Indonesian teachers' epistemological beliefs and inclusive education

A growing number of children with intellectual disabilities attend inclusive schools in Indonesia. Previous research has suggested that teachers' type of school and experience influences their beliefs about inclusive education. This research collected questionnaire data from 267 Indonesian teachers and compared the responses from those working in inclusive, special and regular schools regarding their epistemological and pedagogical beliefs. The results showed that teachers in inclusive schools expressed stronger social constructivist beliefs than those in other schools. However, it was teachers' epistemological beliefs, rather than their type of school or experience, which were the significant predictor of their beliefs about inclusive education. The findings suggest that international epistemological research needs to have a more nuanced view of constructivist models of learning to better understand and inform how inclusive pedagogy is being enacted in different contexts.

Self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviour in children with severe intellectual disability: Prevalence, service need and service receipt in the UK

Children with severe intellectual disabilities are at increased risk of presenting with self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviour. Severity of these behaviours is an important predictor of psychological and behavioural service use by people with intellectual disabilities. However, studies suggest that the needs of children with intellectual disabilities and their families are not being met. The aims of the present study were to: (1) describe the self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviours and subsequent support needs of children with severe intellectual disabilities attending special schools in one major city within the UK, (2) compare teacher and primary carer ratings of behaviour and service need and (3) explore the extent to which the needs of children with intellectual disabilities are being met in terms of contact with relevant specialist services. Questionnaires were completed by teachers and primary family carers of children with a severe intellectual disability. Results indicated that at least 5.3% and 4.1% of children showed at least one behaviour at a clinically significant frequency and management difficulty respectively. Primary carers identified more children with significant behaviour difficulties and support needs than teachers. The odds for children presenting with high levels of the behaviours of interest for having a service need for behavioural intervention were at least 13 times those for children not showing the behaviours, yet only doubled for contact with a specialist relevant health-care professional. These results quantify the magnitude of the substantial gap between level of need and relevant support received.

Outcomes in young adulthood: are we achieving community participation and inclusion?

BACKGROUND

Despite recognition of the importance of integrated community living and support, there is evidence that parents remain the primary caregivers of young adults with intellectual disability (ID). In addition, employment rates remain low in this population. This study aimed to investigate the changes in living arrangements and participation in daytime activities over time in a community population of young people with ID.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 536 participants aged 4.0-18.9 years at Wave 1, followed up at Wave 5 when aged 20.5-37.6 years. Information was collected on their living arrangements and daytime activities at both time points, along with living skills and information on community social inclusion at Wave 5. For parents still caring for their adult child with ID, information was also collected on parental ratings of their own mental and physical health, and their satisfaction with the long-term care arrangements for their adult child.

RESULTS

A significant proportion of young people were still living with their parents at Wave 5. A greater proportion of those with a severe-profound degree of ID were living in residential care. Parents caring for their adult child reported high levels of mental health problems and dissatisfaction with the long-term care arrangements for their child. A small proportion of young people were in paid employment, and the majority was engaged in structured activities provided for those with an ID. Over one-third of the sample participated in a structured daytime activity for 10 or fewer hours per week, and 7% were not engaged in any structured daytime activity.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that adequate provision of accommodation and employment services for young adults with an ID is lacking. In many cases the responsibility of care continues to reside with parents as their children transition from childhood to adulthood. Greater attention is needed to address these issues and facilitate social inclusion and integration for young people with ID.

Effects of computer-based graphic organizers to solve one-step word problems for middle school students with mild intellectual disability: A preliminary study

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of computer-based graphic organizers, using Kidspiration 3© software, to solve one-step word problems. Participants included three students with mild intellectual disability enrolled in a functional academic skills curriculum in a self-contained classroom. A multiple probe single-subject research design (Horner & Baer, 1978) was used to evaluate the effectiveness of computer-based graphic organizers to solving mathematical one-step word problems. During the baseline phase, the students completed a teacher-generated worksheet that consisted of nine functional word problems in a traditional format using a pencil, paper, and a calculator. In the intervention and maintenance phases, the students were instructed to complete the word problems using a computer-based graphic organizer. Results indicated that all three of the students improved in their ability to solve the one-step word problems using computer-based graphic organizers compared to traditional instructional practices. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research directions are discussed.

A quantitative assessment of educational integration of students with Down syndrome in the Netherlands

BACKGROUND

In the Netherlands, as in many other countries, there are indications of an inclusive school policy for children with Down syndrome. However, there is a lack of studies that evaluate to what extent this policy has actually succeeded in supporting the mainstreaming of these students.

METHOD

For the period 1984-2011, the number of children with Down syndrome entering regular education and the percentage of children still in regular education after 1-7 years were estimated on basis of samples from the database of the Dutch Down Syndrome Foundation. These estimations were combined with historical demographic data on the total number of children with Down syndrome in primary school age. Validity of the model was examined by comparison of the model-based estimations of numbers and percentages in regular education with relevant available empirical data from the Dutch Ministry of Education and from Dutch special schools.

RESULTS

The percentage of all children with Down syndrome in the age range 4-13 in regular primary education has risen from 1% or 2% (at the very most about 20 children) in 1986-1987, to 10% (about 140 children) in 1991-1992, to 25% (about 400) in 1996-1997, to 35% (about 650) in 2001-2002 and to 37% (about 800) since 2005-2006. The proportional increase stopped in recent years.

CONCLUSION

During the 1980s and 1990s, clearly more and more children with Down syndrome were in regular education, being supported by the then existing ad hoc regulations aimed at providing extra support in regular education. In the Netherlands, in 2003, these temporary regulations were transformed into structural legislation for children with disabilities. With regard to the mainstreaming of students with Down syndrome, the 2003 legislation has consolidated the situation. However, as percentages in regular education stayed fairly constant after 2000, it has failed to boost the mainstreaming of children with Down syndrome. The results of this study are discussed in the context of national and international legislation and educational policy.

[Occupational burdens in special educators working with intellectually disabled students]

BACKGROUND

The article presents the results of psychosocial burdens in special educators (specialists in the field of oligophrenopedagogy) with intellectually disabled students. In theoretical part, specific context of occupational stress in special educators was introduced. Additionally, the need of broader research context regarding occupational stress and the risk of burnout in special educators working with intellectually disabled individuals were included.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The results were obtained using Plichta and Pyzalski's Questionnaire of Occupational Burdens in Teaching (QOBT). The presented results are based on a research sample (N = 100) of special educators (female) teaching intellectually disabled students attending special schools in the city of Lódz. The obtained results were compared with the results coming from a large random sample of public school teachers working with non-intellectually disabled children from the Lodi voivodeship (N = 429) and referred to the norms of QOBT.

RESULTS

The results show significant percentage of respondents obtaining high level of occupational burdens (conflict situations - 45%, organizational burdens - 31%, lack of work sense - 40%, global score - 40%). Seniority is not related to the level of burdens. Some significant differences concerning the level of occupational burdens between both groups of teachers were found.

CONCLUSIONS

The study showed e.g. the strong need for supporting special educators in the workplace context and the need of implementing preventive and remedial measures at both individual and organizational levels (especially in terms of improving personal relationships in a workplace). Generally, the results show similarity of the stressors' ranking in special educators and school teachers working with non-intellectually disabled children.

Reading skills in children with Down syndrome: a meta-analytic review

The authors examine the reading profile in children with Down syndrome by comparing the nonword decoding skills in children with Down syndrome and typically developing children matched for word recognition level. Journal articles published before 04.05.2010 were identified by using the keyword Down* cross-referenced to 'reading', 'literacy', 'decoding', and 'reading comprehension' were selected. A total of eight papers met the criteria for inclusion. Each study was reviewed and coded on both inclusion criteria and coding protocol before the analysis was performed. Children with Down syndrome had equivalent nonword decoding skills to typically developing children matched for word recognition level, but showed deficits on measures of two important underlying skills, vocabulary and phonological awareness. Differences in vocabulary, but not phonological awareness, were predictive of differences in nonword decoding skills. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

Family quality of life: adult school children with intellectual disabilities in Bosnia and Herzegovina

AIMS

This study endeavours to provide initial data on quality of life for families with adult children who have intellectual disabilities (ID) in the Canton of Sarajevo.

METHODS

The principal measure used was the Family Quality of life Survey 2006 - main caregivers of people with intellectual or developmental disabilities. The sample consisted of the main caregivers of 35 families with adult school children with ID who attended classes in a specially adapted programme in the Center of Vladimir Nazor and in the Vocational Secondary School in Sarajevo. Of the 35 participants, 21 were male and 14 female. Students with disabilities ranged from 19 to 32 years old (mean 21.45).

RESULTS

Consistent with previous research, the nine domains measured by the scale were all rated high for Importance. Opportunities were considered to be particularly low for Financial Well-Being and Support from Others. These domains were also rated lowest for Attainment and Satisfaction. Initiative was relatively high across all domains, and Stability (the degree to which things were seen as likely to improve or decline) varied slightly across domains but the means indicated that things are expected to stay almost the same or improve slightly.

CONCLUSIONS

This research provides initial data for family quality of life in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It also provides suggestions for improving quality of life for families that have one or more members with ID. The results should also contribute to rejecting stereotypes and promoting inclusion of children with ID as well as the rights of their families.

Teaching individuals with profound multiple disabilities to access preferred stimuli with multiple microswitches

We replicated and extended previous research on microswitch facilitated choice making by individuals with profound multiple disabilities. Following an assessment of stimulus preferences, we taught 6 adults with profound multiple disabilities to emit 2 different responses to activate highly preferred stimuli. All participants learnt to activate both microswitches. Five participants showed a higher overall level of responding when both switches activating preferred stimuli were available concurrently. After completion of microswitch training, a choice assessment was conducted in which participants had access to 2 microswitches concurrently, with 1 connected to the most highly preferred stimulus and the other to a least preferred stimulus. Choice making behavior was shown in 3 participants and provided support for the preference assessment results. The results of the 3 remaining participants showed that both the most highly preferred and the least preferred stimuli may serve as reinforcers for microswitch activation responses.

Needs and challenges of daily life for people with Down syndrome residing in the city of Rome, Italy

BACKGROUND

Population-based surveys on the quality of life of people with Down syndrome (DS) are difficult to perform because of ethical and legal policies regarding privacy and confidential information, but they are essential for service planning. Little is known about the sample size and variability of quality of life of people with DS living in the city of Rome, which has a population of 2.7 million inhabitants. The aim of the present study is to explore the needs and challenges in health, social integration and daily life, of people with DS living in Rome.

METHODOLOGY

A cross-sectional, census-based survey was conducted in 2006. All family doctors (3016 in total) of the National Health Service were involved by the Statistical Bureau of the Municipality of Rome. As per the census, every resident citizen is registered with a family doctor and every person with disabilities is coded. Associations for Down Syndrome encouraged their members to participate in the research. Questionnaires were completed by families of people with DS, in accordance with privacy laws.

FINDINGS

An initial survey, conducted via a letter and a telephone contact with family doctors, identified 884 people with DS residing in the city of Rome. Data on the medical and social conditions of 518 people with DS, ranging in age from 0 to 64 years, were collected. Some 88% of these were living with their original family; 82.1% had one or more siblings, and 19.5% had lost one or both parents. A full 100% of children with DS were enrolled in the public school system. This ensures that they are fully occupied and entirely integrated in society. After secondary school there is a lack of opportunities. Thus, only 10% of adults were working with a regular contract. A mere 42.2% of people with DS aged 25-30 were involved in some form of regular activity (although not always on a daily basis). After the age of 30, the percentage of people demonstrating decline in function increased sharply, while disability-related support decreased. In other words, as people with DS age, daily life evolves increasingly around the home, with only occasional outdoor activities.

CONCLUSION

The health, employment and social needs of the majority of people with DS in the city of Rome are not being met. The findings of this study underscore the urgent need for more comprehensive inclusion in society of adults with DS and for the provision of support services to create an enabling environment for inclusion. Because of the variability of performance among individuals with DS, there is a need to create more case-specific options in terms of work, living arrangements, social networking and medical services. Schooling and social inclusion in childhood alone do not guarantee a satisfactory quality of life in adulthood. It is argued herewith that policy of inclusion and support should extend over the entire lifetime of people with DS.

Needs and challenges of daily life for people with Down syndrome residing in the city of Rome, Italy

BACKGROUND

Population-based surveys on the quality of life of people with Down syndrome (DS) are difficult to perform because of ethical and legal policies regarding privacy and confidential information, but they are essential for service planning. Little is known about the sample size and variability of quality of life of people with DS living in the city of Rome, which has a population of 2.7 million inhabitants. The aim of the present study is to explore the needs and challenges in health, social integration and daily life, of people with DS living in Rome.

METHODOLOGY

A cross-sectional, census-based survey was conducted in 2006. All family doctors (3016 in total) of the National Health Service were involved by the Statistical Bureau of the Municipality of Rome. As per the census, every resident citizen is registered with a family doctor and every person with disabilities is coded. Associations for Down Syndrome encouraged their members to participate in the research. Questionnaires were completed by families of people with DS, in accordance with privacy laws.

FINDINGS

An initial survey, conducted via a letter and a telephone contact with family doctors, identified 884 people with DS residing in the city of Rome. Data on the medical and social conditions of 518 people with DS, ranging in age from 0 to 64 years, were collected. Some 88% of these were living with their original family; 82.1% had one or more siblings, and 19.5% had lost one or both parents. A full 100% of children with DS were enrolled in the public school system. This ensures that they are fully occupied and entirely integrated in society. After secondary school there is a lack of opportunities. Thus, only 10% of adults were working with a regular contract. A mere 42.2% of people with DS aged 25-30 were involved in some form of regular activity (although not always on a daily basis). After the age of 30, the percentage of people demonstrating decline in function increased sharply, while disability-related support decreased. In other words, as people with DS age, daily life evolves increasingly around the home, with only occasional outdoor activities.

CONCLUSION

The health, employment and social needs of the majority of people with DS in the city of Rome are not being met. The findings of this study underscore the urgent need for more comprehensive inclusion in society of adults with DS and for the provision of support services to create an enabling environment for inclusion. Because of the variability of performance among individuals with DS, there is a need to create more case-specific options in terms of work, living arrangements, social networking and medical services. Schooling and social inclusion in childhood alone do not guarantee a satisfactory quality of life in adulthood. It is argued herewith that policy of inclusion and support should extend over the entire lifetime of people with DS.

Reports of life skills training for students with intellectual disabilities in and out of school

BACKGROUND

Life skills can be critical to the success of individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) in terms of postschool outcomes. Yet, research suggests a decreasing emphasis on the acquisition of life skills in school for students with ID, raising the question if students then receive training in these areas after graduation.

METHOD

This study represented a secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 data to understand the reported receipt of life skills instruction in school and out of school for individuals with mild and moderate/severe ID. Frequency distributions, significant tests and a t-test were used to understand receipt of life skills in and out of school for both individuals with mild and moderate/severe ID.

RESULTS

The results suggest low-reported receipt of life skills instruction/training in school and postschool for individuals with mild ID, few students with moderate/severe ID report receiving life skills training out of school, and receipt of life skills instruction in school is not related to receipt of life skills training/therapy after school by either individuals with mild ID or moderate/severe ID.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the current educational policy situation (i.e. a predisposition towards inclusive general education placements for students with disabilities and participation in the accountability system for all students), educators who believe in the value of a life skills curriculum will need to be creative in its implementation and look towards transition plan and activities to provide students with the needed training. Regardless, teachers will need to rectify providing students with the academic skills they need to be successful on a general large-scale assessment with providing them with the life skills (e.g. independent living, daily living, financial) to be successful after school in employment and independent living.

The research on the status, rehabilitation, education, vocational development, social integration and support services related to intellectual disability in China

Intellectual disability (ID) is a prevalent form of non-progressive cognitive impairment. The objectives of this articles are: to analyze the changes of ID in China, including its definition, prevalence, rehabilitation, education, vocational development, social life and support services; to review and to compare the issues of intellectual disability in China with the international literatures and research studies and to provide useful updated information and reference data for scholars and researchers who study intellectual disability. Analyzed the data obtained from two national sample surveys on disability with respect to intellectual disability in China. The estimated prevalence of individuals with intellectual disabilities in China was 7.5‰ in 2006 nationally which was lower than the previous results obtained in the 1987 national survey. The fourth level of ID showed a downward trend, while the proportion among the population aged 60 and over with ID tended to increase. The 2006 national survey indicated that the prevalence of ID in rural areas was higher than that in urban areas. This finding was consistent with the national survey conducted in 1987. As indicated by the 2006 national survey, 29.4% cases had no known causes for the ID, the proportion tended to decrease as compared with the first survey. However, when compared to the 1987 report, the proportion of senile dementia among older people as indicated by the 2006 report was higher than before. During the past years, the prevention of ID and the quality of life of individuals with ID have improved due to the enactment and implementation of a series of national laws and regulations, however, there is more that needs to be done in the areas of education, vocational development, social integration and support services for individuals with ID in order to improve the quality of life of individuals with ID in China. The findings of this study are consistent with the research findings presented in the international literatures. ID is the conditions that deserve further study and deserve the attention of policy makers and rehabilitation professionals in China. Furthermore, with the ageing of population in China and its impact to the social security system, the in-depth study of ID and its implications has become more pertinent in China in the future.

Ethnic variation in service utilisation among children with intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

This study examined whether service utilisation among children with intellectual disability (ID) varied by ethnic cultural group.

METHOD

Survey carried out in four special schools in London. Information was provided by school teachers using case files, and 242 children aged 7 to 17 years with mild and moderate ID were identified. Ethnic categories were derived from self-reported main categories. Service utilisation categorised as use of: child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS), social services, physical health and education services.

RESULTS

Child and adolescent mental health services uptake was lower for South Asians than for White British (P = 0.0487). There were statistically significant differences among ethnic groups for community-based social services uptake (being the highest for the Black groups and the lowest for South Asians, P = 0.015) and respite care uptake (being the highest for the Black and White European groups and the lowest for South Asians, P = 0.009). In regression analysis family structure predicted CAMHS service utilisation and social service community support. Ethnicity predicted use of respite care.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant ethnic differences in service utilisation among children with ID were found for both CAMHS and social service contact. There was particularly low service use for the South Asian group. These differences might arise because of differences in family organisation, as more South Asian children lived in two-parent families, which may have been better able to provide care than single-parent families. Other factors such as variation in parental belief systems and variation in psychopathology may be relevant. Implications are discussed.

The prevalence of features of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a special school in Ireland

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of features of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children with intellectual disabilities (ID) in Irish schools is unknown. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of features of ADHD in a special school, in order to ascertain the number of children who may need further assessment for ADHD. The study also explores the reliability of the Conners Teachers Rating Scale in this population.

METHOD

All teachers in a special school for children with ID were asked to complete the Conners Teachers Rating Scale and the Attention-Distractibility, Inhibition-Excitation Classroom Assessment Rating Scale, for those children whose parents had consented for them to take part in this study. Consent was obtained for 84 children a response rate of 71%, between the ages of 5 and 18 (mean = 10.5 years; SD = 3.7).

RESULTS

The Conners Teachers Rating Scale was found to be internally reliable and had a normal distribution with our results. Overall, 55.9% of participants (47/84) had markedly elevated scores (T > 69) for at least one of the target subscales, which were the 'Hyperactivity', 'Inattention' and the 'ADHD Index' subscales of the Conners Teachers Rating Scales. In addition, the findings would suggest that the Conners Teachers Rating Scale can be a useful screening tool in the population of school children with ID.

CONCLUSIONS

The study suggests that ADHD may be under diagnosed in children with ID. This has practical implications for the mental health needs of these children. It is recommended that further studies are carried out to determine the prevalence of ADHD in this population.

Pushing the employment agenda: case study research of high performing States in integrated employment

Organizational variables, including policies, practices, collaborations, and funding mechanisms resulting in high performance in integrated employment, were described through case study research in 3 states. Findings address how contextual factors, system-level strategies, and goals of the system are related as well as how they sustain systems change. Strategies such as flexibility in funding and practices; communication of values through data, rewards, and funding incentives; and innovation diffusion through relationships and training were most successful when they were embedded within the context of a solid values base, a network of dedicated stakeholders, and clarity about systemic goals. Implications are presented with respect to state systems, community rehabilitation providers as partners in planning, and future leadership in the field.

Screening for fragile X syndrome: results from a school for mentally retarded children

Fragile X syndrome is the most common inherited form of familial mental retardation. The purpose of this study was to identify yet unrecognized fragile X individuals and to estimate the frequency of both the FRAXA and FRAXE forms of the disease in a population of mentally retarded children attending a special school in Croatia. The results are reported of molecular screening of 114 children with mild to severe mental retardation. Three individuals (2.6%) with the FRAXA form of the fragile X syndrome and one boy (0.9%) with FRAXE mental retardation were detected; a total of four newly diagnosed fragile X families were identified. Closer clinical examination revealed that behavioural and speech disturbances were clearly present among all fragile X cases (both FRAXA and FRAXE), indicating that these features could be additional diagnostic criteria for the preselection of individuals at risk.

CONCLUSION

Fragile X screening among mentally retarded children attending a special school should be highly encouraged to reveal the cause of mental retardation and to detect yet unrecognized fragile X individuals. The frequency of fragile X syndrome in a such population in Croatia was found to correlate with similar results from previous studies. However, since at the time of diagnosis all affected families had a second or even a third child born, earlier diagnosis should be considered to provide greater benefit to fragile X families.

Experimental functional analyses for challenging behavior: a study of validity and reliability

The convergent validity of an experimental (analog) functional analysis was investigated by a comparison of three separate ways of interpreting the data derived from such an assessment: two previously published methods and the criterion Z method derived by the authors. Data from the experimental functional analysis of the challenging behavior(s) of 27 individuals with intellectual disabilities were analyzed to assess agreement between the three forms of interpretation. The test-retest reliability of all three methods over periods of 2 weeks, 1 month, and 3 months was also calculated. The results suggest that the methods of interpreting function from experimental assessments can give different results and that the test-retest reliability of the experimental functional analyses is poor. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to clinical practice.

A validity study on the Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF) Scale: predicting treatment success for self-injury, aggression, and stereotypies

We investigated the validity of the Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF), a checklist designed to assess antecedent behavior, using a sample of 398 persons with mental retardation and a targeted maladaptive behavior of self-injurious behavior, aggression, or stereotypies. The QABF was used successfully to derive clear behavioral functions for most individuals (84%) across all three target behaviors. Further, subjects with treatments developed from functional assessment (QABF results) improved significantly when compared to controls receiving standard treatments not based on functional analysis. Implications of the present findings for assessing and treating maladaptive behaviors are discussed.

Incidence of obesity among school children with mental retardation in Japan

The incidence of obesity of children with mental retardation was determined in a sample of 20,031 pupils and students at special schools in Japan. The incidence was higher among girls than boys and in the junior and senior high departments (12 to 17 years) than in the elementary department (6 to 11 years). It was also higher among children with mental retardation of elementary and junior-high age than among children without mental retardation of the same age. The incidence of major diseases among obese children was also determined.

Explanatory model to describe school district prevalence rates for mental retardation and learning disabilities

Data reports from South Carolina's 92 independent school districts were used to calculate prevalence rates of mental retardation and learning disabilities among school-age children. These prevalence rates were 41.66/1,000 children enrolled for mental retardation and 33.21/1,000 children enrolled for learning disabilities. The 1980-1981 school year was selected because this was the last year in which disaggregated reports were submitted for placement in educable mental handicap (EMH), trainable mental handicap (TMH), and profound mental handicap (PMH) programs. Exploratory factor analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to explain school district prevalence rates of categorization of children into programs for mental retardation and learning disabilities. Results show that community SES and tax inputs explain 39% of the variation in prevalence rates and that these factors affect rates indirectly.

A nationwide survey of day-care for children with mental retardation in Japan

We conducted the first nationwide survey on day-cares (DCs) for mentally retarded preschoolers in Japan by sending a questionnaire to 686 such facilities, 460 (67.1%) of which responded. There were three types of DCs. Type I was a small facility, financed by a local government but not established by the Child Welfare Act. Type II was a non-residential facility founded by the Act and usually run by a private welfare organization. Type III was a unit in a large rehabilitation center for various handicapped persons established and run by a local government. We proposed a model DC having 9 staff members to be placed nearby consumers to improve the early treatment system for mentally retarded children in Japan.

Predictors of frequent middle school health room use

Disproportionately high use of school health room (HR) services by small groups of users has been reported. This study investigated predictors of frequent HR use in two suburban middle schools involving 1089 students who made at least one HR visit during a single academic year. Subsets of high and low users were compared using logistic regression. Predictor variables included gender, grade, academic ability, and existence of a chronic health condition. Although demographic characteristics of the study schools varied significantly, a pattern of increasing HR use associated with progressive lowering of academic ability was demonstrated in both schools. Existence of a chronic health condition was associated with increased HR use, even when controlling for routine medication visits. Gender and grade were not predictive. These findings suggest that HR use reflects more than medical concerns. Patterns of HR use by students with chronic health conditions deserve additional study to determine whether current strategies to meet their needs are adequate.

Use of adaptive behavior measures and overrepresentation of black students in programs for students with mild mental retardation

The use of adaptive behavior information for classification and placement of black and white students with mild mental retardation was compared and overrepresentation of black students in special classes was analyzed. Adaptive behavior measures were not used to the same extent as general intelligence tests for either group, despite court decisions and recommendations by authoritative sources. Direct comparisons on general intellectual functioning and several indices of adaptive behavior yielded few differences, suggesting that an equal treatment conception of fairness was achieved despite substantial overrepresentation of black students in programs for students with mild mental retardation. Use of adaptive behavior needs to improve significantly to comply with legal requirements.

Statistical conclusion validity: an empirical analysis of multiplicity in mental retardation research

The statistical conclusion validity of mental retardation research was evaluated by reviewing 41 recently published articles in the American Journal on Mental Retardation and the Journal of Mental Deficiency Research. The analysis was focused on the incidence of Type I error as reflected by three different measures: the experiment-wise error rate, the error rate per experiment, and the percentage error rate. Values for each of these measures indicated that the probability of committing a Type I error was considerably greater than the traditionally assumed level of p less than .05, or 5%. The percentage error rate computed for the 41 articles (369 statistical tests) suggested that approximately 20% of the statistically significant results may be erroneous. Procedures to evaluate the impact of Type I errors in mental retardation research were presented and briefly discussed.