The relevance of quantitative ethnobotanical indices for ethnopharmacology and ethnobotany

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

As an interdisciplinary field of research ethnopharmacology draws on methodologies and methods from a variety of disciplines. A range of ethnobotanical indices are frequently used to transform primary data obtained through field studies into statistical measures. These indices are claimed to serve as a proxy for efficacy or drug discovery (Fidelity Level 'FL') and to show the importance of botanical drugs and plants used as medicines (Relative Importance 'RI', Use Value 'UV' or Cultural Importance Index 'CI', Cultural Value Index 'CV', Relative Frequency of Citation 'RFC'). This is, however, doubtful, as these indices have not been developed by statisticians, nor by pharmacologists while a proof of concept is lacking. Moreover, the question whether a simple number can summarize the cultural value or importance of plants is not only mathematical but also epistemological.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The FL, RI, UV/CI, CV and the RFC are shortly reviewed. Their statistical rigour is explained and the relevance for ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology and drug discovery discussed.

RESULTS

The effect of the sample size on the dispersal of data and the differential probability of botanical drugs being used for the different categories of use are not being considered by these indices. They lack statistical rigour and are simple percentage calculations. Moreover, important factors influencing plant use, such as the availability of pharmaceutical drugs, or the severity of diseases covered by the use-categories, are not accounted for.

CONCLUSION

Especially unexperienced and young researchers may be ensnared by using ethnobotanical indices to describe their field data. However, the cultural value and importance of plants in general, and more specifically, of medicinal plants and botanical drugs cannot be summed up by numbers. The discussed indices encrypt parts of the primary data but fail to show the value or importance of plant use because the reasons for which plants are valued or important to people are far more complex than what the formulations of these indices suggest. The indices also lack the power to pinpoint plant species or botanical drugs for drug discovery that contextualized primary data has. Botanical drugs may be useful for a range of disorders or only for specific indications, according to their pharmacologic properties. Therefore, the exclusiveness of therapeutical applications (FL) does not serve as a proxy for effectiveness. The solution is to use and understand the contextualized primary data.

Estimating the recreational value of a coastal wetland park: Application of the choice experiment method and travel cost interval analysis

Estimating the recreational value of a coastal wetland park is useful in understanding wetland ecosystem and nurturing a balanced relationship between wetland tourism exploration and natural conservation. This study aims to apply appropriate methodologies to accurately estimate the recreational value of a coastal wetland park. The Nansha Wetland in China was used as the study site, and its recreational value was divided into non-use value (estimated using the choice experiment method (CEM)) and use value (estimated using travel cost interval analysis (TCIA)). The data were collected via questionnaires consisting of different choice experiment scenarios and travel cost investigations. The results showed that the per capita and total non-use values were 116.97 CNY/17.80 USD and 24.56 million CNY/3.74 million USD, respectively, and the per capita and total use values were 313.95 CNY/47.79 USD and 65.93 million CNY/10.04 million USD. Therefore, the per capita and total recreational values were 430.92 CNY/65.59 USD and 90.49 million CNY/13.77 million USD. CEM was used to identify tourists' trade-offs and preferences among the selected wetland attributes. As a result, tourists were found to have the largest marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) for "mangrove coverage," followed by "species of rare birds" and "water visibility." TCIA was used to solve the under-dispersion problem of the number of trips. Based on these findings, several managerial implications were identified, including adjusting ticket price based on the non-use value, regulating tourists' behaviors, enhancing the protection of mangroves, improving the water quality and the living habitats of migrant birds, and promoting science education and popularization.

Uses, abundance perception, and potential geographical distribution of Smilax aristolochiifolia Mill (SMILACACEAE) on the Totonacapan Region of Puebla, Mexico

BACKGROUND

In some regions of Mexico, edible wild plants have been displaced or eliminated from the traditional food systems, mainly by changes in land use, booming monoculture, herbicide use, and by changes among the new generations in the traditional foods and diets of indigenous populations. In the Totonacapan region of Puebla, the gradual change from the traditional acahual plantation to coffee-type agroecosystems has provoked the displacement of old-growth forests and the eradication of wild plants since 1970. One of the wild species which has been used in traditional medicine and food recipes by the Totonac culture is Smilax aristolochiifolia (SMILACACEAE), known as "kgentsililh". This species forms part of traditional Totonac recipes, in which the tender stems are still used in local medicine to treat menstrual pain, deal with dysentery, and prevent hair loss. According to the Maxent® Program, there are still potential areas with habitats suitable to promote its conservation in the Poblano Totonacapan.

METHODS

We conducted 260 interviews with people in 13 locations in the northern Sierra of the State of Puebla. Variables taken into account in the interview related to the consumption frequency of the species, its abundance and distribution perception, reasons or arguments given by the Totonac indigenous population about the decreased presence of specimens of S. aristolochiifolia, its dates of collection, and the cutting prices of kgentsililh at the community level and in local markets. The relative abundance of S. aristolochiifolia was determined through 22 samples in 2ts of 600 m2. Later, its potential distribution in the state of Puebla was estimated using the Maxent® Program Ver. 3.3.3.

RESULTS

Of the 260 Totonac families interviewed, 31% had stopped consuming kgentsililh. The residents reported that in the last 50 years the populations of this plant had diminished in the northern Sierra of the State of Puebla, mainly due to changes in land use, herbicide application, over-collection, and urban growth. In traditional medicine, the stem sap of S. aristolochiifolia is currently employed to help treat baldness, and the "tuberous root" or plant rhizome is used to prepare a tea infusion to treat dysentery. The cost of plant guides varies from 10.00 to 40.00 Mexican pesos for one bunch (around 0.5 to 2.00 US dollars), and every bundle consists of between 7 to 10 cuttings from 0.4 to 0.5 m long. From our 22 quadrats of sampling and collection of S. aristolochiifolia, we were able to recognize a total of 32 specimens. There is a considerable abundance of kgentsililh in acahual plantations and old-growth forests (evergreen lowland and mid-elevation perennial forest) concerning the coffee-type plantations and milpas. According to our analysis using the Maxent Program®, eight physical and climatic variables have a direct relationship to the potential distribution of the species.

CONCLUSIONS

Smilax aristolochiifolia is still a plant of socioeconomic importance, mainly because of its food value and its use in traditional medicine by indigenous families in Poblano Totonacapan. It is evident that the villagers perceive that in the last 50 years the species has decreased its population mainly due to land-use change, the application of herbicides to the different family production units, and climate change. At the moment, there is no knowledge about the methods of propagation of the species, and therefore there is no intention on the part of the population to conserve the species. However, it would be of great importance to generate a biocultural conservation strategy and take advantage of the results obtained from the potential geographic distribution area, since according to the Maxent® Program, there are still potential areas with habitat suitable to promote conservation in Poblano Totonacapan.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants traded in herbal markets of Kahramanmaraş

Most people in the world still use medicinal plants to treat and prevent disease. In Anatolia, studies have shown that people have used plants for centuries to treat many diseases. Herbal markets play an important role in the supply of medicinal plants and the transmission of cultural heritage. In this study, we investigated the traditional uses of medicinal plants traded in Kahramanmaraş herbal markets. We also analyzed the threats that may arise from the use of medicinal plants and the measures that can be taken to protect these plants. For these purposes, ethnomedicinal data were collected using semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires of herbalists and local people. Ethnobotanical indices (e.g., Relative Frequency of Citation, Use Value, Relative Importance, and Informant Consensus Factor) were used to quantify the use and cultural importance of medicinal plants sold at Kahramanmaraş herbal markets. We identified 62 taxa (11 imported) of plants that are used in traditional folk medicines. The top three plant taxa sold per year by herbalists at Kahramanmaraş herbal markets are Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra; 140 kg), Thyme (Thymus sp.; 109 kg), and Carob (Ceratonia siliqua; 106.5 kg). The plant parts and mode of utilization used most are leaves (28 reports) and infusion (36 reports), respectively. The highest ICF value was detected for endocrine system ailments (0.78), and the next highest two values were lymphatic system (0.75) and respiratory system ailments (0.72). We determined that Urtica dioica, G. glabra, Thymus sp., Mentha x piperita have widely traditional uses, with high ethnobotanical index values and use reports. In addition, according to IUCN criteria, 26 of 62 taxa identified in the research are under threat to various degrees on a global scale.

Local preferences for three indigenous oil-seed plants and attitudes towards their conservation in the Kénédougou province of Burkina Faso, West-Africa

BACKGROUND

Carapa procera, Lophira lanceolata, and Pentadesma butyracea are three underutilized but increasingly threatened indigenous oil-seed tree species (IOS) in tropical Africa. Because local knowledge is vital for sustainable management, this study investigated the socio-economic factors that explain local people's (i) preferences for these IOS, (ii) attitudes toward their conservation, and (iii) ability to identify "plus trees" based on seed traits. We predicted a positive relationship between response variables and informants' age, residence status, gender (femaleness), and existence of market opportunities for each IOS. We also predicted that a higher preference for a given IOS has a positive effect on people's attitudes for its conservation and the aptitude to identify its "plus trees." We additionally expected significant differences among ethnic groups for each response variable.

METHODS

Data were collected through individual semi-structured interviews with 336 informants from 14 randomly selected villages in the species distribution area of Kénédougou province. For each species, the collected data were the number of actual uses reported (converted to use value-UV, as a measure of the species preference), practiced conservation actions (converted to conservation attitude using a four-scale scoring method), and possible criteria for selecting preferred trees for seed oil extraction. Generalized linear mixed models were used to test for the fixed effects of socio-economic factors, and account for the random variation across villages.

RESULTS

The results showed species-specific patterns. Carapa procera had the highest UV and hence was the most preferred IOS, particularly by women. Informants from the Siamou ethnic group had the highest UV irrespective of IOS. The most cited conservation actions were assisted natural regeneration and banning of tree cutting, which were practiced for C. procera and L. lanceolata. No conservation measure was cited for P. butyracea. The practice of tree planting was not recorded for any of the IOS. Young and male informants participated less in conservation actions. Tree selection for oil-seed collection was mainly guided not by "oil extraction yield" but rather by the "quality of extracted oil" (namely oil color and taste for food uses, and oil bitterness for medicinal efficacy). The selection mainly concerned L. lanceolata and was mostly practiced by elderly people.

CONCLUSION

This study provided useful local knowledge-based information to guide conservation actions and valorization strategies of three IOS. The study sheds further light on the socio-economic factors that are associated to local people's preferences, conservation attitudes, and individual tree selection.

Investigation of anti-diabetic plants used among the ethnic communities of Kanpur division, India

ETHNO PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kanpur division is one of the large areas of India with diverse traditional medicinal heritage. In this area, a large number of people suffer from diabetes mellitus. People in this area handle diabetes with herbal and modern medicinal treatments. However, folk knowledge for the treatment of diabetes is not documented.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To document and promulgate the enormous indigenous knowledge of therapeutic importance of herbal plants used by the local practitioners for diabetes mellitus.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Total 44 local practitioners (28 male and 16 female) were interviewed through a questionnaire. The medicinal plants suggested by the practitioners were identified by the taxonomist, and plant specimens were preserved.

RESULTS

Thirty-five species of plants, belonging to 24 families, were suggested by 44 local healers of Kanpur division. The fidelity level (FL), use values (UV) and relative frequency of citation (RFC) for each plant have been analyzed. The UV, FL, and RFC values of the recorded plants ranged between 0.97 to 0.23, 82.7%-24.1% and 0.327 to 0.067, respectively. Leguminosae family dominated with 14.28% of the total plants. The highest used life form was recorded as tree (43%) while the most widely used plant part was leaf (30.6%). The highest UV, FL, and RFC were recorded for the Aloe vera L. (0.97), Syzygium cumini L. (82.7%) and Momordica charantia L. (0.327) respectively.

CONCLUSION

The present study exhibits the knowledge and use of anti-diabetic plants adopted by the ethnic communities of Kanpur division. Future pharmacological investigations are required to test the potency and efficacy of herbal treatments. There is also a need for sustainable use and conservation of these medicinally useful plants.

Exploitation of ethnoecologically important wild trees by two ethnic groups in a community-based Hippopotamus Sanctuary in Northwestern Ghana

Use of wild tree species by smallholder farmers for various purposes is crucially important for their daily livelihoods. However, the growing demand for these natural resources could lead to their overexploitation and environmental change. The aims of this ethnobotanical research in the Wechiau Community-based Hippopotamus Sanctuary (WCHS) were to i) document wild tree species, uses and analyze their cultural importance, ii) investigate socio-demographic variables of smallholder farmers influencing their traditional knowledge on wild tree species and uses, and iii) examine smallholder farmers ' perceptions about the establishment of the WCHS. To attain the above-stated aims, 135 smallholder farmers were interviewed in nine villages belonging to the Waala and Birfor ethnic groups. The primary data were subjected to rigorous statistical analysis (using Cognitive Salience index reflecting cultural importance, univariate and use value analysis). Given the results of this study, the WCHS is enriched with 43 ethnoecologically important wild tree species belonging to 22 families and 41 genera. This study showed that eight topmost wild tree species in descending order of cultural importance included Vitellaria paradoxa, Burkea Africana, Diospyrous mespiliformis, Bombax costatum, Parkia biglobosa, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Terminalia avicennioides and Acacia gourmaensis. It is also established in this paper that the family cultural importance for Fabaceae and Sapotaceae is predominantly high as reflected in the frequency and ranking of citations of wild tree species under these families by local informants. The 43 wild tree species cited by local informants were categorized into nine different uses including food (9 species), forage (30), firewood (40), medicine (6), construction (9), soil improvement (3), social use (2), gardening (5) and fiber/ropes (2). Among these use categories, firewood, forage, food and construction topped the list as the most culturally important to the smallholder farmers. It is also revealed that the traditional knowledge on varied wild tree species and their uses was significantly affected by age of smallholder farmers (ps < 0.05), but not ethnicity and other factors. This study thus suggests the need for community-based conservation measures for sustainable management of natural resources for rural livelihood improvement in the tropics and sub-tropics.

Use of mammals in a semi-arid region of Brazil: an approach to the use value and data analysis for conservation

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to survey the knowledge and use of mammals by the residents of the rural community of Capivara in the municipality of Solânea (Paraíba State, Northeast Brazil) and to propose a new method of using the use value as a tool for data analysis in ethnozoological surveys.

METHODS

The uses attributed to mammals were recorded through semi-structured interviews conducted with the breadwinners (men and women) living in the community. The species were identified through guided tours, by descriptions made by the interviewees, and using specimens donated by them, as well as by comparison with the pertinent scientific literature (morphological and ecological). Through the use value differentiated analysis, it was possible to distinguish the current use value of the species (effective use) from their potential use value (knowledge, but no effective use) to determine their real importance related to the uses cited by the studied group.

RESULTS

Nineteen species were cited; however, only 17 of them were identified and then distributed in 13 families. The other species were identified at the genus level Leopardus sp. and order Rodentia. The species were classified into 6 categories of use: food, captive breeding, zootherapeutic, artisanal, magic/religious, and veterinary purposes.

CONCLUSIONS

This article discusses possible conservation solutions, given the irregular exploitation of some species, warning about the biodiversity, and traditional knowledge conservation.

Ethnopharmacological exploration of medicinal mushroom from Pakistan

BACKGROUND

The chief aim of this study was to enlist the ethnopharmacological aspect of mushrooms from four Provinces of Pakistan. Due to the seasonal variation and extreme geographical conditions, Pakistan has great mushroom diversity. Mushrooms have been used by the indigenous people for the treatment of different ailments in many regions of Pakistan. They still depend on the mushrooms for treatment of various ailments. Moreover, mushrooms are used as first aid to treat cold, cough, influenza, asthma, cancer, gastric and hepatic disorders. Traditional uses of medicinal mushrooms lead to the discovery of alternative source of synthetic medicines. This is basically the first quantitative ethnopharmcological documentation of medicinal mushrooms from Pakistan.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Ethnopharmacological information was collected from the 950 informants including male and female. The informative data was based on semi-structured interviews, group discussions, and field visits. Data was analyzed by applying different quantitative indices such as informant consent factor (ICF), Use value (UV), Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), the Fidelity level (FL) and Jaccard Index (JI).

RESULT

Almost 50 mushrooms belonging to 24 families were reported. Most-frequently cited families were Agaricaceae (13 species) and Morchellaceae (5 species). Extract was the common mode of preparation reported (63.33%), followed by Powder (36.67%). Mostly these medicinal mushrooms were present as wild (62.90%), followed by cultivated (37.10%). Among all 11.75% mushrooms were toxic and inedible, 75% were nontoxic, whereas the remaining 13.46% may be toxic or nontoxic because of their dual attitude. New medicinal uses of 23 mushrooms were explored in this study.

CONCLUSION

This ethnopharmacological documentation revealed that the mushrooms are still used by natives of rural area in their day-to-day lives. This study provides the basis for the conservation of mushrooms. Mushrooms with high ICF, UV and FL were further used for phytochemical and pharmacological studies. This documentation is baseline information which can be used to develop new mushroom-based medicines.

Ethnobotanical knowledge among the semi-pastoral Gujjar tribe in the high altitude (Adhwari's) of Churah subdivision, district Chamba, Western Himalaya

BACKGROUND

The wild plants not only form an integral part of the culture and traditions of the Himalayan tribal communities but also contribute largely to the sustenance of these communities. The tribal people use large varieties of wild fruits, vegetables, fodder, medicinal plants, etc. for meeting their day-to-day requirements. The present study was conducted in Churah subdivision of district Chamba where large populations of Muslim Gujjars inhabit various remote villages. These tribal people are semi-pastoralists, and they seasonally (early summers) migrate to the upper altitudes (Adhwari's) along with their cattle and return to permanent settlements before the onset of winters. A major source of subsistence of these tribal people is on natural resources to a wide extent, and thus, they have wide ethnobotanical knowledge. Therefore, the current study was aimed to report the ethnobotanical knowledge of plants among the Gujjar tribe in Churah subdivision of district Chamba, Himachal Pradesh.

METHODS

Extensive field surveys were conducted in 15 remote villages dominant in Gujjar population from June 2016 to September 2017. The Gujjars of the area having ethnobotanical knowledge of the plants were interrogated especially during their stay at the higher altitudes (Adhwari's) through well-structured questionnaires, interviews, and group meetings. The data generated was examined using quantitative tools such as use value, fidelity, and informant consensus factor (F_ic).

RESULTS

This study reveals 83 plants belonging to 75 genera and 49 families that were observed to have ethnobotanical uses. Plants were listed in five categories as per their use by the Gujjars, i.e. food plants, fruit plants, fodder plants, household, and ethnomedicinal plants. The leaves, fruits, and roots were the most commonly used plant parts in the various preparations. The highest number of plants was recorded from the family Rosaceae followed by Polygonaceae and Betulaceae. On the basis of use value (UV), the most important plants in the study area were Pteridium aquilinum, Juglans regia, Corylus jacquemontii, Urtica dioica, Diplazium maximum, and Angelica glauca. Maximum plant species (32) were reported for ethnomedicinal uses followed by food plants (22 species), household purposes (16 species), edible fruits (15 species), and as fodder plants (14 species). The agreement of the informants conceded the most from the use of various plants used as food plants and fruit plants (F_ic = 0.99), followed by fodder plants and household uses (F_ic = 0.98) while it was least for the use of plants in ethnomedicine (F_ic = 0.97). The fidelity value varied from 8 to 100% in all the use categories. Phytolacca acinosa (100%), Stellaria media (100%), and Urtica dioica (100%) were among the species with high fidelity level used as food plants, while the important species used as fruit plants in the study area were Berberis lycium (100%), Prunus armeniaca (100%), and Rubus ellipticus (100%). Some important fodder plants with high fidelity values (100%) were Acer caesium, Aesculus indica, Ailanthus altissima, and Quercus semecarpifolia. The comparison of age interval with the number of plant use revealed the obvious transfer of traditional knowledge among the younger generation, but it was mostly concentrated in the informants within the age group of 60-79 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Value addition and product development of wild fruit plants can provide an alternate source of livelihood for the rural people. The identification of the active components of the plants used by the people may provide some useful leads for the development of new drugs which can help in the well-being of mankind. Thus, bioprospection, phytochemical profiling, and evaluation of economically viable products can lead to the optimum harnessing of Himalayan bioresources in this region.

Ethnomedicinal plant diversity in Thailand

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Plants have provided medicine to humans for thousands of years, and in most parts of the world people still use traditional plant-derived medicine. Knowledge related to traditional use provides an important alternative to unavailable or expensive western medicine in many rural communities. At the same time, ethnomedicinal discoveries are valuable for the development of modern medicine. Unfortunately, globalization and urbanization causes the disappearance of much traditional medicinal plant knowledge.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To review available ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in Thailand and to estimate its diversity.

METHODS

Information about ethnomedicinal uses of plants in Thailand was extracted from 64 scientific reports, books, and theses produced between 1990 and 2014. Plant identifications in the primary sources were updated to currently accepted names following The Plant List website and the species were assigned to family following the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Use Values (UV) were calculated to estimate the importance of medicinal plant species (UV_s) and families (UV_f). Medicinal use categories, plant parts used, preparations of the medicine, and their applications were noted for each use report.

RESULTS

We found 16,789 use reports for 2187 plant species in 206 families. These data came from 19 ethnic groups living in 121 villages throughout Thailand. The health conditions most commonly treated with medicinal plants were in the categories digestive system disorders, infections/infestations, nutritional disorders, muscular-skeletal system disorders, and genitourinary system disorders. Plant families with very high use values were Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Acanthaceae, Lamiaceae, and Zingiberaceae and species with very high use values were Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob., Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., and Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koenig) C.D.Specht. Stems and leaves were the most used plant parts, but also other parts of the plants were used in medicinal recipes. The most common way of using the medicinal plants was as a decoction in water.

CONCLUSION

We found 2187 plant species that were used in traditional medicine in Thailand. Of these a few hundred had high use values, suggesting that they may produce bioactive compounds with strong physiological effects.

Cross-Cultural Analysis of Medicinal Plants commonly used in Ethnoveterinary Practices at South Waziristan Agency and Bajaur Agency, Federally Administrated Tribal Areas (FATA), Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In remote areas, medicinal plants have an imperative role in curing various livestock's ailments. In Pakistan, people residing in remote areas including South Waziristan Agency and Bajaur Agency depend on traditional herbal remedies for treating their domestic animals. Medicinal plants are an important part of the medical system in these Agencies. The prime goal of the current study is to explore the ethnoveterinary practices in the two regions and discuss cross-cultural consensus on the use of medicinal plants. In this study, we have given detailed description on the ethnoveterinary usage of certain medicinal plants and their recipes. Moreover, we have also elaborated the ethnoveterinary potential of certain plants in relation to their ethnomedicinal, pharmacological and phytochemicals reports.

METHODOLOGY

Fieldwork comprised of two fields surveys conducted at South Waziristan Agency and Bajaur Agency. A total of 75 informants from South Waziristan Agency and 80 informants from Bajaur Agency were interviewed with the help of semi-structured questionnaires. Use reports (URs) were recorded for all the documented taxa. Data were quantitatively analyzed by using informant consensus factor (F_ic) index in order to find out information homogeneity provided by the informants. To analyze the cross-cultural consensus, the recorded data were tabulated as well as shown by Venn diagram.

RESULTS

Overall, 94 medicinal plant taxa were recorded in the comparative analysis. Out of these, most of the plants species (72 species) were used at Bajaur Agency than South Waziristan Agency (37 species). Cross-cultural analysis showed that only 15 medicinal plants were used in common by the indigenous communities in both Agencies, which indicates a low interregional consensus with regard to the ethnoveterinary practices of medicinal plants. Apiaceae was the dominant family in both regions by representing maximum number of plant species (11 species). Gastro intestinal complexities were common in both regions having higher F_ic values (above 90). Moreover, the current investigation reported new ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants from South Waziristan Agency, which were Sideroxylon mascatense, Raphanus sativus, Salix babylonica, Solanum nigrum, Sophora mollis, Taraxacum campylodes and Tulipa stellata. On the other hand from Bajaur Agency, Boerhavia erecta, Celtis australis, Chamaecyparis obtusa var. obtuse, Eryngium biehersteinianum, Gossypium arboreum, Narcissus tazetta, Opuntia littoralis, Streblus asper were reported with new ethnoveterinary uses.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study has an important contribution towards the preservation of indigenous plants' based knowledge. Several plants are carrying important ethnoveterinary uses being practiced by the local people mostly against the gastrointestinal disorders in both regions. Importantly, the cross-cultural approach has reported some new traditional uses of plants against livestock's diseases. Hence, this is an opportunity to investigate such plants phytopharmacologically and toxicologically for the discovery of new drug sources.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants practiced by the indigenous communities at Mohmand Agency, FATA, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Plant-derived products have an imperative biological role against certain pathogenic organisms and were considered to be a major source of modern drugs. Rural people residing in developing countries are relying on traditional herbal medical system due to their strong believe and minimum access to allopathic medicines. Hence, ethnomedicinal knowledge is useful for the maintenance of community's based approaches under this medical system. Present study was carried out in an unexplored remote tribal area of Pakistan to investigate and document the existing ethnomedicinal knowledge on local flora.

METHODS

Data was collected through semi-structured questionnaires from the community members and local herbalists. Use reports (URs) were counted for each species and analyzed through Linear Regression between the number of URs per family and number of plant species per family.

RESULTS

A total of 64 medicinal plant species were recorded belonging to 60 genera and 41 families. Most frequently used plant families in ethnomedicines were Lamiaceae (8 species) and Asteraceae (7 species). Highest URs were recorded for Caralluma tuberculata N.E. Br. (49 URs) being followed by Thymus serphyllum L. (49 URs), Fagonia cretica L. (47 URs), Plantago lanceolata L. (45 URs), Periploca aphylla Decne. (44 URs), Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (44 URs), and Sideroxylon mascatense (A.DC.) T.D.Penn. (44 URs). New ethnomedicinal uses were reported for Boerhaavia elongata Brandegee and Fumaria officinalis L. with confidential level of URs from the study area. Nineteen groups of health conditions were recorded during the course of study being treated with medicinal plants. Maximum number of 30 plant species was used to treat digestive problems. Most widely practiced mode of drugs' preparation and administration was powder. Leaves (30% plants) were the most frequently used plant parts in the preparation of ethnomedicinal recipes.

CONCLUSIONS

Current study is an important addition to the field of ethnomedicines. The study reports important medicinal plants from an area, which has not been investigated previously. Traditional knowledge is restricted to health practitioners and elder community members. This knowledge is at the verge of extinction because younger generation is not taking interest in its learning and preservation process. Hence, there is a dire need to phytochemically and pharmacologically test the investigated taxa for the validation of traditional knowledge.

Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

This explorative study was undertaken for the first time in Kel village located in the Upper Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. The purpose was to document the indigenous knowledge of the native people used in the preparation of herbal medicines.

METHODS

To get the data on traditional uses of medicinal plants, 20 informants were interviewed. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices, i.e., use value (UV), relative frequencies of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (Fic), fidelity level (FL), data matrix ranking (DMR), preference ranking (PR), and jaccard index (JI), were calculated for the recorded medicinal plants.

RESULTS

A total of 50 medicinal plants belonging to 33 families used in 13 disease categories were documented. Leaves were the frequently used plant parts, and decoction was the commonly used method for herbal medicine. Plants with high use value were Berberis lycium (2.05), Impatiens glandulifera (1.95), Artemisia scoparia (1.75), Ageratum conozoides (1.75), and Achillea millefolium (1.7). The highest RFC value was calculated for Berberis lycium (0.75), Cynoglossum lanceolatum (0.65), and Impatiens glandulifera and Achillea millefolium (0.60 each). The maximum informant consensus factor was for urinary system, cardiac diseases, baldness, and abortion and miscarriage (1.00). Berberis lyceum (95%) used in jaundice, hepatitis, typhoid, fever, and tuberculosis disorders. Plants with maximum fidelity level (FL) were Berberis lycium (95%) followed by Dioscorea bulbifera, Impatiens glandulifera, and Artemisia vulgaris (90%). Olea ferruginea was the most multipurpose plant and exports (21.2%) was the leading threat in the area. The pearson correlation coefficient (0.500) showed a positive correlation between the use value and relative frequency of citation.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides useful information about traditional uses of medicinal plants used by local communities in different ailments. The plants with the highest use values could be employed in pharmacological research and biotechnological approaches in order to achieve adequate revenue. Some of the plants in the study area are facing high threats of becoming rare, and conservation initiatives are needed to conserve them for sustainable management in the region.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants reported by the indigenous communities and local herbal practitioners of Bajaur Agency, Federally Administrated Tribal Areas, Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In the study area, knowledge related to the traditional uses of medicinal plants is totally in the custody of elder community members and local herbalists. The younger generation is unaware of the traditional knowledge, however with only few exceptions. Therefore, this study was planned with objective to document the medicinal importance of plants, conserve this precious indigenous knowledge, and share it among other communities through published literature.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data was collected through semi-structured interviews from the community members and local herbalists. The reported plants were collected post interviews and later on pressed on herbarium vouchers for reference. Afterwards, the data was analyzed through Use value (UV) and Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC).

RESULTS

In total, 79 medicinal plant species were used for the treatment of different ailments in the study region. Out of the total plant species, 28 species were not reported from any other mountainous communities across the country. In this study, the ethno-medicinal value of Opuntia littoralis (Engelm.) Cockerell and Viola indica W.Becker was reported for the first time, which have moderate confidential level in terms of their medicinal uses in the study area. Important medicinal plants of the region with high UV are Berberis lycium Royle (0.94), V. indica (0.90), Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd (0.88), Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (0.87), Peganum harmala L (0.86), Solanum virginianum L. (0.85), and Cassia fistula L. (0.79). Medicinal plants with higher RFC values are Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. (0.86), Cannabis sativa L. (0.82), Mentha piperita L. (0.82), Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (0.76), Allium sativum L. (0.73), Coriandrum sativum L. (0.73), and F. vulgare (0.72).

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional knowledge on folk medicines is directly linked to the local culture, faith and perception. This knowledge is gaining high threat of extinction because of its limitation to a small portion of the society in the region. Therefore, future studies are recommended in similar regions for the documentation of this precious knowledge. Moreover, our study has also identified some important and newly reported medicinal plants from the ethno-medicinal perspective, which needs to be studied pharmacologically and toxicologically.

Inventorization of some ayurvedic plants and their ethnomedicinal use in Kakrajhore forest area of West Bengal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Medicinal Plant resources of forest origin are extensively used in India for various systems of medicine like Ayurveda, Unani, Homeopathy, Allopathy, Siddha and Ethnic etc. The tribal communities around the Kakrajhore forest in West Medinipur district of West Bengal have their own traditional knowledge based system of curing many diseases using the forest based plant resources similar to ayurveda. The forest comprises of one of the unique treasure and rich source of diversified ethno-botanical wealth and therefore extensive studies is required for proper documentation including ethnomedicinal knowledge of local tribes.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was initiated with an aim to inventorize the ayurvedic medicinal plant recourses and explore the traditional knowledge of tribal people of Kakrajhore forest to treat several diseases along with the sustainable management and conservation of medicinal plants.

METHODS

The information on the medicinal plant resources were gathered through floristic inventorization with proper sampling method in the study area (N22°42'57.05″, E86°34'58.02″) during the year 2015. For floristic inventorization the study area of 312 ha was delineated by using GPS Receiver. Then total mapped area was divided by virtual grid of 100m apart in both East-West and North-South direction to allocate 60 sample plots by random sampling. In addition to inventorization, the use value (UV) of the species was determined and the informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated for the medicinal plants found in the study area based on personal interview. Further exploration was carried out to establish linkage with Ayurveda.

RESULTS

The present survey has identified 57 numbers of ethno-medicinal plants belonging to 39 families, used for preparing medicinal remedies. The habit of the plants includes 35% trees, 28% shrubs, 23% herbs and 14% climbers. The most frequently utilized plant parts were the Roots & Tuber roots (26%), Stem which includes Bark, Tubers, Bulb, Rhizome, Gum, Wood & Young shoots (24%), Leaves (18%), Fruits (13%), and Seeds (10%). The most frequent happening ailments are asthma and bronchitis, constipation and dyspepsia, diarrhea, dysentery, ulcer, rheumatism, arthritis, fistula and piles troubles. Most of the Plants (88%) had more than a single therapeutic use. The most important plant species on the basis of use value were Smilex ovalifolia, Emblica officinalis, Curculigo orchioides, Croton roxburghii, Asparagus racemosus, Ziziphus nummularia, Ichnocarpus frutescens, Cisssus adnata, Buettneria herbacea, Litsea glutinosa, Vernonia anthelmintica and Chlorophytum borivilianum. There was a strong agreement among the informants related to the usage of the plants (ICF 0.65-0.93). As per the standard literature in Ayurveda, maximum numbers of documented species (33) are found to be used for 'digestive system disorder' which is analogous to ethnomedicinal use (30), followed by 'skin related problem' i.e. 13 and 20 respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Results show that people living around Kakrajhore forest area hold valuable knowledge of the uses of plant resources and some of the ayurvedic plants represent an important component in local livelihood. Though the Kakrajhore Forest area is rich in medicinal plant resources but the species are susceptible to be endangered by intense exploitation by human communities. More in-depth investigations are required for plants with high UV values on their possible phytochemical and pharmacological activity. Apart from this, sustainable management approach and proper conservation strategy for the area is recommended by involvement of local communities and forest department.

Ethno-medicinal survey of important plants practiced by indigenous community at Ladha subdivision, South Waziristan agency, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Medicinal flora plays a vital role in treating various types of ailments in living beings. The present study was planned to investigate and document systematically the indigenous knowledge in a scientifically little explored area of Ladha sub-division, South Waziristan agency, Pakistan. Hence, this study would contribute positively to the field of ethnopharmacology.

METHODS

Prior to ethnomedicinal data collection, regular field visits were conducted during the month of May and June 2015 to locate the sites and respondents from where the traditional knowledge was to be recorded. Ethno-medicinal data was collected during the month July and August 2015 through rapid appraisal approach (RAA) based on direct interaction with the indigenous communities by making group discussions, corner meetings and semi-structured interviews. Data was evaluated statistically by using the index of Use value (UV) and Frequency of citations (FC).

RESULTS

A total of 82 medicinal plants belonging to 42 families were reported in the study. Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts. Highest use values were recorded for Peganum harmala (0.93), Punica granatum (0.91), Thymus mongolicus (0.90), Chenopodium album (0.89), Coriandrum sativum (0.87), Mentha longifolia (0.87), Lactuca serriola (0.87) and Portulaca oleracea (0.87). Medicinal plants used for the gastro intestinal complexities and respiratory diseases were more than 9% followed by skin and diarrhea (7% each), liver disorders (5%) cough and cold fever (5%).

CONCLUSION

People of the area mostly still rely on traditional herbal therapies. Keeping in mind the dependence of the indigenous community for their primary health care on such herbal remedies, pharmacological and critical toxicological investigation of certain flora is necessary. Moreover, projects should be designed to analyze the existing issues and problems related with medicinal plants conservation.

Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants used in the management of sickle cell disorder in Southern Nigeria

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The present study entails the medicinal plant species used to manage sickle cell disorder in Southern States of Nigeria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ethnomedicinal information was gathered through multistage approach from three geopolitical zones of Southern Nigeria, which were purposively selected. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered on 500 respondents in 125 locations. The ethnomedicinal data collected were analyzed using quantitative value indices such as fidelity level (percentage) and use value. The information got was cross checked using literature search and other related materials.

RESULT

Five hundred respondents comprising 53.12% females and 46.88% males were observed. It was noted that 26.70% were illiterate while 73.30% had formal education. Seventy-nine percent is traditional healers, 27% herb traders and the other 4% are those who have awareness of sickle cell disease . One hundred and seventy five plant species belonging to 70 families, of which Fabaceae made up 26.76% and Euphorbiaceae 16.90% forming the highest occurrence. It was observed that leaves were the most common plant part used (69.10%) followed by root (15%) and stem bark (14%) in the preparation for sickle cell management. Majority (48.57%) of these plants were harvested from wild with 38.86% being trees. Citrus aurantifolia and Newbouldia laevis had highest use values of 0.69 and 0.64 respectively. Plants with the least use value (0.001) include Abrus canescens, Acacia xanthophloea, Aerva lanata and Axonopus compressus. The result of fidelity level values of the plant species for the management of Sickle Cell Disorder (SCD) revealed that Citrus aurantifolia had the highest value of 70.2% while Angraecum distichum and Axonopus compressus had the lowest Fidelity Level value of 0.18%.

CONCLUSION

The study revealed that people in the studied areas were well grounded in the medicinal plants used to manage sickle cell disease. This study reported for the first time 102 plant species having anti-sickling potentials with Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae as the most dominant plant families. Many of the claimed plants were harvested from the wild showing threat thus providing needs for conservation of plants. The documented plants had high use value and fidelity level that provided quantitative and qualitative ethnomedicinal evaluation within and across the plant families. These give room for further scientific investigations in pharmacological profiles.

Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Sudhanoti district (AJK), Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethnobotanical study was aimed to document indigenous medicinal plants along with the ethnopharmacological therapeutic values, and to explore the frequencies and relative importance of reported plants. Objective of this study was to trace out the disease prevalence pattern with help of informant consensus factor.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Visual appraisal approach (VAA) and rapid rural appraisal (RRA) methods along with the group meetings and discussions about wide range of topics in an open-ended questionnaire with local people were employed for collection of qualitative ethnomedicinal data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Current study reported 58 medicinal plants belonging to 33 families, where Rosaceae was the predominant family. Berberis lycium dominated among shrubs, which is used to treat liver problems (jaundice). Females and old people were found more allied to the indigenous healthcare system. Conservation threats to valued medicinal plants were detected during course of the study.

CONCLUSION

Local communities of the study area are highly dependent on medicinal plants and reported the best therapeutic results for specific disorders. Urgent attention must be paid on conservation of medicinal flora, comprehensive documentation of indigenous medicinal knowledge and pharmacological/phytochemical validation of reported plants for specific diseases.

Ethnopharmacological importance of medicinal flora from the district of Vehari, Punjab province, Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethnopharmacological studies are important for the discovery of new drugs from reported indigenous flora. The current study was aimed to document medicinal flora and its therapeutic actions along with the relative importance in local health care system of the district of Vehari, Punjab province, Pakistan.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Rapid appraisal approach (RAA) and semi structured interviews were used along with the group meetings with herbalists, local inhabitants and landowners to collect the relevant data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A total 77 medicinal plants belonging to 41 families disseminated among 71 genera were reported. Fabaceae was the predominant family over others with 9 reported medicinal plant species. Use frequency of leaves was at peak with 30.12% followed by stem 24.62%, fruit 14.22%, flower 12.97%, seeds 12.13%, bark 4.6% and pod 1.25%, in herbal preparations. Allium cepa exhibited the highest use value (0.90) while lowest use value (UV) was reflected by Aerva javanica (0.10). Documentation of various medicinal plants for the treatment of cancer, hepatitis and cardiac disorders is evidence in favor to highlight the value of medicinal flora.

CONCLUSIONS

Unfortunately, no attention has been paid to this treasure in term of conservation and utilization in modern healthcare system, where these plants can be a best replacement of chemically synthesized drugs. It is also recommended that plants exhibiting high UV should be screened for detailed bio-active phytochemicals.

Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in villages of Çatak (Van-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants in the villages of Çatak in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Recording such data calls for urgency. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of FIC method in Eastern (Van) part of Turkey.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to identify the wild plants collected for medicinal purposes by locals of Çatak which is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, and to identify the uses and local names of these wild plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2010-2012). During this period, 78 plants taxa were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant taxa were collected within the scope of the study; and herbarium materials were prepared. In addition, the relative significance value of the taxa was determined, and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

We have found out in the literature review of the plants included in our study that 78 plant taxa are already used for medicinal purposes while 19 plants are not available among the records in the literature. The most common families are Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae. We include in our study and report for the first time the medicinal uses of Alchemilla buseriana Rothm., Astragalus longifolius Lam., Cephalaria microcephala Boiss., Euphorbia grisophylla M.S. Khan, Fritillaria crassifolia Boiss. & Huet. subsp. kurdica (Boiss. & Noe) Rix, Fritillaria pinardii Boiss., Malabaila lasiocarpa Boiss., Nepeta betonicifolia C.A. Mey., Onobrychis altissima Grossh., Onobrychis carduchorum C.C. Townsend, Papaver bracteatum Lindl., Phlomis tuberosa L., Psephellus karduchorum (Boiss.) Wagenitz, Scutellaria orientalis L. subsp. pichleri (Stapf.) Edmondson, Stachys kurdica Boiss. & Hohen var. kurdica, Tanacetum kotschyi (Boiss.) Grierson, Tanacetum zahlbruckneri (Nâb.) Grierson, Turanecio eriospermus (DC.) Hamzaoğlu, Verbascum pyramidatum M.Bieb. Names of local plants in Turkey vary especially due to vernaculars. The plants that the locals of Çatak use are called with the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.

CONCLUSION

We found out that locals living in the research area use for therapeutic purpose 78 plants taxa which belong to 22 families. Turkish citizens with different ethnic backgrounds took the questionnaire. These people use these wild plants in treatment of several diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies on the wild plants which grow in Çatak proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the therapeutic plants that grow in Çatak are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases.

An ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Espiye and its surrounding (Giresun-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants in Espiye in the Black Sea Region. Recording such data calls for urgency. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of FIC method in Northern (Espiye-Giresun) part of Turkey. This study aims to identify the wild plants collected for medicinal purposes by locals of Espiye which is located in the Black Sea Region of Turkey, and to identify the uses and local names of these wild plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2012-2014). During this period, information about medicinal use of 55 wild and 15 cultivated plants were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. Through face-to-face interviews, we identified and recorded demographic characteristics of the respondents. We interviewed 128 persons who are over the age of 29. The plant taxa were collected within the scope of the study; and herbarium materials were prepared. In addition, the relative significance value of the taxa was determined, and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

We have found out in the literature review of the plants included in our study that 70 plant taxa are already used for medicinal purposes while 3 plants are not available among the records in the literature. The most common families are Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, and Ericaceae. We include in our study and report for the first time the medicinal uses of Alchemilla crinita Buser, Stachys sylvatica L., and Thymus leucotrichus Hal. var. leucotrichus Hal. Names of local plants in Turkey vary especially due to vernaculars. The plants that the locals of Espiye use are called with the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.

CONCLUSION

We found out that locals living in the research area use for therapeutic purpose 70 plants taxa which belong to 36 families. Turkish citizens with different ethnic backgrounds took the questionnaire. These people use these wild plants in treatment of several diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies on the wild plants which grow in Espiye proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the therapeutic plants that grow in Espiye are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases.

Antidiabetic plants used among the ethnic communities of Unakoti district of Tripura, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

A large group of ethnic communities living in Unakoti district of Tripura, India is still dependent on traditional herbal remedies for treatment of diabetes. Valuable information collected from these communities in the present investigation is important in maintaining their indigenous knowledge of folklore medicine.

METHODS

Systematic and extensive field surveys were conducted during 2011-2013 among the ethnic inhabitants of Unokati district, Tripura, India covering all the seasons to collect information on their traditional herbal medication system for treatment of diabetes. Obtained data were analysed through fidelity level (FL), use value (UV) and relative frequency of citation (RFC) to authenticate the uniqueness of the species being used for diabetes treatment.

RESULTS

In this current study a total of 39 medicinal plant species belonging to 37 genera and 28 families were presented, used by the traditional healers of Unakoti district, Tripura, India for diabetes treatment. FL, UV and RFC values of collected plants for the selected study area ranges between 06% and 100%, 0.07% and 2.64% and 0.02% and 0.51% respectively. Out of 39 collected plants, 11, 5 and 3 plant species have showed significant (<50%) FL, UV and RFC values respectively.

CONCLUSION

Like many other ethnic communities of the world, inhabitants of Unakoti district depend on a traditional medication system to treat diabetes. Documented floras are locally available and need proper further pharmacological validation to endorse their traditional use in a modern health care system. This will help in the development of effective herbal antidiabetic medicines in near future.

Ethnopharmacological field study of the plants used to treat type 2 diabetes among the Cakchiquels in Guatemala

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by tissue resistance to the action of insulin, combined with a relative deficiency in insulin secretion. In Guatemala, type 2 diabetes results in significant mortality rates. The low incomes of the indigenous population results in the use of alternative therapies such as medicinal plants to treat the illness. We could not find any previous study related to the use of medicinal plants to treat diabetes in Guatemala. The aim of this work is to determine the most effective plant species used in traditional medicine to treat type 2 diabetes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed an ethnopharmacological field study among the Cakchiquels of Chimaltenango to select the most prominent plants used to treat the disease. Type 2 diabetic patients from their community health centers were interviewed using structured questionnaires. Two mathematical tools were used to identify potential plant species: the Disease Consensus Index and the Use Value. International databases, including SCOPUS, PubMed, and Google Scholar, were used to identify whether the plants with the highest scores were known to elicit hypoglycemic effects.

RESULTS

After analyzing the data, we can propose the following plants as the most prominent among the Cakchiquels of Chimaltenango to treat type 2 diabetes: Hamelia patens Jacq., Neurolaena lobata (L.) R.Br.ex Cass., Solanum americanum Mill., Croton guatemalensis Lotsy, and Quercus peduncularis Née.

CONCLUSIONS

The Cakchiquel patients interviewed did not understand type 2 diabetes; however, they associated the onset of their disease with a negative emotion, such as shock, sadness or anger. Despite changes in lifestyle, influences of advertising, the availability of innovative treatments and the use of oral hypoglycemic treatments provided by health facilities serving indigenous communities, the Cakchiquel continue to use medicinal plants as adjunctive treatment. While they are unaware whether the plants can cause additional harm, they consider their consumption beneficial because they feel better. There were 11 plants identified with UVs greater than 0.5 and high DCIs; from these 64% of the plants have been identified as having hypoglycemic effects; this finding supports the traditional selection by the Cakchiquels of medicinal plants to treat T2D.

Ethno medicine and healthcare practices among Nicobarese of Car Nicobar - an indigenous tribe of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study is an attempt to document the use of medicinal plants by Nicobarese tribe from the Car Nicobar Island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Inspite of the availability of modern healthcare facilities tribal people often take herbal medicines and Traditional Knowledge Practitioners (TKPs) serve as the local medical experts in Car Nicobar Island.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was to conduct an ethnomedicinal survey among the TKPs of Nicobarese tribe of the inhabitants of Car Nicobar Island, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field research was conducted in 15 villages of Car Nicobar Island during March 2011-February 2012. TKPs were interviewed with a questionnaire-guided ethnomedical survey protocol. The data obtained were quantitatively analysed using the informant consensus factor (ICF) and use value (UV). Voucher specimens of all cited plants were collected and deposited at Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), Port Blair.

RESULTS

Use of 150 medicinal plant species, belonging to 122 genera encompassing 59 families were recorded during the survey. These 150 species are employed to treat 47 different medicinal uses, divided into nine categories of use. The highest ICF (0.68) was obtained for the gastrointestinal system. The Euphorbiaceae family exhibited the highest number of citations, and the species with the highest UVs were Morinda citrifolia L., Tabernaemontana crispa Roxb. and Colubrina asiatica (L.) Brongn. Of the medicinal plants reported, the most common growth form was shrubs (28%). Among several parts of individual plant species which are used, leaves constitute the major portion in preparation of medicines. Remedies were generally prepared using water as the excipient.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is an attempt to document the use of medicinal plants from the Car Nicobar Island of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Future phytochemical and pharmacological studies are needed to confirm the efficacy and safety of the identified plants.

Ethnomedicinal plant use value in the Lakki Marwat District of Pakistan

AIM OF THE STUDY

Medicinal plants are regional treasures for the treatment of many ailments. The present research investigated and documented knowledge of indigenous commonly used medicinal plants, including traditional names, preparations and uses, in the Lakki Marwat District of Pakistan. The information gathered was statistically analyzed using the ICF method to establish baseline data for more comprehensive investigations of bioactive compounds of indigenous medicinal plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Direct interviews of 78 informants were conducted during 2013-2014 to identify the preparations and uses of indigenous medicinal plants. Data were analyzed using various quantitative tools, such as use value, factor informant consensus and fidelity level.

RESULTS

A total of 62 species of flowering plants belonging to 34 families and 57 genera were reportedly used as ethnomedicines in the study area. Fabaceae, Brassicaceae, Apocynaceae, Solanaceae, Apiaceae, Poaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae were the main plant families that comprised ethnobotanically important plant species. Traditional healers most frequently used aerial parts of plants. The following medicinal species were the most important in the present study with the highest use values (UV): Plantago ovata Forsk.(F. Plantaginaceae), Lawsonia inermis L.(F. Lythraceae), Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.(F. Apocynaceae), Peganum harmala L.(F. Zygophyllaceae), Fagonia indica Burm.f. (F. Zygophyllaceae), Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb. (F. Asteraceae), Datura metel L. (F. Solanaceae) and Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. (F. Brassicaceae). Respiratory, otic, gastrointestinal and neurological ailments were the main categories that were classified as per factor informant consensus (Fic). The greatest number of species was used to cure gastrointestinal and andrological/gynecological problems. The highest fidelity level (Fl=100%) was achieved by Plantago ovata Forsk. (F. Plantaginaceae) to cure cardiovascular disorders.

CONCLUSION

The results of present study reveal that this enormous wealth of medicinal plants played an important role in the health care of the villagers in the study area. In addition, species with high use values (UV) might provide valuable leads for further pharmacological investigations.

Relative importance of indigenous medicinal plants from Layyah district, Punjab Province, Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethnomedicinal reports are important for the discovery of new crude drugs from reported medicinal plants with high use value. The current study aimed to document the medicinal flora as well as medicinal knowledge of indigenous plants of local communities from Layyah district, Punjab Province, Pakistan.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Rapid appraisal approach (RAA), semi-structured interviews, group meetings with herbalists, landowners and local people having awareness about the medicinal action of plants were employed to collect the data. Use values (UV) and frequency of citation (FC) were calculated to check the relative importance of plants.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The current ethnomedicinal study reported 125 medicinal plant species diversified from 106 genus belonging to the 43 different families and Poaceae was the predominant family over others with 16 reported medicinal plants. Wild herbaceous plants were the predominant over other life forms while among plant parts, leaves contributed 32% followed by the stem (27%), fruit and flowers (15%). Allium sativum exhibited the highest use vale (UV) 0.92 while the lowest UV was exhibited by Lasiurus scindicus which was 0.15.

CONCLUSION

Local communities of district Layyah still have a strong faith on herbal medicines for basic healthcare needs. Indigenous plants having high UV and FC should be subjected to the detailed phytochemical investigations to explore new natural drugs.

Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Geçitli and its surrounding (Hakkari-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants in the Geçitli Township in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Recording such data calls for urgency this is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of the FIC method in Eastern (Hakkari) part of Turkey. Aim of the study This study aims to identify the wild plants collected for medicinal purposes by locals of Geçitli which is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, and to identify the uses and local names of these wild plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2008-2010). During this period, 70 plants taxa and one mushroom were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant taxa were collected within the scope of the study; and herbarium materials were prepared. In addition, the relative significance value of the taxa was determined, and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

RESULTS

We have found out in the literature review of the plants included in our study that 70 plant taxa and one mushroom are already used for medicinal purposes while 11 plants are not available among the records in the literature. The most common families are Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae. We include in our study and report for the first time the medicinal uses of Alchemilla hessii Rothm., Cirsium pubigerum (Desf.) DC. var. spinosum Pet., Diplotaenia cachrydifolia Boiss., Euphorbia macrocarpa Boiss. & Buhse, Galium consanguineum Boiss., Inula helenium L. subsp. vanensis Grierson, Johrenia dichotoma DC. subsp. sintenisii Bornm., Pelargonium quercetorum Agnew, Rosa heckeliana Tratt. subsp. vanheurckiana (Crĕp.) Ö. Nilsson, Salix aegyptiaca L., Taraxacum montanum (C.A. Mey.) DC. Names of local plants in Turkey vary especially due to vernaculars. The plants that the locals of Geçitli use are called with the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.

CONCLUSION

We found out that locals living in the research area use for therapeutic purpose 70 plants taxa and one mushroom which belong to 28 families. Turkish citizens with different ethnic backgrounds took the questionnaire. These people use these wild plants in treatment of several diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies on the wild plants which grow in Geçitli proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the therapeutic plants that grow in Geçitli are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Elazığ (Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study has identified not only the wild plants collected for medical purposes by local people of Elazığ Province in the Eastern Anatolia Region, but also the uses and local names of these plants. These resources are usually regarded as part of a culture׳s traditional knowledge. Therefore, the aim of this study is to collect information from local population concerning the use of medicinal plants of the Elazığ region; identify the most important medicinal plants used; determine the relative importance of the species surveyed and calculate the informant consensus factor (FIC) in relation to medicinal plant use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2012-2013). A questionnaire was administered to the local people, through face-to-face interviews (Appendix A). Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant species were collected within the scope of the study; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. The collected data were used to calculate the FIC and the plant use values.

RESULTS

74 Plants were found to be used for medical purposes before in the literature analysis of the plants used in our study, while 6 plants were found to have no literature records. Our results showed that the highest use values were recorded for the species Urtica dioica L. (0.46) and Rosa canina L. (0.42), while the highest FIC was cited for skin diseases (0.60).

CONCLUSION

Data obtained showed that in the studied area the folk use of plants is alive and still derives from daily practice. Evaluation of pharmacological activity for the promising medicinal plants is suggested.

Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study was aimed to explore the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plant species of Baluch tribes in Saravan region, Baluchistan province, Iran.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Rapid appraisal approach along with the semi-structured open ended questionnaire, interviews and personal observations were used to collect the indigenous medicinal information. Quantitative analysis including the informant consensus factor (ICF) and use value (UV) was performed to evaluate the valued medicinal plants.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total 64 medicinal plants belonging to 30 families were reported from the study area. Among families, Lamiaceae dominated over other families and leaves dominated with 31% over other plant parts used as herbal remedies. Rhazya stricta and Datura stamonium (0.35) attributed the higher UV, followed by Otostegia persica (0.33) and Teucrium polium (0.32). Results of the ICF showed that cold/flu/fever (0.71) and blood disorders (0.57) were the most common diseases of the study area.

CONCLUSION

The use value and informant consensus factor substantiated that the relative importance of plant species and sharing knowledge of herbal therapies between different tribal communities of this area is still rich.

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Tai Yai in Northern Thailand

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

We studied traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used by Tai Yai people in Northern Thailand. We documented traditional medical practices and determined importance among the Tai Yai. This paper reports on knowledge in usage of medicinal plants of the Tai Yai people in Northern Thailand.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Interviews were conducted in 4 Tai Yai villages in Mae Hong Son and Chiang Mai provinces whose inhabitants immigrated from Myanmar at different times. Discussions and interviews were held with 126 key-informants (56 males and 70 females) ranging in age from 16 to 80 years in three age groups (age 16-40, 41-60, and 61-80). We calculated the informant consensus factor (ICF) for use category, use value index (UV) for use report of plant. We tested differences between the knowledge of different age groups and locations using principal component analysis (PCA).

RESULTS

These Tai Yai people used of 141 medicinal plants belonging to 59 families. Of the medicinal plant species, the highest percentage was in the family Euphorbiaceae: Croton acutifolius and Croton roxburghii. The highest number of Informant consensus factor was for metabolic system disorders. Overall, Tai Yai people use medicinal plants to cure many sicknesses such as hypertension, lumbago, wounds, puerperium, kidney disorders, kidney stones, coughs, fevers, hemorrhoids, flatulence and malaria. There were no significant differences in knowledge of plants usage among villages of different ages. In addition, the knowledge of the plants was not significantly different between men and women. However, we found that the younger had less experience with and knowledge of medicinal plants than older people.

CONCLUSIONS

The result indicates loss of accumulated knowledge of medicinal plants and traditional use. Although, the medicinal plant knowledge was passed from one generation to the next by word of mouth, the detailed documentation of medicinal plants and their use may effectively prevent the knowledge-loss through time.

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by tribal and native people of Madhupur forest area, Bangladesh

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Madhupur forest area, Tangail is one of early human settlements in Bangladesh. Having abode in the vicinity of the forest, a strong ethnobotanical practice has prevailed in this area since ancient time. Due to the rapid deforestation during the last few decades, many plants have already disappeared or are facing extinction. Thus we attempted to document the medicinal plant use of Madhupur forest area with a view to preserve the ethnobotanical knowledge and in order to protect the biodiversity of this area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fieldwork was conducted during a period of 1 year. Data was collected by interview, questionnaire, and group discussion with randomly selected informants including indigenous, tribal people, and Traditional Health Practitioners (THPs) living in the study area. Recorded plants are listed along with their indication, part used, form of preparation and use value (UV). Results were also analysed to determine informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (FL) of the plants on the basis of their use under various ailment categories.

RESULTS

The present study has documented 78 medicinal plant species from 45 families used for the treatment of at least 77 different major and minor ailments and conditions. Medicinal plant species were categorised as tree, shrub, tuber, herb, and climber. Leaves were found to be the most frequently used plant part while decoction is the major form of preparation. In most cases preparations are either administered orally or applied topically.

CONCLUSION

The present study revealed that some of the well-known medicinal plants are used extensively demonstrating an effective ethnobotanical practice in the study area. Plants with high ICF and FL values can be subjected to bioassay guided investigation while plants which scored low UVs require bioactivity screening to justify their use for the reported ailment.

Local knowledge, use pattern and geographical distribution of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae) in Nigeria

ETHNO-PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

All parts of Moringa oleifera are medicinally valuable with overlapping uses in treating myriads of ailments and diseases including body pains and weakness, fever, asthma, cough, blood pressure, arthritis, diabetes, epilepsy, wound, and skin infection. Moringa also has robust ability to challenge terminal diseases such as HIV/AIDs infections, chronic anemia, cancer, malaria and hemorrhage. The present study was to obtain ethnobotanical information on the use and local knowledge variation, geographical distribution, and to collect different landraces of Moringa oleifera from the different agro-ecological regions in Nigeria, for further studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical data were collected through face to face interviews, semi structured questionnaires and discussions with selected people who had knowledge about the plant. The fidelity level (FL %) and use value for different use categories of Moringa oleifera and its parts were estimated. The variation in ethnobotanical knowledge was evaluated by comparing the mean use value among ethnic, gender and age groups using sample T test. Garmi GPS was used to determine the locations (latitude and longitude) and height in different areas to assess the geographical spread of the species.

RESULTS

Seven (7) categories of use (Food, medicine, fodder, fencing, firewood, gum and coagulant) were recorded for Moringa oleifera. Food and medicinal uses showed highest fidelity level while the leaves and the seeds were the plant parts most utilized for the same purposes. There were significant differences among the ethnic, gender and age groups regarding the ethno-botanical use value. The geographical distribution pattern shows that the Moringa oleifera is well distributed in all ecological zones of Nigeria, well adapted to the varied climatic conditions and gaining unprecedented awareness among the people.

CONCLUSION

Though considered an introduced species, Moringa oleifera has found wide acceptance, recognition and usefulness among the various ethnicities in the studied areas. The sources of introduction, domestication and ethnic differentiation influenced the distribution pattern across the geographical areas.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Solhan (Bingöl-Turkey)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study has identified not only the wild plants collected for medical purposes by local people of Solhan District in the Eastern Anatolia Region, but also the uses and local names of these plants. It tried to provide a source for researchers studying in ethnobotany, pharmacology and chemistry by comparing the information obtained from traditionally used herbs with previous laboratory studies.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to identify wild plants collected for medical purposes by the local people of Solhan District located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey and to determine the uses and local names of these plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2011-2012). During this period, 214 vascular plant specimens were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants, names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The plant species were collected within the scope of the study; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. In addition, the relative importance value of the species was determined and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study. Our research area also includes people with Kurdish and Zaza ethnic origins.

RESULTS

82 plants were found to be used for medical purposes before in the literature analysis of the plants used in our study, while 9 plants were found to have no literature records. The most common families are Asteraceae (12 plants), Rosaceae (10 plants), and Lamiaceae (9 plants). The medicinal uses of Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., Arum elongnatum Steven, Astragalus lamarckii Boiss., Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., Crataegus atrosanguinea Pojark., Hordeum bulbosum L., Pastinaca armena Fisch. & Mey., Prunus kurdica Fenzl ex Fritsch, Sium sisarum L. var. lancifolium (M. Bieb.) Thell. that we found were used in our study area and recorded for the first time. No information could be obtained regarding the names of two wild plants that are being used in Solhan. In Turkey, local plant names display differences especially due to local dialects. The plants used in Solhan are known by the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.

CONCLUSION

In the research area, local people were found to use 82 plants from 31 families for curative purposes. The respondents of the questionnaire are Turkish citizens, with various ethnic backgrounds. Mean age of the respondents was 55 years. These plants are used in the treatment of many diseases. Comparison of the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies derived from the plants growing in Solhan proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated that the curative plants that grow in Solhan are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar diseases. These plants, used for the treatment of various diseases, are abundantly found in this region. Drying of the medicinal plants enabled the local people to use them in every season of the year.