS-induced cell damage.

Fungal Interactions Matter: Tricholoma matsutake Domination Affect Fungal Diversity and Function in Mountain Forest Soils

Tricholoma matsutake forms a symbiotic association with coniferous trees, developing mycelial aggregations, called 'shiro', which are characterized by distinct chemical and physical properties from nearby forest bulk soil. The fungal diversity living in shiro soil play key roles in nutrient cycles for this economically important mushroom, but have not been profiled across large spatial and environmental gradients. Samples of shiro and non-shiro (nearby bulk soil) were taken from five field sites where sporocarps naturally formed. Phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) and Illumina MiSeq sequencing were combined to identify fungal biomass and community structure. Matsutake dominated in the shiro, which had a significantly reduced saprotrophic fungi biomass compared to non-shiro soil. Fungal diversity was negatively correlated with the relative abundance of T. matsutake in the shiro soil. The fungal community in the shiro was characterized by similar fungal species composition in most samples regardless of forest types. Matsutake coexisted with a specific fungal community due to competition or nutrient interactions. Oidiodendron was positively correlated with the abundance of T. matsutake, commonly cohabitant in the shiro. In contrast, Helotiales and Mortierella were negatively correlated with T. matsutake, both of which commonly inhabit the non-shiro soil but do not occur in shiro soils. We conclude that T. matsutake generate a dominance effect to shape the fungal community and diversity in shiro soil across distinctive forest types.

Structure, Antioxidant Activity and In Vitro Hypoglycemic Activity of a Polysaccharide Purified from Tricholoma matsutake

The structure, antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic activity in vitro of a novel homogeneous polysaccharide from Tricholoma matsutake (Tmp) were investigated. Structural features suggested that Tmp was consisted of arabinose (Ara), mannose (Man), glucose (Glc) and galactose (Gal) with a molar ratio of 1.9:13.6:42.7:28.3, respectively, with a molecular weight of 72.14 kDa. The structural chain of Tmp was confirmed to contain →2,5)-α-l-Arabinofuranose (Araf)-(1→, →3,5)-α-l-Araf-(1→, β-d-Glucopyranose (Glcp)-(1→, α-d-Mannopyranose (Manp)-(1→, α-d-Galacopyranose (Galp)-(1→, →4)-β-d-Galp-(1→, →3)-β-d-Glcp-(1→, →3)-α-d-Manp-(1→, →6)-3-O-Methyl (Me)-α-d-Manp-(1→, →6)-α-d-Galp-(1→, →3,6)-β-d-Glcp-(1→, →6)-α-d-Manp-(1→ residues. Furthermore, Tmp possessed strong antioxidant activity and showed the strong inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase and α-amylase activities. Then, a further evaluation found that there was a dramatic improvement in the glucose consumption, glycogen synthesis and the activities of pyruvate kinase and hexokinase when the insulin-resistant-human hepatoma cell line (IR-HepG2) was treated with Tmp. The above results indicated that Tmp had good hypoglycemic activity and also exhibited great potentials in in terms of dealing with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Climatic ecological suitability and potential distribution of Tricholoma matsutake in western Sichuan Plateau, China based on MaxEnt model

Based on the distribution data of Tricholoma matsutake obtained from field investigation and literature, the ecological-niche factor analysis (ENFA) and the maximum entropy model (MaxEnt) were used to simulate the distribution law and suitable area of T. matsutake in the western Sichuan Plateau. The prediction was made for the future changes in the suitable area of T. matsutake by analyzing the relationship between climate factors and dynamic distribution. The results showed that the area under curve (AUC) values of both the model training set and validation set were greater than 0.90, indicating that the model prediction results were extremely accurate. The environmental variables affecting the potential distribution of T. matsutake were mainly the lowest temperature in the coldest month, the coldest season precipitation, annual temperature difference and soil type, with accumulative contribution of 90.3%. The niche parameters of suitable distribution areas of T. matsutake were as follows: the lowest temperature in the coldest month was -18.5--5.4 ℃, the coldest season precipitation was less than 15.7 mm, the annual temperature difference was 39.5-45 ℃, and soil type was semi-leached soil, including dry red soil, cinnamon soil, gray cinnamon soil, black soil and grey forest soil. The suitable areas of T. matsutake were distributed in the southwest, south, central and east of the plateau at an altitude range of 1900-3600 m. The highly suita-ble areas were mainly distributed in some towns of Yajiang, Xiangcheng, Kangding, Jiulong, Daocheng, Litang, Batang, Danba, Maerkang, Xiaojin, Jinchuan, Lixian, Maoxian, etc. The moderately and lowly suitable areas were located in some towns of Derong, Daofu, Xinlong, Luhuo, Baiyu, Luding, Rangtang, Wenchuan, Heishui, Jiuzhaigou. The highly suitable areas were discontinuously distributed according to the direction of rivers and mountains. The moderately suitable areas were connected with the highly suitable areas, while the lowly suitable areas were the extension of the highly and moderately suitable areas. Future climate change would be beneficial to the growth of T. matsutake on the western Sichuan Plateau, while the climate-suitable areas would show an overall increasing trend. Suitable areas in the low-altitude Minjiang River Basin would be more affected by climate change than those located in high-altitude areas.

Distinct Compartmentalization of Microbial Community and Potential Metabolic Function in the Fruiting Body of Tricholoma matsutake

The uniquely compartmentalized fruiting body structure of the ectomycorrhizal fungus (EMF) Tricholoma matsutake, is a hotspot of microbial habitation and interaction. However, microbial diversity within this microniche structure of the EMF is rarely investigated. Furthermore, there is limited information concerning microbiomes associated with sporomes belonging to the ubiquitous fungal phylum Basidiomycota, particularly with respect to fungus-EMF interactions. In this study, we conducted high throughput sequencing, using ITS (fungal) and 16S rRNA (bacterial) marker genes to characterize and compare fruiting body microbiomes in the outer (pileipellis and stipitipellis) and inner layers (pileum context, stipe context, and lamellae) of the fruiting body of T. matsutake. Our results show the number of unique bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) among the different compartments ranged from 410 to 499 and was more than double that of the shared/common OTUs (235). Micrococcales, Bacillales, Caulobacter, and Sphingomonas were the primary significant bacterial taxa within the different compartments of the dissected T. matsutake fruiting body. Non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance showed significant compartmental differences for both the bacterial and the fungal community structure within the T. matsutake fruiting body. The metabolic profiling revealed putative metabolisms (of amino acids, carbohydrates, and nucleotides) and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites to be highly enriched in outer layers; in the inner parts, the metabolisms of energy, cofactors, vitamins, and lipids were significantly higher. This study demonstrates for the first time the distinct compartmentalization of microbial communities and potential metabolic function profiles in the fruiting body of an economically important EMF T. matsutake.

Pyrosequencing and Taxonomic Composition of the Fungal Community from Soil of Tricholoma matsutake in Gyeongju

Tricholoma matsutake is an ectomycorrhizal fungus that has a symbiotic relationship with the root of Pinus densiflora. Soil microbial communities greatly affect the growth of T. matsutake, however, few studies have examined the characteristics of these communities. In the present study, we analyzed soil fungal communities from Gyeongju and Yeongdeok using metagenomic pyrosequencing to investigate differences in fungal species diversity, richness, and taxonomic composition between the soil under T. matsutake fruiting bodies (Sample 2) and soil where the fairy ring of T. matsutake was no longer present (Sample 1). The same spot was investigated three times at intervals of four months to observe changes in the community. In the samples from Yeongdeok, the number of valid reads was lower than that at Gyeongju. The operational taxonomic units of most Sample 2 groups were less than those of Sample 1 groups, indicating that fungal diversity was low in the T. matsutakedominant soil. The soil under the T. matsutake fruiting bodies was dominated by more than 51% T. matsutake. From fall to the following spring, the ratio of T. matsutake decreased. Basidiomycota was the dominant phylum in most samples. G-F1-2, G-F2-2, and Y-F1-2 had the genera Tricholoma, Umbelopsis, Oidiodendron, Sagenomella, Cladophialophora, and Phialocephala in common. G-F1-1, G-F2-1, and Y-F1-1 had 10 genera including Umbelopsis and Sagenomella in common. From fall to the following spring, the amount of phyla Basidiomycota and Mucoromycota gradually decreased but that of phylum Ascomycota increased. We suggest that the genus Umbelopsis is positively related to T. matsutake.

The impact of polyphenols extracted from Tricholoma matsutake on UVB-induced photoaging in mouse skin

BACKGROUND

Despite Tricholoma matsutake has been used as natural health products with multiple medicinal properties, detailed information about its polyphenolic composition as sources of anti-photoaging agents remains to be determined.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the impact of polyphenols extracted from Tricholoma matsutake (TME) on Ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced skin photoaging.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Various factors of oxidative stress and inflammation as well as histological and immunohistochemical analysis in the mouse dorsal skin were determined after UVB radiation.

RESULTS

Topical administration with TME suppressed the UVB-induced skin thickness, wrinkles and erythema, and increased skin collagen content. Furthermore, TME decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, upregulated glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) activities and inhibited the expression of IL-1, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α in mice irradiated with UVB. TME could reduce UVB-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) phosphorylation and effectively inhibited the activity of the transcriptional factor nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), thereby reducing the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression, which is an important mediator of inflammatory cascade leading to the inflammatory response.

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrated that TME had various beneficial effects on UVB-induced skin photoaging due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and it might be exploited as a promising natural product in skin care, anti-photoaging and the therapeutic intervention of skin disorders related to both oxidative stress and inflammation.

Antifatigue effect of functional cookies fortified with mushroom powder (Tricholoma Matsutake) in mice

Bakery products made by cereal and edible fungi powder have a unique flavor and health benefits, dramatically enhancing the nutritional value of the products. In this study, we investigated the antifatigue effect of a novel Tricholoma matsutake cookie (TMC) by the exhaustive swimming test. Male Kunming ICR mice were randomly divided into seven groups (each group, n = 10), fed with saline, ordinary cookies (4, 8, 16 g/kg B.W./day), and TMC (4, 8, 16 g/kg B.W./day) by gavage. After 30-day administration, the weight-loaded swimming test was carried out on the mice to evaluate the antifatigue effect of TMC. In comparison with the effect of ordinary cookies, the intake of TMC significantly prolonged the exhaustive swimming time of mice and increased the level of muscle glycogen and liver glycogen, accompanied by the reduction of lactic acid and urea nitrogen level in serum. Additionally, TMC dramatically improved the activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in serum and largely decreased the level of malondialdehyde. All in all, TMC could enforce exhaustive swimming tolerance, accelerate the decomposition of sports-related metabolites such as lactic acid and urea nitrogen, and increase the activity of the antioxidant enzyme, thereby improving sports-related energy storage and relieving fatigue. Our findings broadened the application of T. matsutake in the processing of bakery products and provided the theoretical basis and technical support for the development of antifatigue products. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: In this study, we investigated the antifatigue effect of a novel Tricholoma matsutake cookie by the exhaustive swimming test. Collectively, the results of the present study suggested that the cookies fortified with T. matsutake could be considered as an antifatigue bakery product. Furthermore, our findings broadened the application of T. matsutake in the processing of bakery products and provided the theoretical basis and technical support for the development of antifatigue products.

Successional Change of the Fungal Microbiome Pine Seedling Roots Inoculated With Tricholoma matsutake

The pine mushroom (Tricholoma matsutake; Agaricales, Tricholomataceae) is an ectomycorrhizal fungus that produces a commercially valuable, edible mushrooms. Attempts to artificially cultivate T. matsutake has so far been unsuccessful. One method used to induce T. matsutake to produce fruiting bodies of in the wild is shiro (mycelial aggregations of T. matsutake) transplantation. In vitro ectomycorrhization of T. matsutake with seedlings of Pinus densiflora has been successful, but field trials showed limited production of fruiting bodies. Few studies have been done to test what happens after transplantation in the wild, whether T. matsutake persists on the pine seedling roots or gets replaced by other fungi. Here, we investigated the composition and the interaction of the root fungal microbiome of P. densiflora seedlings inoculated with T. matsutake over a 3 year period after field transplantation, using high-throughput sequencing. We found a decline of T. matsutake colonization on pine roots and succession of mycorrhizal fungi as P. densiflora seedlings grew. Early on, roots were colonized by fast-growing, saprotrophic Ascomycota, then later replaced by early stage ectomycorrhiza such as Wilcoxina. At the end, more competitive Suillus species dominated the host roots. Most of the major OTUs had negative or neutral correlation with T. matsutake, but several saprotrophic/plant pathogenic/mycoparasitic species in genera Fusarium, Oidiodendron, and Trichoderma had positive correlation with T. matsutake. Four keystone species were identified during succession; two species (Fusarium oxysporum, and F. trincintum) had a positive correlation with T. matsutake, while the other two had a negative correlation (Suillus granulatus, Cylindrocarpon pauciseptatum). These findings have important implications for further studies on the artificial cultivation of T. matsutake.

Comparative analysis of transcriptomes revealed the molecular mechanism of development of Tricholoma matsutake at different stages of fruiting bodies

The purpose of the study is to investigate the molecular mechanisms of development of Tricholoma matsutake fruiting body at the primordial stage (TM-1), the intermediate stage (TM-2) and the mature stage (TM-3) using RNA-Seq sequencing technology. The analysis of gene expression level revealed that the Spn2 and Eef1a1 gene were the key genes in the primordial stage of T. matsutake by regulating cytokinesis, protein synthesis, and cell growth. And the Ubc, Atp6, Cytb, and Pth2 gene were the key genes in the mature stage of T. matsutake by regulating energy metabolism and protein synthesis. Differential expression genes (DEGs) analysis results showed that Cdc28, Rad53, Dun1, Pho85 and Pho81 were the key DEGs regulating cell cycle genes of T. matsutake from primordial stage to intermediate stage. And APC, Cyr1, Cdc45, Spo11 and Rec8 genes were the key DEGs for the meiosis and sporogenesis of T. matsutake from the intermediate stage to the mature stage.

Biosynthesis of (R)-(-)-1-Octen-3-ol in Recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae with Lipoxygenase-1 and Hydroperoxide Lyase Genes from Tricholoma matsutake

Tricholoma matsutake is an ectomycorrhizal fungus, related with the host of Pinus densiflora. Most of studies on T. matsutake have focused on mycelial growth, genes and genomics, phylogenetics, symbiosis, and immune activity of this strain. T. matsutake is known for its unique fragrance in Eastern Asia. The most major component of its scent is (R)-(-)-1-octen-3-ol and is biosynthesized from the substrate linoleic acid by the sequential reaction of lipoxygenase and peroxide lyase. Here, we report for the first time the biosynthesis of (R)-(-)- 1-octen-3-ol of T. matsutake using the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a host. In this study, cDNA genes correlated with these reactions were cloned from T. matsutake, and expression studies of theses genes were carried out in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The product of these genes expression study was carried out with Western blotting. The biosynthesis of (R)-(-)- 1-octen-3-ol of T. matsutake in recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae was subsequently identified with GC-MS chromatography analysis. The biosynthesis of (R)-(-)-1-octen-3-ol with S. cerevisiae represents a significant step forward.

Purification and characterization of a glycoside hydrolase family 5 endoglucanase from Tricholoma matsutake grown on barley based solid-state medium

An endoglucanase was isolated from solid-state culture of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma matsutake (TmEgl5A) grown on rolled barley and vermiculite. The enzyme was purified by ammonium sulfate fractionation, ion-exchange, hydrophobic, and gel filtration. TmEgl5A showed a molecular mass of approximately 40 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE. The single band of the protein was analyzed by peptide-mass-finger-printing using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and the trypsin-digested peptide sequences were matched to a putative endoglucanase sequence (protein ID1465229) in the JGI T. matsutake 945 v3.0 genome database. Based on the sequence information, the gene encoding TmEgl was cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris KM71H. The deduced amino acid sequence was similar to GH5 family endoglucanases from Basidiomycetes. The enzyme acts on barley β-glucan, lichenan, and CMC-Na. The hydrolyzation products from these substrates were detected by thin-layer chromatography as oligosaccharides with minimal disaccharides. These results suggested that T. matsutake produces a typical endoglucanase in solid-state culture, and the fungus has the potential to degrade β-linkage polysaccharides.

Comparisons of nutritional constituents in soybeans during solid state fermentation times and screening for their glucosidase enzymes and antioxidant properties

This research was the first to demonstrate the variations of nutritional constituents, glucosidase properties and antioxidant activities in soybeans during different solid state fermentation times (germination → 5 periods for 12 days) with Tricholoma matsutake. Total isoflavones were significantly reduced (2661.54 → 1559.04 μg/g) with the increase of aglycone contents (107.61 → 1285.66 μg/g, 12 times) for fermentation, whereas amino acid and fatty acid slightly increased. Among them, daidzein (43.2 → 43.6 → 421.9 → 721.4 → 634.0 μg/g), genistein (52.7 → 24.4 → 339.5 → 546.6 → 512.8 μg/g) and glutamic acid (0.3 → 1.7 → 3.9 → 6.6 → 16.1 mg/g) markedly increased between germinated and fermented soybeans. Total phenolic contents and antioxidant abilities also considerably increased, especially, ABTS displayed the predominant scavenging capacities (33.1 → 94.8%) at 200 μg/ml, followed by DPPH (11.9 → 87.0%) and hydroxyl (11.2 → 49.2%) radicals. Interestingly, α-glucosidase inhibition (11.8 → 84.9%) and β-glucosidase (3.1 → 40.3 unit/g) exhibited the highest activities after 9 days. Our results implied that fermented soybeans may be contributed to enhance the soybean value in nutrition and biological effect aspects to development of new functional foods.

Identification of the Pol Gene as a Species-Specific Diagnostic Marker for Qualitative and Quantitative PCR Detection of Tricholoma matsutake

Tricholoma matsutake is a rare, precious, and wild edible fungus that could not be cultivated artificially until now. This situation has given way to the introduction of fake T. matsutake commodities to the mushroom market. Among the methods used to detect food adulteration, amplification of species-specific diagnostic marker is particularly important and accurate. In this study, the Pol gene is reported as a species-specific diagnostic marker to identify three T. matsutake varieties and 10 other types of edible mushrooms through qualitative and quantitative PCR. The PCR results did not reveal variations in the amplified region, and the detection limits of qualitative and quantitative PCR were found to be 8 ng and 32 pg, respectively. Southern blot showed that the Pol gene exists as a single copy in the T. matsutake genome. The method that produced the purest DNA of T. matsutake in this study was also determined, and the high-concentration salt precipitation method was confirmed to be the most suitable among the methods tested. The assay proposed in this work is applicable not only to the detection of raw materials but also to the examination of processed products containing T. matsutake.

Tricholoma matsutake may take more nitrogen in the organic form than other ectomycorrhizal fungi for its sporocarp development: the isotopic evidence

Tricholoma matsutake is an ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungus capable of in vitro saprotrophic growth, but the sources of C and N used to generate sporocarps in vivo are not well understood. We examined natural abundance isotope data to investigate this phenomenon. For this purpose, C, N and their stable isotopes (13C, 15N) content of fungal sporocarps and their potential nutrient sources (i.e., foliage, litter, fine roots, wood, and soil) were investigated from two well-studied sites in Finland and Japan. Our results show that δ13C values of T. matsutake and other fungal groups are consistent with those of most studies, but a very high δ15N value (16.8‰ ± 2.3) is observed in T. matsutake. Such isotopic pattern of fungal δ15N suggests that matsutake has a greater proteolytic potential to digest chemically complex 15N-enriched organic matter and hydrophobic hyphae. This assumption is further supported by a significant and positive correlation between δ13Ccap-stipe and δ15Ncap-stipe exclusively in T. matsutake, which suggests common C and N sources (protein) possible for isotopically enriched cap. The 13C increase of caps relative to stipe presumably reflects greater contents of 13C-enriched protein than 13C-depleted chitin. We conclude that T. matsutake is a typical ECM fungus which obtains for its sporocarp development for both C and N from a common protein source (vs. photosynthetic carbon) present in soil organic matter.

Quality Evaluation of Tricholoma matsutake Based on the Nucleic Acid Compounds by UPLC-TOF/MS and UPLC-QqQ/MS

So far, there has been no quality evaluation of Tricholoma matsutake. Nucleic acid compounds are a kind of functional ingredient in T. matsutake that is beneficial to human health. In this study, a UPLC-TOF/MS method was first used to scan and identify the potential nucleic acid compounds in T. matsutake. Based on the calculation of the molecular formula and subsequent confirmation by authentic standards, 15 nucleic acid compounds were unambiguously identified: adenosine, cytidine, guanosine, inosine, thymidine, uridine, xanthosine dehydrate, 2'-deoxyadenosine, 2'-deoxycytidine, 2'-deoxyguanosine, 2'-deoxyuridine, adenosine 5'-monophosphate, cytidine 5'-monophosphate, guanosine 5'-monophosphate, and uridine 5'-monophosphate. Then, a UPLC-QqQ/MS method was developed for the subsequent quantitative analysis. After validating the limits of quantification, detection, precision, repeatability, and recovery through a calibration curve, the content of 15 nucleic acid compounds was determined by the proposed UPLC-QqQ/MS method in 80 T. matsutake samples collected from different regions in Sichuan province, Southwest China. After the statistical analysis, we suggest that the total content of nucleic acid compounds in the qualified T. matsutake should be higher than 24.49 mg/100 g. The results indicated that the combined use of UPLC-TOF/MS and UPLC-QqQ/MS is efficient for fast identification and determination of nucleic acid compounds to comprehensively evaluate the quality of T. matsutake.

Microsatellite markers for the prized matsutake mushroom (Tricholoma matsutake, Tricholomataceae)

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Novel and cost-effective microsatellite markers were developed to explore the population genetics, biogeographic structure, and evolutionary history of the prized Euro-Asian wild edible ectomycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma matsutake (Tricholomataceae).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Eighteen new polymorphic simple sequence repeat loci, detected from a microsatellite-enriched genomic library, were used to characterize 131 individuals from eight T. matsutake populations. The number of alleles ranged from two to 10, with averages of 1.42 to 3.22. Levels of observed and expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.00-1.00 and from 0.00-0.83, with mean values of 0.21 and 0.26, respectively. In total, 50% of the loci showed interspecific transferability and polymorphism in the related species T. equestre.

CONCLUSIONS

These newly developed markers will aid research into the genetic diversity and population structure of T. matsutake. They can also be used in other species of Tricholoma.

Applied Mycology Can Contribute to Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Building upon China's Matsutake Management Initiatives

Matsutake mushrooms are an important part of rural livelihoods and forest ecosystems across large parts of China, as well as elsewhere in East Asia, Northern Europe and North America. Mushroom harvesters have developed sophisticated understandings of matsutake ecology and production, and are applying this knowledge in various innovative management strategies. At the same time, Chinese government agencies and scientists are promoting matsutake-based livelihoods to support development and conservation goals. We collaborated with matsutake harvesters in one Yunnan community to carry out a systematic experiment on a popular shiro-level management technique: covering matsutake shiros with either plastic or leaf litter. Our experimental results suggest that although leaf litter coverings are superior to plastic coverings, shiros that are left uncovered may produce the highest yields. Complementing our experimental work is a multi-sited household survey of existing matsutake management practices across Yunnan, which shows that a high proportion of harvesters are already engaged in a broad range of potentially beneficial management strategies. Though both findings highlight limitations of previous initiatives led by government and research actors in China, this existing body of work is an important foundation and opportunity for developing applied mycology in the region. In and beyond China, working with communities to develop site-specific management strategies through rigorous and participatory scientific inquiry can provide salient benefits for both scientists and resource users.

Ectomycorrhization of Tricholoma matsutake with Quercus aquifolioides affects the endophytic microbial community of host plant

Tricholoma matsutake (S. Ito et Imai) is an ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete associated with Pinaceae and Fagaceae trees in the Northern Hemisphere. It is still unknown whether the symbiotic relationship with this ectomycorrhiza could affect the host plant's endophytic microbial community. In this study, we used high throughput sequencing to analyze the endophytic microbial communities of different Quercus aquifolioides tissues with or without T. matsutake partner. About 35,000 clean reads were obtained per sample, representing 34 bacterial phyla and 7 fungal phyla. We observed 3980 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of bacteria and 457 OTUs of fungi at a 97% similarity level. Three bacterial phyla, Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, and Bacteroidetes, and the fungal phylum Ascomycota were dominant in all tissues. The relative abundance of these taxa differed significantly between Q. aquifolioides tissues with and without T. matsutake partner (p < 0.05). The bacterial genus Pseudomonas and the fungal genus Cryptosporiopsis were more abundant in mycorrhized roots than in control roots. This study showed that the community structure and dominant species of endophytic microbial communities in Q. aquifolioides tissues might be altered by colonization with T. matsutake. This work provides a new insight into the interactions between ectomycorrhizal fungus and host plant.

The (oxalato)aluminate complex as an antimicrobial substance protecting the "shiro" of Tricholoma matsutake from soil micro-organisms

Tricholoma matsutake, a basidiomycete, forms ectomycorrhizas with Pinus densiflora as the host tree. Its fruiting body, "matsutake" in Japanese, is an edible and highly prized mushroom, and it grows in a circle called a fairy ring. Beneath the fairy ring of T. matsutake, a whitish mycelium-soil aggregated zone, called "shiro" in Japanese, develops. The front of the shiro, an active mycorrhizal zone, functions to gather nutrients from the soil and roots to nourish the fairy ring. Bacteria and sporulating fungi decrease from the shiro front, whereas they increase inside and outside the shiro front. Ohara demonstrated that the shiro front exhibited antimicrobial activity, but the antimicrobial substance has remained unidentified for 50 years. We have identified the antimicrobial substance as the (oxalato)aluminate complex, known as a reaction product of oxalic acid and aluminum phosphate to release soluble phosphorus. The complex protects the shiro from micro-organisms, and contributes to its development.

Chemical compositions and volatile compounds of Tricholoma matsutake from different geographical areas at different stages of maturity

Tricholoma matsutake is a commercially important edible fungus. Volatile compounds, chemical compositions, and nutritional values of fruiting bodies at different stages of maturity from different geographical areas were analyzed. The main volatile compounds in T. matsutake fruiting bodies were (E)-2-octenal, phenylacetaldehyde, 3-octanone, methyl cinnamate, benzaldehyde, and 1- octen-3-ol. Kinds and levels of volatile compounds from different geographical areas varied. As the fruiting bodies aged, levels of methyl cinnamate and 1-octen-3-ol gradually declined. Potassium was the most abundant element in T. matsutake fruiting bodies. Of 17 amino acids detected in fruiting bodies, glutamate was the most abundant. Volatile compounds, chemical compositions, and nutritional values of T. matsutake varied with age and geographical origin and can serve as chemical indicators for classication of T. matsutake from different geographical areas and at different stages of maturity.

A Fungal α-Galactosidase from Tricholoma matsutake with Broad Substrate Specificity and Good Hydrolytic Activity on Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides

An acidic α-galactosidase designated as TMG was purified from the fruiting bodies The purification protocol entailed ion exchange chromatography on Q-Sepharose and of Tricholoma matsutake with 136-fold purification and a specific activity of 909 units/mg. Mono-Q and fast protein liquid chromatography on Superdex 75. TMG is a monomeric protein exhibiting a molecular mass of 47 kDa in SDS-PAGE and gel filtration. The purified enzyme was identified by LC-MS/MS and three inner amino acid sequences were obtained. The optimum pH and temperature for TMG with pNPGal as substrate were pH 4.5 and 55 °C, respectively. The α-galactosidase activity was strongly inhibited by K+, Ca2+, Cd2+, Hg2+, Ag+ and Zn2+ ions. The enzyme activity was inhibited by the chemical modification agent N-bromosuccinimide (NBS), indicating the importance of tryptophan residue(s) at or near the active site. Besides hydrolyzing pNPGal, TMG also efficaciously catalyzed the degradation of natural substrates such as stachyose, raffinose, and melibiose. Thus TMG can be exploited commercially for improving the nutritional value of soy milk by degradation of indigestible oligosaccharides.

Isolation and structural elucidation of a novel homogenous polysaccharide from Tricholoma matsutake

A crude polysaccharide possessing antitumour, radiation-resistant and anti-ageing attributes was extracted from Tricholoma matsutake by water extraction and alcohol precipitation. From this crude polysaccharide, a homogeneous polysaccharide, TMP-5II, was successfully purified by Sephacryl S-300 column chromatography. The average molecular weight (Mw) of TMP-5II was 15.76 kDa. Monosaccharide analysis indicated that the homogeneous polysaccharide contained four different residues: d-glucose, d-galactose, d-mannose and d-fucose. Attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy revealed characteristics typical of carbohydrate polymers and a peak typical of a β-type glycosidic bond. TMP-5II was selected for structural characterisation by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis. According to (1)H NMR, (13)C NMR and two-dimensional-NMR analysis, TMP-5II contains two kinds of linkages, β and α, at a ratio of 4:1. Preliminary results indicated that the polysaccharide had (1-4)-beta-pyran glucose as the main chain, and a branched chain in the O-6 location with fucose (1-2) mannose (1-3)-alpha-pyran galactose.

Identification and analysis of the constituents in an aqueous extract of Tricholoma matsutake by HPLC coupled with diode array detection/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

The main constituents in an aqueous extract of Tricholoma matsutake (Tm) were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection and electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD/TOF-MS) and ion trap mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD/Trap-MSn). The main factors in the extraction process which affect the yields of nutrients were optimized by single-factor experiments and orthogonal experiment design. In total, 12 constituents were identified from the aqueous extract of Tm, including tyrosine, cytidine, uridine, eritadenine, phenylalanine, nicotinamide, inosine, guanosine, tryptophan, adenosine, 5'-deoxy-5'-methylthioadenosine and riboflavin. The optimized extraction conditions were: the ratio of water to sample was 10 : 1 (v/w), Tm was extracted by ultrasonic-assisted extraction for 10 min, followed by water bath heating at 60 °C for 1 h. Among these extraction factors, the heating temperature is significant based on analysis of variance (ANOVA). The yields of nutrients were affected dramatically at high temperature leading to the loss of nutrients, especially for nucleosides and some amino acids.

Anti-microorganism, anti-tumor, and immune activities of a novel polysaccharide isolated from Tricholoma matsutake

Background:

Many more fungal polysaccharides have been reported to exhibit a variety of biological activities, including anti-tumor, immunostimulation, anti-oxidation, and so on. The non-starch polysaccharides have emerged as an important class of bioactive natural products.

Objective:

To investigate the anti-microorganism, anti-tumor, and immune activities of a novel polysaccharide (TMP-A) isolated from Tricholoma matsutake.

Materials and Methods:

The anti-microorganism activity of purified polysaccharides (TMP-A) was evaluated by the inhibition zone diameter, the anti-tumor activity was evaluated by the S180 tumor cells that were implanted subcutaneously into the Kunming strain male mice in vivo, and the immune activity was evaluated by lymphocyte proliferation and macrophage stimulation, respectively.

Results:

In this study, the most susceptible bacteria of TMP-A at a concentration of 20 mg/ml was Micrococcus lysodeikticus (inhibition zone diameter 24.38 ± 1.19 mm) and the TMP-A did not show any antifungal activity for the tested stains of the fungi. In addition, the inhibitory rate in mice treated with 80 mg/kg TMP-A could reach 68.422%, being the highest in the three doses, which might be comparable to mannatide. The anti-tumor activity of the TMP-A was usually believed to be a consequence of the stimulation of the cell-mediated immune response, because it could significantly promote the lymphocyte and macrophage cells in the dose range of 50–200 μg/mL and in the dose range of 100 – 400 μg/mL in vitro, respectively.

Discussion and Conclusion:

The results obtained in the present study indicate that the purification polysaccharide of Tricholoma matsutake is a potential source of natural broad-spectrum, anti-microorganism, anti-tumor, and immunomodulation.

Spore Dispersion of Tricholoma matsutake at a Pinus densiflora Stand in Korea

The spore of Tricholoma matsutake is considered to be the starting point of the mushroom growth cycle, but the mechanism of mycelial development from the spore stage is not yet clarified. In this study, we tried to measure how far the spores of T. matsutake disperse from a fruiting body located at a Pinus densiflora stand in Korea. We established 16 slide glasses coated with glycerin near a fruiting body in four directions separated by four different distance intervals within a mushroom productive stand after removing all other fruiting bodies from three plots. The number of dispersed spores increased with time from the first day (475 spores/cm(2)) to the fourth day (836 spores/cm(2)) after the pileus opened. The number of spores dispersed downward was about 1.5 times greater than that dispersed toward the ridge. The number of dispersed spores decreased exponentially as the distance from each fruiting body increased. More than 95% of the spores dropped within a meter from the fruiting body, with 75% dropping within 0.5 m. Even so, the number of spores dispersed over 5 m from the fruiting body was more than 50 million when considering the total number of spores produced by a fruiting body is about 5 billion.

Development of Specific Primer for Tricholoma matsutake

In this study, in an effort to develop a method for the molecular detection of Tricholoma matsutake in Korea from other closely related Tricholomataceae, a species-specific PCR primer pair, TmF and TmR, was designed using nuclear ribosomal intertranscribed spacer (ITS) sequences. The DTmF and DTmR sequences were 5'-CCTGACGCCAATCTTTTCA-3' and 5'-GGAGAGCAGACTTGTGAGCA-3', respectively. The PCR primers reliably amplified only the ITS sequences of T. matsutake, and not those of other species used in this study.

Proliferation of Tricholoma matsutake Mycelial Mats in Pine Forest Using Mass Liquid Inoculum

Two isolates of Tricholoma matsutake T-008 and T-034, preserved in Entomopathogenic Fungal Culture Collection (EFCC) of Korea, were used in the present study. The isolates had 100% Bootstrap homology with Tricholoma matsutake U62964 and T. matsutake AB188557 and AF309538 preserved in Gene Bank of NCBI. Mycelial growth of T. matsutake was highest in TMM and MYA at 25℃. The highest dry wt. of mycelium was obtained after 65 days of culture, when 6 mycelial discs were inoculated in 100 ml of broth in 250 ml shaking flask. Mycelial mats were observed in clumped condition at the inoculation sites of pine forest after two weeks of inoculation. After 5 months of inoculation, mycelia mats were observed growing inside soil and walls of a few inoculation sites, while mycelial mats growth up to 5~8 cm were observed in the roots of pine tree after 6 months. The survival rate of the inoculum was about 40% of the total inoculation sites. The survival rate was found below 20% when the mycelium was inoculated in the summer. The reasons for low survival rates of the mycelium were mainly due to dry season and the soil-borne small animals such as earthworm and mole. After one year of inoculation, no external difference was observed between the artificially inoculated mycelia and the naturally existing mycelia of T. matsutake. The present study showed that fruiting bodies of T. matsutake could be produced by artificial inoculation under the appropriate environmental conditions.