1
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Wenzl SJ, de Oliveira Mann CC. How enzyme-centered approaches are advancing research on cyclic oligo-nucleotides. FEBS Lett 2024; 598:839-863. [PMID: 38453162 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Cyclic nucleotides are the most diversified category of second messengers and are found in all organisms modulating diverse pathways. While cAMP and cGMP have been studied over 50 years, cyclic di-nucleotide signaling in eukaryotes emerged only recently with the anti-viral molecule 2´3´cGAMP. Recent breakthrough discoveries have revealed not only the astonishing chemical diversity of cyclic nucleotides but also surprisingly deep-rooted evolutionary origins of cyclic oligo-nucleotide signaling pathways and structural conservation of the proteins involved in their synthesis and signaling. Here we discuss how enzyme-centered approaches have paved the way for the identification of several cyclic nucleotide signals, focusing on the advantages and challenges associated with deciphering the activation mechanisms of such enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Wenzl
- Department of Bioscience, TUM School of Natural Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| | - Carina C de Oliveira Mann
- Department of Bioscience, TUM School of Natural Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
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2
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Cancino-Diaz ME, Guerrero-Barajas C, Betanzos-Cabrera G, Cancino-Diaz JC. Nucleotides as Bacterial Second Messengers. Molecules 2023; 28:7996. [PMID: 38138485 PMCID: PMC10745434 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28247996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
In addition to comprising monomers of nucleic acids, nucleotides have signaling functions and act as second messengers in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The most common example is cyclic AMP (cAMP). Nucleotide signaling is a focus of great interest in bacteria. Cyclic di-AMP (c-di-AMP), cAMP, and cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) participate in biological events such as bacterial growth, biofilm formation, sporulation, cell differentiation, motility, and virulence. Moreover, the cyclic-di-nucleotides (c-di-nucleotides) produced in pathogenic intracellular bacteria can affect eukaryotic host cells to allow for infection. On the other hand, non-cyclic nucleotide molecules pppGpp and ppGpp are alarmones involved in regulating the bacterial response to nutritional stress; they are also considered second messengers. These second messengers can potentially be used as therapeutic agents because of their immunological functions on eukaryotic cells. In this review, the role of c-di-nucleotides and cAMP as second messengers in different bacterial processes is addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario E. Cancino-Diaz
- Departamentos Microbiología and Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Manuel Carpio, Plutarco Elías Calles, Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11350, Mexico
| | - Claudia Guerrero-Barajas
- Departamento de Bioprocesos, Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria de Biotecnología, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. Acueducto, La Laguna Ticoman, Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México 07340, Mexico;
| | - Gabriel Betanzos-Cabrera
- Área Académica de Nutrición y Medicina, Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Carretera Pachuca-Actopan Camino a Tilcuautla s/n, Pueblo San Juan Tilcuautla, Pachuca Hidalgo 42160, Mexico;
| | - Juan C. Cancino-Diaz
- Departamentos Microbiología and Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Manuel Carpio, Plutarco Elías Calles, Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11350, Mexico
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3
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Pottie E, Suresh RR, Jacobson KA, Stove CP. Assay-Dependent Inverse Agonism at the A 3 Adenosine Receptor: When Neutral Is Not Neutral. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2023; 6:1266-1274. [PMID: 37705594 PMCID: PMC10496142 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.3c00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
The A3 adenosine receptor (A3AR) is implicated in a variety of (patho)physiological conditions. While most research has focused on agonists and antagonists, inverse agonism at A3AR has been scarcely studied. Therefore, this study aimed at exploring inverse agonism, using two previously engineered cell lines (hA3ARLgBiT-SmBiTβarr2 and hA3ARLgBiT-SmBiTminiGαi), both employing the NanoBiT technology. The previously established inverse agonist PSB-10 showed a decrease in basal signal in the β-arrestin 2 (βarr2) but not the miniGαi recruitment assay, indicative of inverse agonism in the former assay. Control experiments confirmed the specificity and reversibility of this observation. Evaluation of a set of presumed neutral antagonists (MRS7907, MRS7799, XAC, and MRS1220) revealed that all displayed concentration-dependent signal decreases when tested in the A3AR-βarr2 recruitment assay, yielding EC50 and Emax values for inverse agonism. Conversely, in the miniGαi recruitment assay, no signal decreases were observed. To assess whether this observation was caused by the inability of the ligands to induce inverse agonism in the G protein pathway, or rather by a limitation inherent to the employed A3AR-miniGαi recruitment assay, a GloSensor cAMP assay was performed. The outcome of the latter also suggests inverse agonism by the presumed neutral antagonists in this latter assay. These findings emphasize the importance of prior characterization of ligands in the relevant test system. Moreover, it showed the suitability of the NanoBiT βarr2 recruitment and the GloSensor cAMP assays to capture inverse agonism at the A3AR, as opposed to the NanoBiT miniGαi recruitment assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eline Pottie
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg
460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - R. Rama Suresh
- Laboratory
of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute
of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases, National Institutes
of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20802, United States
| | - Kenneth A. Jacobson
- Laboratory
of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute
of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases, National Institutes
of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20802, United States
| | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg
460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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4
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Huang S, Jia A, Ma S, Sun Y, Chang X, Han Z, Chai J. NLR signaling in plants: from resistosomes to second messengers. Trends Biochem Sci 2023; 48:776-787. [PMID: 37394345 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2023.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Nucleotide binding and leucine-rich repeat-containing receptors (NLRs) have a critical role in plant immunity through direct or indirect recognition of pathogen effectors. Recent studies have demonstrated that such recognition induces formation of large protein complexes called resistosomes to mediate NLR immune signaling. Some NLR resistosomes activate Ca2+ influx by acting as Ca2+-permeable channels, whereas others function as active NADases to catalyze the production of nucleotide-derived second messengers. In this review we summarize these studies on pathogen effector-induced assembly of NLR resistosomes and resistosome-mediated production of the second messengers of Ca2+ and nucleotide derivatives. We also discuss downstream events and regulation of resistosome signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijia Huang
- Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Center for Plant Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Aolin Jia
- Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Center for Plant Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shoucai Ma
- Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Center for Plant Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yue Sun
- Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Center for Plant Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xiaoyu Chang
- Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Center for Plant Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhifu Han
- Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Center for Plant Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jijie Chai
- Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Center for Plant Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Cologne 50674, Germany; Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Department of Plant-Microbe Interactions, Cologne 50829, Germany; School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Institute of Biology, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China.
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5
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Gautam S, Mahapa A, Yeramala L, Gandhi A, Krishnan S, Kutti R. V, Chatterji D. Regulatory mechanisms of c-di-AMP synthase from Mycobacterium smegmatis revealed by a structure: Function analysis. Protein Sci 2023; 32:e4568. [PMID: 36660887 PMCID: PMC9926474 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Cyclic-di-nucleotide-based secondary messengers regulate various physiological functions, including stress responses in bacteria. Cyclic diadenosine monophosphate (c-di-AMP) has recently emerged as a crucial second messenger with implications in processes including osmoregulation, antibiotic resistance, biofilm formation, virulence, DNA repair, ion homeostasis, and sporulation, and has potential therapeutic applications. The contrasting activities of the enzymes diadenylate cyclase (DAC) and phosphodiesterase (PDE) determine the equilibrium levels of c-di-AMP. Although c-di-AMP is suspected of playing an essential role in the pathophysiology of bacterial infections and in regulating host-pathogen interactions, the mechanisms of its regulation remain relatively unexplored in mycobacteria. In this report, we biochemically and structurally characterize the c-di-AMP synthase (MsDisA) from Mycobacterium smegmatis. The enzyme activity is regulated by pH and substrate concentration; conditions of significance in the homoeostasis of c-di-AMP levels. Substrate binding stimulates conformational changes in the protein, and pApA and ppApA are synthetic intermediates detectable when enzyme efficiency is low. Unlike the orthologous Bacillus subtilis enzyme, MsDisA does not bind to, and its activity is not influenced in the presence of DNA. Furthermore, we have determined the cryo-EM structure of MsDisA, revealing asymmetry in its structure in contrast to the symmetric crystal structure of Thermotoga maritima DisA. We also demonstrate that the N-terminal minimal region alone is sufficient and essential for oligomerization and catalytic activity. Our data shed light on the regulation of mycobacterial DisA and possible future directions to pursue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhanshu Gautam
- Molecular Biophysics UnitIndian Institute of ScienceBangaloreIndia
| | - Avisek Mahapa
- Molecular Biophysics UnitIndian Institute of ScienceBangaloreIndia
| | - Lahari Yeramala
- National Center for Biological SciencesTata Institute of Fundamental Research, GKVK PostBengaluruIndia
| | - Apoorv Gandhi
- Molecular Biophysics UnitIndian Institute of ScienceBangaloreIndia
| | - Sushma Krishnan
- Electron Microscopy Facility, Division of Biological SciencesIndian Institute of ScienceBangaloreIndia
| | - Vinothkumar Kutti R.
- National Center for Biological SciencesTata Institute of Fundamental Research, GKVK PostBengaluruIndia
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6
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Bondarev AD, Attwood MM, Jonsson J, Chubarev VN, Tarasov VV, Liu W, Schiöth HB. Recent developments of phosphodiesterase inhibitors: Clinical trials, emerging indications and novel molecules. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1057083. [PMID: 36506513 PMCID: PMC9731127 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1057083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The phosphodiesterase (PDE) enzymes, key regulator of the cyclic nucleotide signal transduction system, are long-established as attractive therapeutic targets. During investigation of trends within clinical trials, we have identified a particularly high number of clinical trials involving PDE inhibitors, prompting us to further evaluate the current status of this class of therapeutic agents. In total, we have identified 87 agents with PDE-inhibiting capacity, of which 85 interact with PDE enzymes as primary target. We provide an overview of the clinical drug development with focus on the current clinical uses, novel molecules and indications, highlighting relevant clinical studies. We found that the bulk of current clinical uses for this class of therapeutic agents are chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), vascular and cardiovascular disorders and inflammatory skin conditions. In COPD, particularly, PDE inhibitors are characterised by the compliance-limiting adverse reactions. We discuss efforts directed to appropriately adjusting the dose regimens and conducting structure-activity relationship studies to determine the effect of structural features on safety profile. The ongoing development predominantly concentrates on central nervous system diseases, such as schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and fragile X syndrome; notable advancements are being also made in mycobacterial infections, HIV and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Our analysis predicts the diversification of PDE inhibitors' will continue to grow thanks to the molecules in preclinical development and the ongoing research involving drugs in clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey D. Bondarev
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Functional Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Misty M. Attwood
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Functional Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jörgen Jonsson
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Functional Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | | | - Wen Liu
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Functional Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Helgi B. Schiöth
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Functional Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden,*Correspondence: Helgi B. Schiöth,
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7
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Abstract
Second messenger systems, like the cyclic nucleotide, glycogen synthase kinase-3β, phosphoinositide, and arachidonic acid cascades, are involved in bipolar disorder (BD). We investigated their role on the development of novel therapeutic drugs using second messenger mechanisms. PubMed search and narrative review. We used all relevant keywords for each second messenger cascade combining it with BD and related terms and combined all with novel/innovative treatments/drugs. Our search produced 31 papers most were reviews, and focussed on the PI3K/AKT-GSK-3β/Nrf2-NF-ĸB pathways. Only two human randomized clinical trials were identified, of ebselen, an antioxidant, and celecoxib, a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, both with poor unsatisfactory results. Despite the fact that all second messenger systems are involved in the pathophysiology of BD, there are few experiments with novel drugs using these mechanisms. These mechanisms are a neglected and potentially major opportunity to transform the treatment of bipolar illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Sani
- Department of Neuroscience, Section of Psychiatry, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy.,Department of Psychiatry, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Georgios D Kotzalidis
- Centro Lucio Bini, Rome, Italy.,NESMOS Department, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University, Sant'Andrea University Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Federica Fiaschè
- NESMOS Department, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University, Sant'Andrea University Hospital, Rome, Italy.,ASL Rieti, Servizio Psichiatrico Diagnosi e Cura, Ospedale San Camillo de Lellis, Rieti, Italy
| | - Giovanni Manfredi
- Centro Lucio Bini, Rome, Italy.,NESMOS Department, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University, Sant'Andrea University Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - S Nassir Ghaemi
- School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA.,Lecturer on Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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8
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Kempmann A, Gensch T, Offenhäusser A, Tihaa I, Maybeck V, Balfanz S, Baumann A. The Functional Characterization of GCaMP3.0 Variants Specifically Targeted to Subcellular Domains. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126593. [PMID: 35743038 PMCID: PMC9223625 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium (Ca2+) ions play a pivotal role in physiology and cellular signaling. The intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) is about three orders of magnitude lower than the extracellular concentration, resulting in a steep transmembrane concentration gradient. Thus, the spatial and the temporal dynamics of [Ca2+]i are ideally suited to modulate Ca2+-mediated cellular responses to external signals. A variety of highly sophisticated methods have been developed to gain insight into cellular Ca2+ dynamics. In addition to electrophysiological measurements and the application of synthetic dyes that change their fluorescent properties upon interaction with Ca2+, the introduction and the ongoing development of genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators (GECI) opened a new era to study Ca2+-driven processes in living cells and organisms. Here, we have focused on one well-established GECI, i.e., GCaMP3.0. We have systematically modified the protein with sequence motifs, allowing localization of the sensor in the nucleus, in the mitochondrial matrix, at the mitochondrial outer membrane, and at the plasma membrane. The individual variants and a cytosolic version of GCaMP3.0 were overexpressed and purified from E. coli cells to study their biophysical properties in solution. All versions were examined to monitor Ca2+ signaling in stably transfected cell lines and in primary cortical neurons transduced with recombinant Adeno-associated viruses (rAAV). In this comparative study, we provide evidence for a robust approach to reliably trace Ca2+ signals at the (sub)-cellular level with pronounced temporal resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Kempmann
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, IBI-1, Research Center Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (A.K.); (T.G.); (S.B.)
| | - Thomas Gensch
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, IBI-1, Research Center Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (A.K.); (T.G.); (S.B.)
| | - Andreas Offenhäusser
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, IBI-3, Research Center Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (A.O.); (I.T.); (V.M.)
| | - Irina Tihaa
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, IBI-3, Research Center Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (A.O.); (I.T.); (V.M.)
| | - Vanessa Maybeck
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, IBI-3, Research Center Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (A.O.); (I.T.); (V.M.)
| | - Sabine Balfanz
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, IBI-1, Research Center Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (A.K.); (T.G.); (S.B.)
| | - Arnd Baumann
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, IBI-1, Research Center Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (A.K.); (T.G.); (S.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-2461-614014
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9
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Johnson S, Pleshinger D, Jalkh J, Ijaz Z, Annamdevula N, Britain AL, Francis CM, Deshpande D, Leavesley SJ, Rich TC. Measurement of agonist-induced Ca 2+ signals in human airway smooth muscle cells using excitation scan-based hyperspectral imaging and image analysis approaches. Proc SPIE Int Soc Opt Eng 2022; 11964:119640J. [PMID: 35755606 PMCID: PMC9215168 DOI: 10.1117/12.2608276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Ca2+ and cAMP are ubiquitous second messengers known to differentially regulate a variety of cellular functions over a wide range of timescales. Studies from a variety of groups support the hypothesis that these signals can be localized to discrete locations within cells, and that this subcellular localization is a critical component of signaling specificity. However, to date, it has been difficult to track second messenger signals at multiple locations. To overcome this limitation, we utilized excitation scan-based hyperspectral imaging approaches to track second messenger signals as well as labeled cellular structures and/or proteins in the same cell. We have previously reported that hyperspectral imaging techniques improve the signal-to-noise ratios of both fluorescence measurements, and are thus well suited for the measurement of localized Ca2+ signals. We investigated the spatial spread and intensities of agonist-induced Ca2+ signals in primary human airway smooth muscle cells (HASMCs) using the Ca2+ indicator Cal520. We measured responses triggered by three agonists, carbachol, histamine, and chloroquine. We utilized custom software coded in MATLAB and Python to assess agonist induced changes in Ca2+ levels. Software algorithms removed the background and applied correction coefficients to spectral data prior to linear unmixing, spatial and temporal filtering, adaptive thresholding, and automated region of interest (ROI) detection. All three agonists triggered transient Ca2+ responses that were spatially and temporally complex. We are currently analyzing differences in both ROI area and intensity distributions triggered by these agonists. This work was supported by NIH awards P01HL066299, K25HL136869, and R01HL137030 and NSF award MRI1725937.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Josephine Jalkh
- Biomedical Sciences, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | - Zara Ijaz
- Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | | | | | - C. Michael Francis
- Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | - Deepak Deshpande
- Center for Translational Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Silas J. Leavesley
- Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688,Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | - Thomas C. Rich
- Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
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10
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Annamdevula N, Johnson S, Pleshinger D, Castleberry S, Russell W, Britain A, Francis C, Rich T, Leavesley S. Hyperspectral imaging and adaptive thresholding to identify agonist-induced cAMP signals in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells. Proc SPIE Int Soc Opt Eng 2022; 11966:1196604. [PMID: 35756693 PMCID: PMC9215167 DOI: 10.1117/12.2608292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a second messenger that regulates a wide variety of cellular functions. There is increasing evidence suggesting that signaling specificity is due in part to cAMP compartmentalization. In the last 15 years, development of cAMP-specific Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) probes have allowed us to visualize spatial distributions of intracellular cAMP signals. The use of FRET-based sensors is not without its limitations, as FRET probes display low signal to noise ratio (SNR). Hyperspectral imaging and analysis approaches have, in part, allowed us to overcome these limitations by improving the SNR of FRET measurements. Here we demonstrate that the combination of hyperspectral imaging approaches, linear unmixing, and adaptive thresholding allow us to visualize regions of elevated cAMP (regions of interest - ROIs) in an unbiased manner. We transfected cDNA encoding the H188 FRET-based cAMP probe into pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells. Application of isoproterenol and prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) triggered complex cAMP responses. Spatial and temporal aspects of cAMP responses were quantified using an adaptive thresholding approach and compared between agonist treatment groups. Our data indicate that both the origination sites and spatial/temporal distributions of cAMP signals are agonist dependent in PMVECs. We are currently analyzing the data in order to better quantify the distribution of cAMP signals triggered by different agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Annamdevula
- Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | - S. Johnson
- Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | | | | | | | - A.L. Britain
- Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | - C.M. Francis
- Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | - T.C. Rich
- Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
| | - S.J. Leavesley
- Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688,Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
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11
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Marcec MJ, Tanaka K. Crosstalk between Calcium and ROS Signaling during Flg22-Triggered Immune Response in Arabidopsis Leaves. Plants (Basel) 2021; 11:plants11010014. [PMID: 35009017 PMCID: PMC8747291 DOI: 10.3390/plants11010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are two of the earliest second messengers in response to environmental stresses in plants. The rise and sequestration of these messengers in the cytosol and apoplast are formed by various channels, transporters, and enzymes that are required for proper defense responses. It remains unclear how calcium and ROS signals regulate each other during pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). In the present study, we examined the effects of perturbing one signal on the other in Arabidopsis leaves upon the addition of flg22, a well-studied microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP). To this end, a variety of pharmacological agents were used to suppress either calcium or ROS signaling. Our data suggest that cytosolic calcium elevation is required to initiate and regulate apoplastic ROS production generated by respiratory burst oxidase homologs (RBOHs). In contrast, ROS has no effect on the initiation of the calcium signal, but is required for forming a sufficient amplitude of the calcium signal. This finding using pharmacological agents is corroborated by the result of using a genetic double mutant, rbohd rbohf. Our study provides an insight into the mutual interplay of calcium and ROS signals during the MAMP-induced PTI response in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Marcec
- Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA;
- Molecular Plant Sciences Program, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Kiwamu Tanaka
- Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA;
- Molecular Plant Sciences Program, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
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12
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Braun F, Recalde A, Bähre H, Seifert R, Albers SV. Putative Nucleotide-Based Second Messengers in the Archaeal Model Organisms Haloferax volcanii and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:779012. [PMID: 34880846 PMCID: PMC8646023 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.779012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on nucleotide-based second messengers began in 1956 with the discovery of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (3′,5′-cAMP) by Earl Wilbur Sutherland and his co-workers. Since then, a broad variety of different signaling molecules composed of nucleotides has been discovered. These molecules fulfill crucial tasks in the context of intracellular signal transduction. The vast majority of the currently available knowledge about nucleotide-based second messengers originates from model organisms belonging either to the domain of eukaryotes or to the domain of bacteria, while the archaeal domain is significantly underrepresented in the field of nucleotide-based second messenger research. For several well-stablished eukaryotic and/or bacterial nucleotide-based second messengers, it is currently not clear whether these signaling molecules are present in archaea. In order to shed some light on this issue, this study analyzed cell extracts of two major archaeal model organisms, the euryarchaeon Haloferax volcanii and the crenarchaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, using a modern mass spectrometry method to detect a broad variety of currently known nucleotide-based second messengers. The nucleotides 3′,5′-cAMP, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (3′,5′-cGMP), 5′-phosphoadenylyl-3′,5′-adenosine (5′-pApA), diadenosine tetraphosphate (Ap4A) as well as the 2′,3′-cyclic isomers of all four RNA building blocks (2′,3′-cNMPs) were present in both species. In addition, H. volcanii cell extracts also contain cyclic cytosine monophosphate (3′,5′-cCMP), cyclic uridine monophosphate (3′,5′-cUMP) and cyclic diadenosine monophosphate (3′,5′-c-di-AMP). The widely distributed bacterial second messengers cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (3′,5′-c-di-GMP) and guanosine (penta-)/tetraphosphate [(p)ppGpp] could not be detected. In summary, this study gives a comprehensive overview on the presence of a large set of currently established or putative nucleotide-based second messengers in an eury- and a crenarchaeal model organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Braun
- Molecular Biology of Archaea, Institute of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Alejandra Recalde
- Molecular Biology of Archaea, Institute of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Heike Bähre
- Research Core Unit Metabolomics, Hannover Medical School, Hanover, Germany
| | - Roland Seifert
- Research Core Unit Metabolomics, Hannover Medical School, Hanover, Germany
| | - Sonja-Verena Albers
- Molecular Biology of Archaea, Institute of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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13
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Orchard I, Leyria J, Al-Dailami A, Lange AB. Fluid Secretion by Malpighian Tubules of Rhodnius prolixus: Neuroendocrine Control With New Insights From a Transcriptome Analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:722487. [PMID: 34512553 PMCID: PMC8426621 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.722487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhodnius prolixus (the kissing bug and a major vector of Chagas disease) is an obligate blood feeder that in the case of the fifth instar consumes up to 10 times its unfed body weight in a single 20-minute feed. A post-prandial diuresis is initiated, within minutes of the start of gorging, in order to lower the mass and concentrate the nutrients of the meal. Thus, R. prolixus rapidly excretes a fluid that is high in NaCl content and hypo-osmotic to the hemolymph, thereby eliminating 50% of the volume of the blood meal within 3 hours of gorging. In R. prolixus, as with other insects, the Malpighian tubules play a critical role in diuresis. Malpighian tubules are not innervated, and their fine control comes under the influence of the neuroendocrine system that releases amines and neuropeptides as diuretic or antidiuretic hormones. These hormones act upon the Malpighian tubules via a variety of G protein-coupled receptors linked to second messenger systems that influence ion transporters and aquaporins; thereby regulating fluid secretion. Much has been discovered about the control of diuresis in R. prolixus, and other model insects, using classical endocrinological studies. The post-genomic era, however, has brought new insights, identifying novel diuretic and antidiuretic hormone-signaling pathways whilst also validating many of the classical discoveries. This paper will focus on recent discoveries into the neuroendocrine control of the rapid post-prandial diuresis in R. prolixus, in order to emphasize new insights from a transcriptome analysis of Malpighian tubules taken from unfed and fed bugs.
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Abstract
Compartmentalized oscillations of second messengers affect global cellular signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha M Kuhn
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - André Nadler
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
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15
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De Biase D, Morrissey JP, O'Byrne CP. Editorial: Microbial Stress: From Sensing to Intracellular and Population Responses. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1667. [PMID: 32849343 PMCID: PMC7411178 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela De Biase
- Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Laboratory Affiliated to the Istituto Pasteur Italia - Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Latina, Italy
| | - John P Morrissey
- School of Microbiology, Centre for Synthetic Biology and Biotechnology, Environmental Research Institute, APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Conor P O'Byrne
- Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences, College of Science, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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16
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Baudet S, Bécret J, Nicol X. Approaches to Manipulate Ephrin-A:EphA Forward Signaling Pathway. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2020; 13:ph13070140. [PMID: 32629797 PMCID: PMC7407804 DOI: 10.3390/ph13070140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular carcinoma A (EphA) receptors and their ephrin-A ligands are key players of developmental events shaping the mature organism. Their expression is mostly restricted to stem cell niches in adults but is reactivated in pathological conditions including lesions in the heart, lung, or nervous system. They are also often misregulated in tumors. A wide range of molecular tools enabling the manipulation of the ephrin-A:EphA system are available, ranging from small molecules to peptides and genetically-encoded strategies. Their mechanism is either direct, targeting EphA receptors, or indirect through the modification of intracellular downstream pathways. Approaches enabling manipulation of ephrin-A:EphA forward signaling for the dissection of its signaling cascade, the investigation of its physiological roles or the development of therapeutic strategies are summarized here.
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17
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Liu C, Sun D, Zhu J, Liu J, Liu W. The Regulation of Bacterial Biofilm Formation by cAMP-CRP: A Mini-Review. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:802. [PMID: 32528421 PMCID: PMC7247823 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilms are communities of microorganisms that live in a self-produced extracellular matrix in order to survive in hostile environments. Second messengers, such as c-di-GMP and cAMP, participate in the regulation of biofilm formation. c-di-GMP is a major molecule that is involved in modulating the bacterial transition between a planktonic lifestyle and biofilm formation. Aside from regulating carbon catabolism repression in most bacteria, cAMP has also been found to mediate biofilm formation in many bacteria. Although the underlying mechanisms of biofilm formation mediated by cAMP-CRP have been well-investigated in several bacteria, the regulatory pathways of cAMP-CRP are still poorly understood compared to those of c-di-GMP. Moreover, some bacteria appear to form biofilm in response to changes in carbon source type or concentration. However, the relationship between the carbon metabolisms and biofilm formation remains unclear. This mini-review provides an overview of the cAMP-CRP-regulated pathways involved in biofilm formation in some bacteria. This information will benefit future investigations of the underlying mechanisms that connect between biofilm formation with nutrient metabolism, as well as the cross-regulation between multiple second messengers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Di Sun
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Jingrong Zhu
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Jiawen Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Weijie Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
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18
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Filippini A, D'Amore A, D'Alessio A. Calcium Mobilization in Endothelial Cell Functions. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184525. [PMID: 31547344 PMCID: PMC6769945 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Endothelial cells (ECs) constitute the innermost layer that lines all blood vessels from the larger arteries and veins to the smallest capillaries, including the lymphatic vessels. Despite the histological classification of endothelium of a simple epithelium and its homogeneous morphological appearance throughout the vascular system, ECs, instead, are extremely heterogeneous both structurally and functionally. The different arrangement of cell junctions between ECs and the local organization of the basal membrane generate different type of endothelium with different permeability features and functions. Continuous, fenestrated and discontinuous endothelia are distributed based on the specific function carried out by the organs. It is thought that a large number ECs functions and their responses to extracellular cues depend on changes in intracellular concentrations of calcium ion ([Ca2+]i). The extremely complex calcium machinery includes plasma membrane bound channels as well as intracellular receptors distributed in distinct cytosolic compartments that act jointly to maintain a physiological [Ca2+]i, which is crucial for triggering many cellular mechanisms. Here, we first survey the overall notions related to intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and later highlight the involvement of this second messenger in crucial ECs functions with the aim at stimulating further investigation that link Ca2+ mobilization to ECs in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Filippini
- Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Unit of Histology and Medical Embryology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Antonella D'Amore
- Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Unit of Histology and Medical Embryology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Alessio D'Alessio
- Istituto di Istologia ed Embriologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "Agostino Gemelli", IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy.
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19
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O'Banion CP, Vickerman BM, Haar L, Lawrence DS. Compartmentalized cAMP Generation by Engineered Photoactivated Adenylyl Cyclases. Cell Chem Biol 2019; 26:1393-1406.e7. [PMID: 31353320 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2019.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Because small-molecule activators of adenylyl cyclases (AC) affect ACs cell-wide, it is challenging to explore the signaling consequences of AC activity emanating from specific intracellular compartments. We explored this issue using a series of engineered, optogenetic, spatially restricted, photoactivable adenylyl cyclases (PACs) positioned at the plasma membrane (PM), the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), and the nucleus (Nu). The biochemical consequences of brief photostimulation of PAC is primarily limited to the intracellular site occupied by the PAC. By contrast, sustained photostimulation results in distal cAMP signaling. Prolonged cAMP generation at the OMM profoundly stimulates nuclear protein kinase (PKA) activity. We have found that phosphodiesterases 3 (OMM and PM) and 4 (PM) modulate proximal (local) cAMP-triggered activity, whereas phosphodiesterase 4 regulates distal cAMP activity as well as the migration of PKA's catalytic subunit into the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin P O'Banion
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Brianna M Vickerman
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Lauren Haar
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - David S Lawrence
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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20
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Liang D, Wu K, Tei R, Bumpus TW, Ye J, Baskin JM. A real-time, click chemistry imaging approach reveals stimulus-specific subcellular locations of phospholipase D activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:15453-62. [PMID: 31311871 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1903949116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The fidelity of signal transduction requires spatiotemporal control of the production of signaling agents. Phosphatidic acid (PA) is a pleiotropic lipid second messenger whose modes of action differ based on upstream stimulus, biosynthetic source, and site of production. How cells regulate the local production of PA to effect diverse signaling outcomes remains elusive. Unlike other second messengers, sites of PA biosynthesis cannot be accurately visualized with subcellular precision. Here, we describe a rapid, chemoenzymatic approach for imaging physiological PA production by phospholipase D (PLD) enzymes. Our method capitalizes on the remarkable discovery that bulky, hydrophilic trans-cyclooctene-containing primary alcohols can supplant water as the nucleophile in the PLD active site in a transphosphatidylation reaction of PLD's lipid substrate, phosphatidylcholine. The resultant trans-cyclooctene-containing lipids are tagged with a fluorogenic tetrazine reagent via a no-rinse, inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA) reaction, enabling their immediate visualization by confocal microscopy in real time. Strikingly, the fluorescent reporter lipids initially produced at the plasma membrane (PM) induced by phorbol ester stimulation of PLD were rapidly internalized via apparent nonvesicular pathways rather than endocytosis, suggesting applications of this activity-based imaging toolset for probing mechanisms of intracellular phospholipid transport. By instead focusing on the initial 10 s of the IEDDA reaction, we precisely pinpointed the subcellular locations of endogenous PLD activity as elicited by physiological agonists of G protein-coupled receptor and receptor tyrosine kinase signaling. These tools hold promise to shed light on both lipid trafficking pathways and physiological and pathological effects of localized PLD signaling.
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21
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Kisnieriene V, Lapeikaite I, Pupkis V, Beilby MJ. Modeling the Action Potential in Characeae Nitellopsis obtusa: Effect of Saline Stress. Front Plant Sci 2019; 10:82. [PMID: 30833949 PMCID: PMC6387969 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Action potentials (AP) of characean cells were the first electrical transients identified in plants. APs provide information about plethora of environmental cues. Salinity stress is critical for plants and impacts on excitability. The AP of brackish Characeae Nitellopsis obtusa, obtained in artificial pond water (APW) and under osmotic stress of 90 or 180 mM sorbitol APW or saline stress of 50 or 100 mM NaCl APW, were simulated by the Thiel-Beilby model (Beilby and Al Khazaaly, 2016). The model is based on a paradigm from animal systems, featuring the second messenger inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) mediating the opening of Ca2+ channels on internal stores. In plants the IP3 receptors have not been identified, so other second messengers might translate the threshold plasma membrane depolarization to Ca2+ release. The increased Ca2+ concentration in the cytoplasm activates Cl- channels, which lead to the depolarizing phase of the AP. The repolarization to normal resting potential difference (PD) results from the Ca2+ being re-sequestered by the Ca2+ pumps, the closure of the Cl- channels, efflux of K+ through the depolarization-activated outward rectifier channels and the continuing activity of the proton pump. The Nitellopsis AP form is longer in APW compared to that of Chara, with more gradual repolarization. The tonoplast component of the AP is larger than that in Chara australis. The plasma membrane AP is prolonged by the exposure to saline to a "rectangular" shape, similar to that in Chara. However, the changes are more gradual, allowing more insight into the mechanism of the process. It is possible that the cells recover the original AP form after prolonged exposure to brackish conditions. Some cells experience tonoplast APs only. As in Chara, the proton pump is transiently inhibited by the high cytoplasmic Ca2+ and gradually declines in saline media. However, if the cells are very hyperpolarized at the start of the experiment, the pump inhibition both by the AP and by the saline medium is mitigated. The model parameters and their changes with salinity are comparable to those in Chara.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vilma Kisnieriene
- Department of Neurobiology and Biophysics, Life Sciences Center, Institute of Biosciences, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Indre Lapeikaite
- Department of Neurobiology and Biophysics, Life Sciences Center, Institute of Biosciences, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Vilmantas Pupkis
- Department of Neurobiology and Biophysics, Life Sciences Center, Institute of Biosciences, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Mary Jane Beilby
- School of Physics, The University of NSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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22
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Xu Z, You D, Tang LY, Zhou Y, Ye BC. Metabolic Engineering Strategies Based on Secondary Messengers (p)ppGpp and C-di-GMP To Increase Erythromycin Yield in Saccharopolyspora erythraea. ACS Synth Biol 2019; 8:332-345. [PMID: 30632732 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.8b00372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Secondary messengers (such as (p)ppGpp and c-di-GMP) were proved to play important roles in antibiotic biosynthesis in actinobacteria. In this study, we found that transcription levels of erythromycin-biosynthetic ( ery) genes were upregulated in nutrient limitation, which depended on (p)ppGpp in Saccharopolyspora erythraea. Further study demonstrated that the expression of ery genes and intracellular concentrations of (p)ppGpp showed synchronization during culture process. The erythromycin yield was significantly improved (about 200%) by increasing intracellular concentration of (p)ppGpp through introduction of C-terminally truncated (p)ppGpp synthetase RelA (1.43 kb of the N-terminal segment) from Streptomyces coelicolor into S. erythraea strain NRRL2338 (named as WT/pIB-P BAD- relA1-489). As the intracellular concentration of (p)ppGpp in an industrial erythromycin-high-producing strain E3 was greatly higher (about 10- to 100-fold) than WT strain, the applications of the above-described strategy did not work in E3 strain. Further research revealed that low concentration of 2-oxoglutarate in E3 strain exerted a "nitrogen-rich" pseudosignal, leading to the downregulation of nitrogen metabolism genes, which limited the use of nitrogen sources and thus the high intracellular (p)ppGpp concentration. Furthermore, the secondary messenger, c-di-GMP, was proved to be able to activate ery genes transcription by enhancing binding of BldD to promoters of ery genes. Overexpressing the diguanylate cyclase CdgB from S. coelicolor in S. erythraea increased the intracellular c-di-GMP concentration, and improved erythromycin production. These findings demonstrated that increasing the concentration of intracellular secondary messengers can activate ery genes transcription, and provided new strategies for designing metabolic engineering based on secondary messengers to improve antibiotics yield in actinobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Xu
- Institute of Engineering Biology and Health, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
- Lab of Biosystems and Microanalysis, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Di You
- Lab of Biosystems and Microanalysis, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Li-Ya Tang
- Lab of Biosystems and Microanalysis, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Ying Zhou
- Lab of Biosystems and Microanalysis, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Bang-Ce Ye
- Institute of Engineering Biology and Health, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
- Lab of Biosystems and Microanalysis, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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23
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Wein MN, Foretz M, Fisher DE, Xavier RJ, Kronenberg HM. Salt-Inducible Kinases: Physiology, Regulation by cAMP, and Therapeutic Potential. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2018; 29:723-735. [PMID: 30150136 PMCID: PMC6151151 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Salt-inducible kinases (SIKs) represent a subfamily of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) family kinases. Initially named because SIK1 (the founding member of this kinase family) expression is regulated by dietary salt intake in the adrenal gland, it is now apparent that a major biological role of these kinases is to control gene expression in response to extracellular cues that increase intracellular levels of cAMP. Here, we review four physiologically relevant examples of how cAMP signaling impinges upon SIK cellular function. By focusing on examples of cAMP-mediated SIK regulation in gut myeloid cells, bone, liver, and skin, we highlight recent advances in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signal transduction. New knowledge regarding the role of SIKs in GPCR signaling has led to therapeutic applications of novel small molecule SIK inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc N Wein
- Endocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Marc Foretz
- INSERM, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris 75014, France; CNRS, UMR8104, Paris 75014, France; Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75014, France
| | - David E Fisher
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ramnik J Xavier
- Gastrointestinal Unit and Center for the Study of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Center for Microbiome Informatics and Therapeutics, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Henry M Kronenberg
- Endocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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24
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Ross BL, Tenner B, Markwardt ML, Zviman A, Shi G, Kerr JP, Snell NE, McFarland JJ, Mauban JR, Ward CW, Rizzo MA, Zhang J. Single-color, ratiometric biosensors for detecting signaling activities in live cells. eLife 2018; 7:e35458. [PMID: 29968564 PMCID: PMC6037473 DOI: 10.7554/elife.35458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors have revolutionized the study of signal transduction by enabling the real-time tracking of signaling activities in live cells. Investigating the interaction between signaling networks has become increasingly important to understanding complex cellular phenomena, necessitating an update of the biosensor toolkit to allow monitoring and perturbing multiple activities simultaneously in the same cell. We therefore developed a new class of fluorescent biosensors based on homo-FRET, deemed FLuorescence Anisotropy REporters (FLAREs), which combine the multiplexing ability of single-color sensors with a quantitative, ratiometric readout. Using an array of color variants, we were able to demonstrate multiplexed imaging of three activity reporters simultaneously in the same cell. We further demonstrate the compatibility of FLAREs for use with optogenetic tools as well as intravital two-photon imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian L Ross
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of California, San DiegoSan DiegoUnited States
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Brian Tenner
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of California, San DiegoSan DiegoUnited States
- Program in Molecular BiophysicsJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Michele L Markwardt
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Maryland BaltimoreBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Adam Zviman
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Maryland BaltimoreBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Guoli Shi
- Department of OrthopaedicsUniversity of Maryland BaltimoreBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Jaclyn P Kerr
- Department of OrthopaedicsUniversity of Maryland BaltimoreBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Nicole E Snell
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Maryland BaltimoreBaltimoreUnited States
| | | | - Joseph R Mauban
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Maryland BaltimoreBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Christopher W Ward
- Department of OrthopaedicsUniversity of Maryland BaltimoreBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Megan A Rizzo
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Maryland BaltimoreBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Jin Zhang
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of California, San DiegoSan DiegoUnited States
- Program in Molecular BiophysicsJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular SciencesJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
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25
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Severin GB, Ramliden MS, Hawver LA, Wang K, Pell ME, Kieninger AK, Khataokar A, O'Hara BJ, Behrmann LV, Neiditch MB, Benning C, Waters CM, Ng WL. Direct activation of a phospholipase by cyclic GMP-AMP in El Tor Vibrio cholerae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E6048-55. [PMID: 29891656 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1801233115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Second messengers are employed by all organisms to regulate fundamental behaviors, including biofilm formation, motility, metabolism, and pathogenesis in bacteria. We have identified a phospholipase in the El Tor Vibrio cholerae biotype, responsible for the current cholera pandemic, that is directly activated by the second messenger 3′, 3′-cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP). Discovery of this proteinaceous bacterial cGAMP effector sheds light on the functions and basic principles of cGAMP signaling. Both this phospholipase and the cGAMP synthase are encoded within the VSP-1 pathogenicity island, unique to the El Tor biotype, and our findings assign a biochemical function to VSP-1 that may contribute to the epidemiological success of El Tor V. cholerae. Sensing and responding to environmental changes is essential for bacteria to adapt and thrive, and nucleotide-derived second messengers are central signaling systems in this process. The most recently identified bacterial cyclic dinucleotide second messenger, 3′, 3′-cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP), was first discovered in the El Tor biotype of Vibrio cholerae. The cGAMP synthase, DncV, is encoded on the VSP-1 pathogenicity island, which is found in all El Tor isolates that are responsible for the current seventh pandemic of cholera but not in the classical biotype. We determined that unregulated production of DncV inhibits growth in El Tor V. cholerae but has no effect on the classical biotype. This cGAMP-dependent phenotype can be suppressed by null mutations in vc0178 immediately 5′ of dncV in VSP-1. VC0178 [renamed as cGAMP-activated phospholipase in Vibrio (CapV)] is predicted to be a patatin-like phospholipase, and coexpression of capV and dncV is sufficient to induce growth inhibition in classical V. cholerae and Escherichia coli. Furthermore, cGAMP binds to CapV and directly activates its hydrolase activity in vitro. CapV activated by cGAMP in vivo degrades phospholipids in the cell membrane, releasing 16:1 and 18:1 free fatty acids. Together, we demonstrate that cGAMP activates CapV phospholipase activity to target the cell membrane and suggest that acquisition of this second messenger signaling pathway may contribute to the emergence of the El Tor biotype as the etiological agent behind the seventh cholera pandemic.
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Agostoni M, Logan-Jackson AR, Heinz ER, Severin GB, Bruger EL, Waters CM, Montgomery BL. Homeostasis of Second Messenger Cyclic-di-AMP Is Critical for Cyanobacterial Fitness and Acclimation to Abiotic Stress. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1121. [PMID: 29896182 PMCID: PMC5986932 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Second messengers are intracellular molecules regulated by external stimuli known as first messengers that are used for rapid organismal responses to dynamic environmental changes. Cyclic di-AMP (c-di-AMP) is a relatively newly discovered second messenger implicated in cell wall homeostasis in many pathogenic bacteria. C-di-AMP is synthesized from ATP by diadenylyl cyclases (DAC) and degraded by specific c-di-AMP phosphodiesterases (PDE). C-di-AMP DACs and PDEs are present in all sequenced cyanobacteria, suggesting roles for c-di-AMP in the physiology and/or development of these organisms. Despite conservation of these genes across numerous cyanobacteria, the functional roles of c-di-AMP in cyanobacteria have not been well-investigated. In a unique feature of cyanobacteria, phylogenetic analysis indicated that the broadly conserved DAC, related to CdaA/DacA, is always co-associated in an operon with genes critical for controlling cell wall synthesis. To investigate phenotypes regulated by c-di-AMP in cyanobacteria, we overexpressed native DAC (sll0505) and c-di-AMP PDE (slr0104) genes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 (hereafter Synechocystis) to increase and decrease intracellular c-di-AMP levels, respectively. DAC- and PDE-overexpression strains, showed abnormal aggregation phenotypes, suggesting functional roles for regulating c-di-AMP homeostasis in vivo. As c-di-AMP may be implicated in osmotic responses in cyanobacteria, we tested whether sorbitol and NaCl stresses impacted expression of sll0505 and slr0104 or intracellular c-di-AMP levels in Synechocystis. Additionally, to determine the range of cyanobacteria in which c-di-AMP may function, we assessed c-di-AMP levels in two unicellular cyanobacteria, i.e., Synechocystis and Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942, and two filamentous cyanobacteria, i.e., Fremyella diplosiphon and Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. C-di-AMP levels responded differently to abiotic stress signals in distinct cyanobacteria strains, whereas salt stress uniformly impacted another second messenger cyclic di-GMP in cyanobacteria. Together, these results suggest regulation of c-di-AMP homeostasis in cyanobacteria and implicate a role for the second messenger in maintaining cellular fitness in response to abiotic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Agostoni
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States.,Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Alshaé R Logan-Jackson
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Emily R Heinz
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Geoffrey B Severin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Eric L Bruger
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Christopher M Waters
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Beronda L Montgomery
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States.,Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
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Zorec R, Parpura V, Verkhratsky A. Preventing neurodegeneration by adrenergic astroglial excitation. FEBS J 2018; 285:3645-3656. [PMID: 29630772 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Revised: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Impairment of the main noradrenergic nucleus of the human brain, the locus coeruleus (LC), which has been discovered in 1784, represents one of defining factors of neurodegenerative diseases progression. Projections of LC neurons release noradrenaline/norepinephrine (NA), which stimulates astrocytes, homeostatic neuroglial cells enriched with adrenergic receptors. There is a direct correlation between the reduction in noradrenergic innervations and cognitive decline associated with ageing and neurodegenerative diseases. It is, therefore, hypothesized that the resilience of LC neurons to degeneration influences the neural reserve that in turn determines cognitive decline. Deficits in the noradrenergic innervation of the brain might be reversed or restrained by increasing the activity of existing LC neurons, transplanting noradrenergic neurons, and/or using drugs that mimic the activity of NA on astroglia. Here, these strategies are discussed with the aim to understand how astrocytes integrate neuronal network activity in the brain information processing in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Zorec
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology and Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Celica, BIOMEDICAL, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Vladimir Parpura
- Department of Neurobiology, Civitan International Research Center and Center for Glial Biology in Medicine, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Atomic Force Microscopy & Nanotechnology Laboratories, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Alexei Verkhratsky
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology and Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Celica, BIOMEDICAL, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, UK.,Achucarro Center for Neuroscience, IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU and CIBERNED, Leioa, Spain
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Mohammad K, Dakik P, Medkour Y, McAuley M, Mitrofanova D, Titorenko VI. Some Metabolites Act as Second Messengers in Yeast Chronological Aging. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19030860. [PMID: 29543708 PMCID: PMC5877721 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19030860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The concentrations of some key metabolic intermediates play essential roles in regulating the longevity of the chronologically aging yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These key metabolites are detected by certain ligand-specific protein sensors that respond to concentration changes of the key metabolites by altering the efficiencies of longevity-defining cellular processes. The concentrations of the key metabolites that affect yeast chronological aging are controlled spatially and temporally. Here, we analyze mechanisms through which the spatiotemporal dynamics of changes in the concentrations of the key metabolites influence yeast chronological lifespan. Our analysis indicates that a distinct set of metabolites can act as second messengers that define the pace of yeast chronological aging. Molecules that can operate both as intermediates of yeast metabolism and as second messengers of yeast chronological aging include reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), glycerol, trehalose, hydrogen peroxide, amino acids, sphingolipids, spermidine, hydrogen sulfide, acetic acid, ethanol, free fatty acids, and diacylglycerol. We discuss several properties that these second messengers of yeast chronological aging have in common with second messengers of signal transduction. We outline how these second messengers of yeast chronological aging elicit changes in cell functionality and viability in response to changes in the nutrient, energy, stress, and proliferation status of the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karamat Mohammad
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street, West, SP Building, Room 501-13, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
| | - Paméla Dakik
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street, West, SP Building, Room 501-13, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
| | - Younes Medkour
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street, West, SP Building, Room 501-13, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
| | - Mélissa McAuley
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street, West, SP Building, Room 501-13, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
| | - Darya Mitrofanova
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street, West, SP Building, Room 501-13, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
| | - Vladimir I Titorenko
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street, West, SP Building, Room 501-13, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
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Tripathi D, Tanaka K. A crosstalk between extracellular ATP and jasmonate signaling pathways for plant defense. Plant Signal Behav 2018; 13:e1432229. [PMID: 29370573 PMCID: PMC6103277 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2018.1432229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), such as extracellular ATP, act as danger signals in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Extracellular ATP is perceived by a plant purinoceptor, P2 receptor kinase 1 (P2K1), inducing downstream signaling for defense responses. How ATP induces these defense responses has not been well studied. A recent study by Tripathi et al. (Plant Physiology, 176: 511-523, 2018) revealed a synergistic interaction between extracellular ATP and jasmonate (JA) signaling during plant defense responses. This signaling crosstalk requires the formation of secondary messengers, i.e., cytosolic calcium, reactive oxygen species, and nitric oxide. This finding has given a new direction towards understanding the defense signals activated by DAMPs. In this addendum, we discuss possible insights into how extracellular ATP signaling interacts with the JA signaling pathway for plant defense responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diwaker Tripathi
- Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Kiwamu Tanaka
- Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Melatonin is a neurohormone that controls many relevant physiological processes beyond the control of circadian rhythms. Melatonin's actions are carried out by two main types of melatonin receptors; MT1 and MT2. These receptors are important, and not just because of the biological actions of its natural agonist; but also, because melatonin analogues can improve or antagonize their biological effect. Area covered: The following article describes the importance of melatonin as a biologically relevant molecule. It also defines the receptors for this substance, as well as the second messengers coupled to these receptors. Lastly, the article describes the amino acid residues involved in the docking process in both MT1 and MT2 melatonin receptors. Expert opinion: The biological actions of melatonin and their interpretations are becoming more relevant and therefore require the development of new pharmacological tools. Understanding the second messenger mechanisms involved in melatonin actions, as well as the characteristics of the docking of this molecule to MT1 and MT2 melatonin receptors, will permit the development of more selective agonists and antagonists which will help us to better understand this molecule as well to develop new therapeutic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanan Awad Alkozi
- a Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology IV, Faculty of Optometry , Universidad Complutense de Madrid , Madrid , Spain
| | - José Maria Sánchez Montero
- b Department of Organic Chemistry and Pharmaceutical, Faculty of Pharmacy , Ciudad Universitaria , Madrid , Spain
| | - Antonio Luis Doadrio
- c Department of Inorganic Chemistry and Bioorganic, Faculty of Pharmacy , University Complutense of Madrid , Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid , Spain
| | - Jesus Pintor
- a Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology IV, Faculty of Optometry , Universidad Complutense de Madrid , Madrid , Spain
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Abstract
During development, neurons establish inappropriate connections as they seek out their synaptic partners, resulting in supernumerary synapses that must be pruned away. The removal of miswired synapses usually involves electrical activity, often through a Hebbian spike-timing mechanism. A novel form of activity-dependent refinement is used by Drosophila that may be non-Hebbian, and is critical for generating the precise connectivity observed in that system. In Drosophila, motoneurons use both glutamate and the biogenic amine octopamine for neurotransmission, and the muscle fibers receive multiple synaptic inputs. Motoneuron growth cones respond in a time-regulated fashion to multiple chemotropic signals arising from their postsynaptic partners. Central to this mechanism is a very low frequency (<0.03 Hz) oscillation of presynaptic cytoplasmic calcium, that regulates and coordinates the action of multiple downstream effectors involved in the withdrawal from off-target contacts. Low frequency calcium oscillations are widely observed in developing neural circuits in mammals, and have been shown to be critical for normal connectivity in a variety of neural systems. In Drosophila these mechanisms allow the growth cone to sample widely among possible synaptic partners, evaluate opponent chemotropic signals, and withdraw from off-target contacts. It is possible that the underlying molecular mechanisms are conserved widely among invertebrates and vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Vonhoff
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale UniversityNew Haven, CT, USA
| | - Haig Keshishian
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale UniversityNew Haven, CT, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Hidalgo
- From Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, CEMC and Physiology and Biophysics Program, ICBM, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago.
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Lahiani A, Yavin E, Lazarovici P. The Molecular Basis of Toxins' Interactions with Intracellular Signaling via Discrete Portals. Toxins (Basel). 2017;9. [PMID: 28300784 PMCID: PMC5371862 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9030107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
An understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which microbial, plant or animal-secreted toxins exert their action provides the most important element for assessment of human health risks and opens new insights into therapies addressing a plethora of pathologies, ranging from neurological disorders to cancer, using toxinomimetic agents. Recently, molecular and cellular biology dissecting tools have provided a wealth of information on the action of these diverse toxins, yet, an integrated framework to explain their selective toxicity is still lacking. In this review, specific examples of different toxins are emphasized to illustrate the fundamental mechanisms of toxicity at different biochemical, molecular and cellular- levels with particular consideration for the nervous system. The target of primary action has been highlighted and operationally classified into 13 sub-categories. Selected examples of toxins were assigned to each target category, denominated as portal, and the modulation of the different portal’s signaling was featured. The first portal encompasses the plasma membrane lipid domains, which give rise to pores when challenged for example with pardaxin, a fish toxin, or is subject to degradation when enzymes of lipid metabolism such as phospholipases A2 (PLA2) or phospholipase C (PLC) act upon it. Several major portals consist of ion channels, pumps, transporters and ligand gated ionotropic receptors which many toxins act on, disturbing the intracellular ion homeostasis. Another group of portals consists of G-protein-coupled and tyrosine kinase receptors that, upon interaction with discrete toxins, alter second messengers towards pathological levels. Lastly, subcellular organelles such as mitochondria, nucleus, protein- and RNA-synthesis machineries, cytoskeletal networks and exocytic vesicles are also portals targeted and deregulated by other diverse group of toxins. A fundamental concept can be drawn from these seemingly different toxins with respect to the site of action and the secondary messengers and signaling cascades they trigger in the host. While the interaction with the initial portal is largely determined by the chemical nature of the toxin, once inside the cell, several ubiquitous second messengers and protein kinases/ phosphatases pathways are impaired, to attain toxicity. Therefore, toxins represent one of the most promising natural molecules for developing novel therapeutics that selectively target the major cellular portals involved in human physiology and diseases.
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Campbell JC, VanSchouwen B, Lorenz R, Sankaran B, Herberg FW, Melacini G, Kim C. Crystal structure of cGMP-dependent protein kinase Iβ cyclic nucleotide-binding-B domain : Rp-cGMPS complex reveals an apo-like, inactive conformation. FEBS Lett 2016; 591:221-230. [PMID: 27914169 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The R-diastereomer of phosphorothioate analogs of cGMP, Rp-cGMPS, is one of few known inhibitors of cGMP-dependent protein kinase I (PKG I); however, its mechanism of inhibition is currently not fully understood. Here, we determined the crystal structure of the PKG Iβ cyclic nucleotide-binding domain (PKG Iβ CNB-B), considered a 'gatekeeper' for cGMP activation, bound to Rp-cGMPS at 1.3 Å. Our structural and NMR data show that PKG Iβ CNB-B bound to Rp-cGMPS displays an apo-like structure with its helical domain in an open conformation. Comparison with the cAMP-dependent protein kinase regulatory subunit (PKA RIα) showed that this conformation resembles the catalytic subunit-bound inhibited state of PKA RIα more closely than the apo or Rp-cAMPS-bound conformations. These results suggest that Rp-cGMPS inhibits PKG I by stabilizing the inactive conformation of CNB-B.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Campbell
- Structural and Computational Biology and Molecular Biophysics Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Bryan VanSchouwen
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Robin Lorenz
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kassel, Kassel, Hesse, Germany
| | - Banumathi Sankaran
- Berkeley Center for Structural Biology, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, CA, USA
| | | | - Giuseppe Melacini
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Choel Kim
- Structural and Computational Biology and Molecular Biophysics Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
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Abiraman K, Sah M, Walikonis RS, Lykotrafitis G, Tzingounis AV. Tonic PKA Activity Regulates SK Channel Nanoclustering and Somatodendritic Distribution. J Mol Biol 2016; 428:2521-2537. [PMID: 27107637 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2016.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Revised: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Small-conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channels mediate a potassium conductance in the brain and are involved in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. SK channels show a distinct subcellular localization that is crucial for their neuronal functions. However, the mechanisms that control this spatial distribution are unknown. We imaged SK channels labeled with fluorophore-tagged apamin and monitored SK channel nanoclustering at the single molecule level by combining atomic force microscopy and toxin (i.e., apamin) pharmacology. Using these two complementary approaches, we found that native SK channel distribution in pyramidal neurons, across the somatodendritic domain, depends on ongoing cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA) levels, strongly limiting SK channel expression at the pyramidal neuron soma. Furthermore, tonic cAMP-PKA levels also controlled whether SK channels were expressed in nanodomains as single entities or as a group of multiple channels. Our study reveals a new level of regulation of SK channels by cAMP-PKA and suggests that ion channel topography and nanoclustering might be under the control of second messenger cascades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krithika Abiraman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Megha Sah
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Randall S Walikonis
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - George Lykotrafitis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
| | - Anastasios V Tzingounis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
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Kim JJ, Lorenz R, Arold ST, Reger AS, Sankaran B, Casteel DE, Herberg FW, Kim C. Crystal Structure of PKG I:cGMP Complex Reveals a cGMP-Mediated Dimeric Interface that Facilitates cGMP-Induced Activation. Structure 2016; 24:710-720. [PMID: 27066748 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2016.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKG) is a key regulator of smooth muscle and vascular tone and represents an important drug target for treating hypertensive diseases and erectile dysfunction. Despite its importance, its activation mechanism is not fully understood. To understand the activation mechanism, we determined a 2.5 Å crystal structure of the PKG I regulatory (R) domain bound with cGMP, which represents the activated state. Although we used a monomeric domain for crystallization, the structure reveals that two R domains form a symmetric dimer where the cGMP bound at high-affinity pockets provide critical dimeric contacts. Small-angle X-ray scattering and mutagenesis support this dimer model, suggesting that the dimer interface modulates kinase activation. Finally, structural comparison with the homologous cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase reveals that PKG is drastically different from protein kinase A in its active conformation, suggesting a novel activation mechanism for PKG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Joo Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Biochemistry, University of Kassel, Kassel, Hesse 34132, Germany
| | - Robin Lorenz
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kassel, Kassel, Hesse 34132, Germany
| | - Stefan T Arold
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Computational Bioscience Research Center, Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Albert S Reger
- Department of Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Banumathi Sankaran
- Berkeley Center for Structural Biology, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Darren E Casteel
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Friedrich W Herberg
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kassel, Kassel, Hesse 34132, Germany
| | - Choel Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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Hallberg ZF, Wang XC, Wright TA, Nan B, Ad O, Yeo J, Hammond MC. Hybrid promiscuous (Hypr) GGDEF enzymes produce cyclic AMP-GMP (3', 3'-cGAMP). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:1790-5. [PMID: 26839412 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1515287113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over 30 years ago, GGDEF domain-containing enzymes were shown to be diguanylate cyclases that produce cyclic di-GMP (cdiG), a second messenger that modulates the key bacterial lifestyle transition from a motile to sessile biofilm-forming state. Since then, the ubiquity of genes encoding GGDEF proteins in bacterial genomes has established the dominance of cdiG signaling in bacteria. However, the observation that proteobacteria encode a large number of GGDEF proteins, nearing 1% of coding sequences in some cases, raises the question of why bacteria need so many GGDEF enzymes. In this study, we reveal that a subfamily of GGDEF enzymes synthesizes the asymmetric signaling molecule cyclic AMP-GMP (cAG or 3', 3'-cGAMP). This discovery is unexpected because GGDEF enzymes function as symmetric homodimers, with each monomer binding to one substrate NTP. Detailed analysis of the enzyme from Geobacter sulfurreducens showed it is a dinucleotide cyclase capable of switching the major cyclic dinucleotide (CDN) produced based on ATP-to-GTP ratios. We then establish through bioinformatics and activity assays that hybrid CDN-producing and promiscuous substrate-binding (Hypr) GGDEF enzymes are found in other deltaproteobacteria. Finally, we validated the predictive power of our analysis by showing that cAG is present in surface-grown Myxococcus xanthus. This study reveals that GGDEF enzymes make alternative cyclic dinucleotides to cdiG and expands the role of this widely distributed enzyme family to include regulation of cAG signaling.
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Pavlovic I, Thakor DT, Bigler L, Wilson MSC, Laha D, Schaaf G, Saiardi A, Jessen HJ. Prometabolites of 5-Diphospho-myo-inositol Pentakisphosphate. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:9622-6. [PMID: 26014370 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201503094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Diphospho-myo-inositol phosphates (PP-InsP(y)) are an important class of cellular messengers. Thus far, no method for the transport of PP-InsP(y) into living cells is available. Owing to their high negative charge density, PP-InsP(y) will not cross the cell membrane. A strategy to circumvent this issue involves the generation of precursors in which the negative charges are masked with biolabile groups. A PP-InsP(y) prometabolite would require twelve to thirteen biolabile groups, which need to be cleaved by cellular enzymes to release the parent molecules. Such densely modified prometabolites of phosphate esters and anhydrides have never been reported to date. This study discloses the synthesis of such agents and an analysis of their metabolism in tissue homogenates by gel electrophoresis. The acetoxybenzyl-protected system is capable of releasing 5-PP-InsP5 in mammalian cell/tissue homogenates within a few minutes and can be used to release 5-PP-InsP5 inside cells. These molecules will serve as a platform for the development of fundamental tools required to study PP-InsP(y) physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Pavlovic
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich (UZH), Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich (Switzerland)
| | - Divyeshsinh T Thakor
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich (UZH), Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich (Switzerland)
| | - Laurent Bigler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich (UZH), Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich (Switzerland)
| | | | - Debabrata Laha
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen (Germany)
| | - Gabriel Schaaf
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen (Germany)
| | | | - Henning J Jessen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich (UZH), Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich (Switzerland).
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39
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Abstract
Retinoic acid, the active metabolite of vitamin A, is important for nervous system development, regeneration, as well as cognitive functions of the adult central nervous system. These central nervous system functions are all highly dependent on neuronal activity. Retinoic acid has previously been shown to induce changes in the firing properties and action potential waveforms of adult molluscan neurons in a dose- and isomer-dependent manner. In this study, we aimed to determine the cellular pathways by which retinoic acid might exert such effects, by testing the involvement of pathways previously shown to be affected by retinoic acid. We demonstrated that the ability of all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) to induce electrophysiological changes in cultured molluscan neurons was not prevented by inhibitors of protein synthesis, protein kinase A or phospholipase C. However, we showed that atRA was capable of rapidly reducing intracellular calcium levels in the same dose- and isomer-dependent manner as shown previously for changes in neuronal firing. Moreover, we also demonstrated that the transmembrane ion flux through voltage-gated calcium channels was rapidly modulated by retinoic acid. In particular, the peak current density was reduced and the inactivation rate was increased in the presence of atRA, over a similar time course as the changes in cell firing and reductions in intracellular calcium. These studies provide further evidence for the ability of atRA to induce rapid effects in mature neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas D Vesprini
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Taylor F Dawson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ye Yuan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Doug Bruce
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gaynor E Spencer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
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40
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Capolicchio S, Wang H, Thakor DT, Shears SB, Jessen HJ. Synthesis of densely phosphorylated bis-1,5-diphospho-myo-inositol tetrakisphosphate and its enantiomer by bidirectional P-anhydride formation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:9508-11. [PMID: 25044992 PMCID: PMC4153399 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201404398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitous mammalian signaling molecule bis-diphosphoinositol tetrakisphosphate (1,5-(PP)2 -myo-InsP4 , or InsP8 ) displays the most congested three-dimensional array of phosphate groups found in nature. The high charge density, the accumulation of unstable P-anhydrides and P-esters, the lack of UV absorbance, and low levels of optical rotation constitute severe obstacles to its synthesis, characterization, and purification. Herein, we describe the first procedure for the synthesis of enantiopure 1,5-(PP)2 -myo-InsP4 and 3,5-(PP)2 -myo-InsP4 utilizing a C2 -symmetric P-amidite for desymmetrization and concomitant phosphitylation followed by a one-pot bidirectional P-anhydride-forming reaction that combines sixteen chemical transformations with high efficiency. The configuration of these materials is unambiguously shown by subsequent X-ray analyses of both enantiomers after being individually soaked into crystals of the kinase domain of human diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate kinase 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samanta Capolicchio
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich (UZH), Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich (Switzerland)
| | - Huanchen Wang
- Inositol Signaling Group, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC (USA)
| | - Divyeshsinh T. Thakor
- Department of Chemistry University of Zürich (UZH) Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich (Switzerland)
| | - Stephen B. Shears
- Inositol Signaling Group, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC (USA)
| | - Henning J. Jessen
- Department of Chemistry University of Zürich (UZH) Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich (Switzerland)
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41
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Wu M, Chong LS, Capolicchio S, Jessen HJ, Resnick AC, Fiedler D. Elucidating diphosphoinositol polyphosphate function with nonhydrolyzable analogues. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:7192-7. [PMID: 24888434 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201402905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The diphosphoinositol polyphosphates (PP-IPs) represent a novel class of high-energy phosphate-containing messengers which control a wide variety of cellular processes. It is thought that PP-IPs exert their pleiotropic effects as allosteric regulators and through pyrophosphorylation of protein substrates. However, most details of PP-IP signaling have remained elusive because of a paucity of suitable tools. We describe the synthesis of PP-IP bisphosphonate analogues (PCP-IPs), which are resistant to chemical and biochemical degradation. While the two regioisomers 1PCP-IP5 and 5PCP-IP5 inhibited Akt phosphorylation with similar potencies, 1PCP-IP5 was much more effective at inhibiting its cognate phosphatase hDIPP1. Furthermore, the PCP analogues inhibit protein pyrophosphorylation because of their inability to transfer the β-phosphoryl group, and thus enable the distinction between PP-IP signaling mechanisms. As such, the PCP analogues will find widespread applications for the structural and biochemical characterization of PP-IP signaling properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingxuan Wu
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Washington Rd, Princeton, NJ 08544 (USA)
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42
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Lyon AM, Taylor VG, Tesmer JJG. Strike a pose: Gαq complexes at the membrane. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2013; 35:23-30. [PMID: 24287282 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2013.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The heterotrimeric G protein Gαq is a central player in signal transduction, relaying signals from activated G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to effectors and other proteins to elicit changes in intracellular Ca(2+), the actin cytoskeleton, and gene transcription. Gαq functions at the intracellular surface of the plasma membrane, as do its best-characterized targets, phospholipase C-β, p63RhoGEF, and GPCR kinase 2 (GRK2). Recent insights into the structure and function of these signaling complexes reveal several recurring themes, including complex multivalent interactions between Gαq, its protein target, and the membrane, that are likely essential for allosteric control and maximum efficiency in signal transduction. Thus, the plasma membrane is not only a source of substrates but also a key player in the scaffolding of Gαq-dependent signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeline M Lyon
- Life Sciences Institute and the Departments of Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Veronica G Taylor
- Life Sciences Institute and the Departments of Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - John J G Tesmer
- Life Sciences Institute and the Departments of Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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43
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Molosh AI, Sajdyk TJ, Truitt WA, Zhu W, Oxford GS, Shekhar A. NPY Y1 receptors differentially modulate GABAA and NMDA receptors via divergent signal-transduction pathways to reduce excitability of amygdala neurons. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013; 38:1352-64. [PMID: 23358240 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) administration into the basolateral amygdala (BLA) decreases anxiety-like behavior, mediated in part through the Y1 receptor (Y1R) isoform. Activation of Y1Rs results in G-protein-mediated reduction of cAMP levels, which results in reduced excitability of amygdala projection neurons. Understanding the mechanisms linking decreased cAMP levels to reduced excitability in amygdala neurons is important for identifying novel anxiolytic targets. We studied the intracellular mechanisms of activation of Y1Rs on synaptic transmission in the BLA. Activating Y1Rs by [Leu(31),Pro(34)]-NPY (L-P NPY) reduced the amplitude of evoked NMDA-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents (eEPSCs), without affecting AMPA-mediated eEPSCs, but conversely increased the amplitude of GABAA-mediated evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs). Both effects were abolished by the Y1R antagonist, PD160170. Intracellular GDP-β-S, or pre-treatment with either forskolin or 8Br-cAMP, eliminated the effects of L-P NPY on both NMDA- and GABAA-mediated currents. Thus, both the NMDA and GABAA effects of Y1R activation in the BLA are G-protein-mediated and cAMP-dependent. Pipette inclusion of protein kinase A (PKA) catalytic subunit blocked the effect of L-P NPY on GABAA-mediated eIPSCs, but not on NMDA-mediated eEPSCs. Conversely, activating the exchange protein activated by cAMP (Epac) with 8CPT-2Me-cAMP blocked the effect of L-P NPY on NMDA-mediated eEPSCs, but not on GABAA-mediated eIPSCs. Thus, NPY regulates amygdala excitability via two signal-transduction events, with reduced PKA activity enhancing GABAA-mediated eIPSCs and Epac deactivation reducing NMDA-mediated eEPSCs. This multipathway regulation of NMDA- and GABAA-mediated currents may be important for NPY plasticity and stress resilience in the amygdala.
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44
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Holland JP, Cumming P, Vasdev N. PET radiopharmaceuticals for probing enzymes in the brain. Am J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013; 3:194-216. [PMID: 23638333 PMCID: PMC3627518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Biologically important processes in normal brain function and brain disease involve the action of various protein-based receptors, ion channels, transporters and enzymes. The ability to interrogate the location, abundance and activity of these entities in vivo using non-invasive molecular imaging can provide unprecedented information about the spatio-temporal dynamics of brain function. Indeed, positron emission tomography (PET) imaging is transforming our understanding of the central nervous system and brain disease. Great emphasis has historically been placed on developing radioligands for the non-invasive detection of neuroreceptors. In contrast, relatively few enzymes have been amenable to examination by PET imaging procedures based upon trapping or accumulation of enzymatic products, because only a subset of enzymes have sufficient catalytic rate to produce measureable accumulation within the practical time-limit of PET recordings. However, high affinity inhibitors are now serving as tracers for enzymes, particularly for measuring the abundance of enzymes mediating intracellular signal transduction in the brain, which offer a rich diversity of potential targets for drug discovery. The purpose of this review is to summarize well-known radiotracers for brain enzymes, and draw attention to recent developments in PET radiotracers for imaging signal transduction pathways in the brain. The review is organized by target class and focuses on structural chemistry of the best-established radiotracers identified in each class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P Holland
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School55 Fruit St., White 427, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Paul Cumming
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Universitätsklinikum ErlangenUlmenweg 18, Erlangen, Germany, 91054
| | - Neil Vasdev
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School55 Fruit St., White 427, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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45
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Yoshioka T, Sakakibara M. Physical aspects of sensory transduction on seeing, hearing and smelling. Biophysics (Nagoya-shi) 2013; 9:183-91. [PMID: 27493557 PMCID: PMC4629681 DOI: 10.2142/biophysics.9.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
What is the general principle of sensory transduction? Sensory transduction is defined as energy transformation from the external world to the internal world. The energy of the external world, such as thermal energy (heat), electro-magnetic energy (light), mechanical energy (sound) and the energy from molecules (chemicals), is converted into electrochemical events in the animal nervous system. The following five classes of special sense receptors are utilized for energy conversion: vision (photo); audition (sound); taste and smell (chemo); and tactile (mechano). There are also other special sense receptors, including thermo and noxious receptors. The focus of this study is on photoreceptors, sound-receptors and odorant-receptors because the transduction mechanisms of these receptors are explained biochemically and understood by a common physical principle; these biochemical models are well known in neuroscience. The following notable problems are inherent in these biochemical models: the cGMP ionophore model of the vertebrate photoreceptor cannot explain the fast photo-response (∼msec); the tip links connection model of stereocilia in the basilar membrane for opening the K+ channel on the tip of a hair has difficulty explaining the high frequency vibration of hair cells without a damping of the oscillation, and the odorant shape-specific receptor model for olfactory transduction has difficulty in discriminating the minute differences among similar fragrant smells of essential oils with different molecular shapes. These difficulties might arise from a lack of the physical sense when the transduction models were proposed. This article will reconsider these problems and propose rational models for visual, olfactory and auditory transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohru Yoshioka
- Waseda University, Professor Emeritus, Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Manabu Sakakibara
- Tokai University, School of High-Technology for Human Welfare, 317 Nishino, Numazu, Shizuoka 410-0321, Japan
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Zhong P, Wang W, Yu F, Nazari M, Liu X, Liu QS. Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibition impairs cocaine-induced inhibitory synaptic plasticity and conditioned place preference. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012; 37:2377-87. [PMID: 22713909 PMCID: PMC3442353 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2012.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Endocannabinoid-mediated long-term depression of inhibitory synaptic transmission (I-LTD) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is implicated in cocaine-induced inhibitory synaptic plasticity and behavioral effects. It remains poorly understood, however, how this I-LTD is regulated and whether this regulation affects cocaine-seeking behavior. I-LTD requires cyclic adenosine 3', 5'-monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) signaling, raising the possibility that modulators of cAMP/PKA signaling may regulate I-LTD and the reinforcement behavior. Phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4 hydrolyses cAMP and terminates cAMP/PKA signaling. Here, we report that selective PDE4 inhibitors rolipram and Ro 20-1724 blocked I-LTD and acute depression of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) induced by D₂ dopamine receptor and cannabinoid CB₁ receptor agonists in VTA dopamine neurons. We also show that intra-VTA microinjections of PDE4 inhibitor rolipram impaired the acquisition, but not the expression, of conditioned place preference (CPP) to cocaine. Systemic administration of rolipram also increased cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation and activation in the VTA. Together, our results suggest that blockade of cocaine-induced inhibitory synaptic plasticity (I-LTD) and enhancement of CREB activation are two putative cellular mechanisms by which PDE4 inhibition impairs the acquisition of cocaine CPP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zhong
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Fei Yu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Maressa Nazari
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Xiaojie Liu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Qing-Song Liu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA, Tel: +1 414 955 8877, Fax: +1 414 456 6545, E-mail:
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Koenigsberg HW, Yuan P, Diaz GA, Guerreri S, Dorantes C, Mayson S, Zamfirescu C, New AS, Goodman M, Manji HK, Siever LJ. Platelet protein kinase C and brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in borderline personality disorder patients. Psychiatry Res 2012; 199:92-7. [PMID: 22633012 PMCID: PMC4128317 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2011] [Revised: 04/16/2012] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a prevalent and difficult to treat psychiatric condition characterized by abrupt mood swings, intense anger and depression, unstable interpersonal relationships, impulsive self-destructive behavior and a suicide rate of approximately 10%. Possible underlying molecular dysregulations in BPD have not been well explored. Protein kinase C (PKC) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have both been implicated in affective disorders, but their role in BPD has not been examined. Platelets were isolated from blood obtained from 24 medication-free BPD patients and 18 healthy control subjects. PKC-α, phosphorylated-PKC-α (p-PKCα), PKC-βII, and BDNF were measured in platelet homogenates by immunoblotting. In the males, platelet BDNF and PKC-α levels were lower in patients than controls. p-PKC-α and PKC-βII were lower at trend levels. In the entire sample, platelet p-PKCα and PKC-α activity were lower, at a trend level, in patients compared to controls. This is the first report to our knowledge of PKC and BDNF activity in BPD and calls for replication. These findings are consistent with altered PKC and BDNF activity in a range of neuropsychiatric conditions including bipolar disorder, depression and suicide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harold W. Koenigsberg
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY,James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, NY,Corresponding Author: Harold Warren Koenigsberg, M.D., Mount Sinai School of Medicine, James J Peters VA Medical Center, Mental Health Patient Care Center, 130 West Kingsbridge Road, Bronx, NY 10468,
| | | | - George A. Diaz
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY
| | | | | | - SarahJo Mayson
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY
| | | | - Antonia S. New
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY,James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, NY
| | - Marianne Goodman
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY,James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, NY
| | | | - Larry J. Siever
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY,James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, NY
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Kargieman L, Riga MS, Artigas F, Celada P. Clozapine Reverses Phencyclidine-Induced Desynchronization of Prefrontal Cortex through a 5-HT(1A) Receptor-Dependent Mechanism. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012; 37:723-33. [PMID: 22012474 PMCID: PMC3260989 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The non-competitive NMDA receptor (NMDA-R) antagonist phencyclidine (PCP)-used as a pharmacological model of schizophrenia-disrupts prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity. PCP markedly increased the discharge rate of pyramidal neurons and reduced slow cortical oscillations (SCO; 0.15-4 Hz) in rat PFC. Both effects were reversed by classical (haloperidol) and atypical (clozapine) antipsychotic drugs. Here we extended these observations to mice brain and examined the potential involvement of 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(1A) receptors (5-HT(2A)R and 5-HT(1A)R, respectively) in the reversal by clozapine of PCP actions. Clozapine shows high in vitro affinity for 5-HT(2A)R and behaves as partial agonist in vivo at 5-HT(1A)R. We used wild-type (WT) mice and 5-HT(1A)R and 5-HT(2A)R knockout mice of the same background (C57BL/6) (KO-1A and KO-2A, respectively). Local field potentials (LFPs) were recorded in the PFC of WT, KO-1A, and KO-2A mice. PCP (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) reduced SCO equally in WT, KO-2A, and KO-1A mice (58±4%, 42±7%, and 63±7% of pre-drug values, n=23, 13, 11, respectively; p<0.0003). Clozapine (0.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) significantly reversed PCP effect in WT and KO-2A mice, but not in KO-1A mice nor in WT mice pretreated with the selective 5-HT(1A)R antagonist WAY-100635.The PCP-induced disorganization of PFC activity does not appear to depend on serotonergic function. However, the lack of effect of clozapine in KO-1A mice and the prevention by WAY-100635 indicates that its therapeutic action involves 5-HT(1A)R activation without the need to block 5-HT(2A)R, as observed with clozapine-induced cortical dopamine release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucila Kargieman
- Department of Neurochemistry and Neuropharmacology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IIBB-CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maurizio S Riga
- Department of Neurochemistry and Neuropharmacology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IIBB-CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francesc Artigas
- Department of Neurochemistry and Neuropharmacology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IIBB-CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pau Celada
- Department of Neurochemistry and Neuropharmacology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IIBB-CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain,Department of Neurochemistry and Neuropharmacology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IIBB-CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Rosselló 161, 6th floor, Barcelona 08036, Spain, Tel: +349 3363 8314, Fax: +349 3363 8301, E-mail:
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49
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Nimitvilai S, Arora DS, Brodie MS. Reversal of dopamine inhibition of dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area is mediated by protein kinase C. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012; 37:543-56. [PMID: 21976045 PMCID: PMC3242316 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Adaptation of putative dopaminergic (pDA) neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to drugs of abuse may alter information processing related to reward and reinforcement and is an important factor in the development of addiction. We have demonstrated that prolonged increases in the concentration of dopamine (DA) result in a time-dependent decrease in sensitivity of pDA neurons to DA, which we termed DA inhibition reversal (DIR). In this study, we used extracellular recordings to examine factors mediating DIR. A 40 min administration of DA (2.5-10 μM), but not the DA D2 receptor agonist quinpirole (50-200 nM), resulted in inhibition of neuronal firing followed by DIR. In the presence of 100 nM cocaine, inhibition followed by DIR was seen with much lower DA concentrations. Reversal of quinpirole inhibition could be induced by an activator of protein kinase C, but not of protein kinase A. Inhibitors of protein kinase C or phospholipase C blocked the development of DIR. Disruption of intracellular calcium release also prevented DIR. Reduction of extracellular calcium or inhibition of store-operated calcium entry blocked DIR, but the L-type calcium channel blocker nifedipine did not. DIR was age-dependent and not seen in pDA VTA neurons from rat pups younger than 15 days postnatally. Our data indicate that DIR is mediated by protein kinase C, and implicate a conventional protein kinase C. This characterization of DIR gives insight into the regulation of autoinhibition of pDA VTA neurons, and the resulting long-term alteration in information processing related to reward and reinforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudarat Nimitvilai
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Devinder S Arora
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mark S Brodie
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA,Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 South Wolcott, Room E-202, M/C 901, Chicago, IL 60612-7342, USA, Tel: +1 312 996 2373, Fax: +1 312 996 1414, E-mail:
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Cohen H, Kozlovsky N, Matar MA, Zohar J, Kaplan Z. The characteristic long-term upregulation of hippocampal NF-κB complex in PTSD-like behavioral stress response is normalized by high-dose corticosterone and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate administered immediately after exposure. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011; 36:2286-302. [PMID: 21734649 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is a ubiquitously expressed transcription factor for genes involved in cell survival, differentiation, inflammation, and growth. This study examined the role of NF-κB pathway in stress-induced PTSD-like behavioral response patterns in rats. Immunohistochemical technique was used to detect the expression of the NF-κB p50 and p65 subunits, I-κBα, p38, and phospho-p38 in the hippocampal subregions at 7 days after exposure to predator scent stress. Expression of p65 nuclear translocation was quantified by western blot as the level of NF-κB activation. The effects of intraperitoneally administered corticosterone or a selective NF-κB inhibitor (pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC)) at 1 h post exposure on behavioral tests (elevated plus-maze and acoustic startle response) were evaluated 7 days later. Hippocampal expressions of those genes were subsequently evaluated. All data were analyzed in relation to individual behavior patterns. Extreme behavioral responder animals displayed significant upregulation of p50 and p65 with concomitant downregulation of I-κBα, p38, and phospho-p38 levels in hippocampal structures compared with minimal behavioral responders and controls. Immediate post-exposure treatment with high-dose corticosterone and PDTC significantly reduced prevalence rates of extreme responders and normalized the expression of those genes. Stress-induced upregulation of NF-κB complex in the hippocampus may contribute to the imbalance between what are normally precisely orchestrated and highly coordinated physiological and behavioral processes, thus associating it with stress-related disorders.
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