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Cortázar OD, Megía-Macías A, Moreno S, Brun A, Gómez-Casado E. Vulnerability of SARS-CoV-2 and PR8 H1N1 virus to cold atmospheric plasma activated media. Sci Rep 2022; 12:263. [PMID: 34997166 PMCID: PMC8742116 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-04360-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP) and Plasma Activated Media (PAM) are effective against bacteria, fungi, cancer cells, and viruses because they can deliver Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species (RONS) on a living tissue with negligible damage on health cells. The antiviral activity of CAP against SARS-CoV-2 is being investigated, however, the same but of PAM has not been explored despite its potential. In the present study, the capability of Plasma Activated Media (PAM) to inactivate SARS-CoV-2 and PR8 H1N1 influenza virus with negligible damage on healthy cells is demonstrated. PAM acted by both virus detaching and diminished replication. Furthermore, the treatment of A549 lung cells at different times with buffered PAM did not induce interleukin 8 expression, showing that PAM did not induce inflammation. These results open a new research field by using PAM to the development novel treatments for COVID-19, influenza, and other respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osvaldo Daniel Cortázar
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Institute of Energy Research (INEI), C/Moledores s/n., 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain.
| | - Ana Megía-Macías
- Mechanical Engineering Department, ICAI, Comillas Pontifical University, Alberto Aguilera 25, 28015, Madrid, Spain
- Institute for Research in Technology, ICAI, Comillas Pontifical University, Santa Cruz de Marcenado, 26, 28015, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sandra Moreno
- Animal Health Research Center (CISA, INIA-CSIC), National Research Institute of Agricultural and Food Technology (CSIC-INIA), Crta. de Valdeolmos-El Casar s/n - 28130, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Brun
- Animal Health Research Center (CISA, INIA-CSIC), National Research Institute of Agricultural and Food Technology (CSIC-INIA), Crta. de Valdeolmos-El Casar s/n - 28130, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Eduardo Gómez-Casado
- Department of Biotechnology, National Research Institute of Agricultural and Food Technology (INIA-CSIC), Crta. de la Coruña, km 7.5, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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Li Y, Liu F, Zhang J, Liu X, Xiao P, Bai H, Chen S, Wang D, Sung SHP, Kwok RTK, Shen J, Zhu K, Tang BZ. Efficient Killing of Multidrug-Resistant Internalized Bacteria by AIEgens In Vivo. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2021; 8:2001750. [PMID: 33977040 PMCID: PMC8097328 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202001750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria infected cells acting as "Trojan horses" not only protect bacteria from antibiotic therapies and immune clearance, but also increase the dissemination of pathogens from the initial sites of infection. Antibiotics are hard and insufficient to treat such hidden internalized bacteria, especially multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. Herein, aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) such as N,N-diphenyl-4-(7-(pyridin-4-yl) benzo [c] [1,2,5] thiadiazol-4-yl) aniline functionalized with 1-bromoethane (TBP-1) and (3-bromopropyl) trimethylammonium bromide (TBP-2) (TBPs) show potent broad-spectrum bactericidal activity against both extracellular and internalized Gram-positive pathogens. TBPs trigger reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated membrane damage to kill bacteria, regardless of light irradiation. TBPs effectively kill bacteria without the development of resistance. Additionally, such AIEgens activate mitochondria dependent autophagy to eliminate internalized bacteria in host cells. Compared to the routinely used vancomycin in clinic, TBPs demonstrate comparable efficacy against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in vivo. The studies suggest that AIEgens are promising new agents for the treatment of MDR bacteria associated infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Li
- Center for AIE ResearchCollege of Materials Science and EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhen518061China
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety EvaluationCollege of Veterinary MedicineChina Agricultural UniversityNo. 2 Yuanmingyuan West RdBeijing100193China
| | - Fei Liu
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety EvaluationCollege of Veterinary MedicineChina Agricultural UniversityNo. 2 Yuanmingyuan West RdBeijing100193China
| | - Jiangjiang Zhang
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringSouthern University of Science and TechnologyNo. 1088 Xueyuan Rd, Nanshan DistrictShenzhen518055China
| | - Xiaoye Liu
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety EvaluationCollege of Veterinary MedicineChina Agricultural UniversityNo. 2 Yuanmingyuan West RdBeijing100193China
| | - Peihong Xiao
- Center for AIE ResearchCollege of Materials Science and EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhen518061China
| | - Haotian Bai
- Department of ChemistryHong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and ReconstructionInstitute for Advanced StudyDivision of Life ScienceThe Hong Kong University of Science and TechnologyClear Water BayKowloonHong KongChina
| | - Shang Chen
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety EvaluationCollege of Veterinary MedicineChina Agricultural UniversityNo. 2 Yuanmingyuan West RdBeijing100193China
| | - Dong Wang
- Center for AIE ResearchCollege of Materials Science and EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhen518061China
| | - Simon H. P. Sung
- Department of ChemistryHong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and ReconstructionInstitute for Advanced StudyDivision of Life ScienceThe Hong Kong University of Science and TechnologyClear Water BayKowloonHong KongChina
| | - Ryan T. K. Kwok
- Department of ChemistryHong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and ReconstructionInstitute for Advanced StudyDivision of Life ScienceThe Hong Kong University of Science and TechnologyClear Water BayKowloonHong KongChina
| | - Jianzhong Shen
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety EvaluationCollege of Veterinary MedicineChina Agricultural UniversityNo. 2 Yuanmingyuan West RdBeijing100193China
| | - Kui Zhu
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety EvaluationCollege of Veterinary MedicineChina Agricultural UniversityNo. 2 Yuanmingyuan West RdBeijing100193China
| | - Ben Zhong Tang
- Center for AIE ResearchCollege of Materials Science and EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhen518061China
- Department of ChemistryHong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and ReconstructionInstitute for Advanced StudyDivision of Life ScienceThe Hong Kong University of Science and TechnologyClear Water BayKowloonHong KongChina
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M. Gordon
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Microbial Sciences Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Stavroula K. Hatzios
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Microbial Sciences Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
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Williams E, Whiteman M, Wood ME, Wilson ID, Ladomery MR, Allainguillaume J, Teklic T, Lisjak M, Hancock JT. Investigating ROS, RNS, and H 2S-Sensitive Signaling Proteins. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1990:27-42. [PMID: 31148060 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9463-2_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The modification of proteins is a key way to alter their activity and function. Often thiols, cysteine residues, on proteins are attractive targets for such modification. Assuming that the thiol group is accessible then reactions may take place with a range of chemicals found in cells. These may include reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), reactive nitrogen species such as nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), or glutathione. Such modifications often are instrumental to important cellular signaling processes, which ultimately result in modification of physiology of the organism. Therefore, there is a need to be able to identify such modifications. There are a variety of techniques to find proteins which may be altered in this way but here the focus is on two approaches: firstly, the use of fluorescent thiol derivatives and the subsequent use of mass spectrometry to identify the thiols involved; secondly the confirmation of such changes using biochemical assays and genetic mutants. The discussion will be based on the use of two model organisms: firstly the plant Arabidopsis thaliana (both as cell cultures and whole plants) and secondly the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans. However, these tools, as described, may be used in a much wider range of biological systems, including human and human tissue cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Williams
- Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
- Horizon Discovery Ltd., Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Mark E Wood
- Geoffrey Pope Building, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Ian D Wilson
- Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
| | - Michael R Ladomery
- Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
| | - Joel Allainguillaume
- Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
| | - Tihana Teklic
- Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia
| | - Miro Lisjak
- Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia
| | - John T Hancock
- Department of Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK.
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Idh J, Andersson B, Lerm M, Raffetseder J, Eklund D, Woksepp H, Werngren J, Mansjö M, Sundqvist T, Stendahl O, Schön T. Reduced susceptibility of clinical strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to reactive nitrogen species promotes survival in activated macrophages. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181221. [PMID: 28704501 PMCID: PMC5509328 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Drugs such as isoniazid (INH) and pretomanid (PRT), used against Mycobacterium tuberculosis are active partly through generation of reactive nitrogen species (RNS). The aim of this study was to explore variability in intracellular susceptibility to nitric oxide (NO) in clinical strains of M. tuberculosis. Method Luciferase-expressing clinical M. tuberculosis strains with or without INH resistance were exposed to RNS donors (DETA/NO and SIN-1) in broth cultures and bacterial survival was analysed by luminometry. NO-dependent intracellular killing in a selection of strains was assessed in interferon gamma/lipopolysaccharide-activated murine macrophages using the NO inhibitor L-NMMA. Results When M. tuberculosis H37Rv was compared to six clinical isolates and CDC1551, three isolates with inhA mediated INH resistance showed significantly reduced NO-susceptibility in broth culture. All strains showed a variable but dose-dependent susceptibility to RNS donors. Two clinical isolates with increased susceptibility to NO exposure in broth compared to H37Rv were significantly inhibited by activated macrophages whereas there was no effect on growth inhibition when activated macrophages were infected by clinical strains with higher survival to NO exposure in broth. Furthermore, the most NO-tolerant clinical isolate showed increased resistance to PRT both in broth culture and the macrophage model compared to H37Rv in the absence of mutational resistance in genes associated to reduced susceptibility against PRT or NO. Conclusion In a limited number of clinical M. tuberculosis isolates we found a significant difference in susceptibility to NO between clinical isolates, both in broth cultures and in macrophages. Our results indicate that mycobacterial susceptibility to cellular host defence mechanisms such as NO need to be taken into consideration when designing new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonna Idh
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Blanka Andersson
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Maria Lerm
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Centre for Infectious Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johanna Raffetseder
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Daniel Eklund
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Hanna Woksepp
- Department of Optometry and Medicine, Linneaus University, Kalmar, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Kalmar County Hospital, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Jim Werngren
- Department of Microbiology, Unit for Laboratory Surveillance of Bacterial Pathogens, Public Health Agency of Sweden, Solna, Sweden
| | - Mikael Mansjö
- Department of Microbiology, Unit for Laboratory Surveillance of Bacterial Pathogens, Public Health Agency of Sweden, Solna, Sweden
| | - Tommy Sundqvist
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Olle Stendahl
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Thomas Schön
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Optometry and Medicine, Linneaus University, Kalmar, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Kalmar County Hospital, Kalmar, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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Lee JH, Om JY, Kim YH, Kim KM, Choi EH, Kim KN. Selective Killing Effects of Cold Atmospheric Pressure Plasma with NO Induced Dysfunction of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150279. [PMID: 26919318 PMCID: PMC4768860 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAP)-induced radicals on the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which is overexpressed by oral squamous cell carcinoma, to determine the underlying mechanism of selective killing. CAP-induced highly reactive radicals were observed in both plasma plume and cell culture media. The selective killing effect was observed in oral squamous cell carcinoma compared with normal human gingival fibroblast. Degradation and dysfunction of EGFRs were observed only in the EGFR-overexpressing oral squamous cell carcinoma and not in the normal cell. Nitric oxide scavenger pretreatment in cell culture media before CAP treatment rescued above degradation and dysfunction of the EGFR as well as the killing effect in oral squamous cell carcinoma. CAP may be a promising cancer treatment method by inducing EGFR dysfunction in EGFR-overexpressing oral squamous cell carcinoma via nitric oxide radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Hwan Lee
- Department and Research Institute of Dental Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Brain Korea 21 PLUS project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, 50–1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 120–752, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Tissue Regeneration Engineering (ITREN), Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Yeon Om
- Department and Research Institute of Dental Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Brain Korea 21 PLUS project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, 50–1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 120–752, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Hee Kim
- Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Kwangwoon University, 20 Kwangwoon-gil, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 139–701, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Mahn Kim
- Department and Research Institute of Dental Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Brain Korea 21 PLUS project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, 50–1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 120–752, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Ha Choi
- Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Kwangwoon University, 20 Kwangwoon-gil, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 139–701, Republic of Korea
- * E-mail: (EHC); (KNK)
| | - Kyoung-Nam Kim
- Department and Research Institute of Dental Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Brain Korea 21 PLUS project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, 50–1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 120–752, Republic of Korea
- * E-mail: (EHC); (KNK)
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7
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Abstract
Disturbances in pulsatile insulin secretion and Ca(2+) oscillations in pancreatic β-cells are early markers of diabetes, but the underlying mechanisms are still incompletely understood. Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) are implicated in reduced β-cell function, and ROS/RNS target several Ca(2+) pumps and channels. Thus, we hypothesized that ROS/RNS could disturb Ca(2+) oscillations and downstream insulin pulsatility. We show that ROS/RNS production by photoactivation of aluminum phthalocyanine chloride (AlClPc) abolish or accelerate Ca(2+) oscillations in the MIN6 β-cell line, depending on the amount of ROS/RNS. Application of the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPase (SERCA) inhibitor thapsigargin modifies the Ca(2+) response to high concentrations of ROS/RNS. Further, thapsigargin produces effects that resemble those elicited by moderate ROS/RNS production. These results indicate that ROS/RNS interfere with endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) handling. This idea is supported by theoretical studies using a mathematical model of Ca(2+) handling adapted to MIN6 cells. Our results suggest a putative link between ROS/RNS and disturbed pulsatile insulin secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Antonucci
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; University of Padua; Padua, Italy
- Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine; Padua, Italy
| | - Alessia Tagliavini
- Department of Information Engineering; University of Padua; Padua, Italy
| | - Morten Gram Pedersen
- Department of Information Engineering; University of Padua; Padua, Italy
- Correspondence to: Morten Gram Pedersen;
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Miramón P, Dunker C, Windecker H, Bohovych IM, Brown AJP, Kurzai O, Hube B. Cellular responses of Candida albicans to phagocytosis and the extracellular activities of neutrophils are critical to counteract carbohydrate starvation, oxidative and nitrosative stress. PLoS One 2012; 7:e52850. [PMID: 23285201 PMCID: PMC3528649 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are key players during Candida albicans infection. However, the relative contributions of neutrophil activities to fungal clearance and the relative importance of the fungal responses that counteract these activities remain unclear. We studied the contributions of the intra- and extracellular antifungal activities of human neutrophils using diagnostic Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)-marked C. albicans strains. We found that a carbohydrate starvation response, as indicated by up-regulation of glyoxylate cycle genes, was only induced upon phagocytosis of the fungus. Similarly, the nitrosative stress response was only observed in internalised fungal cells. In contrast, the response to oxidative stress was observed in both phagocytosed and non-phagocytosed fungal cells, indicating that oxidative stress is imposed both intra- and extracellularly. We assessed the contributions of carbohydrate starvation, oxidative and nitrosative stress as antifungal activities by analysing the resistance to neutrophil killing of C. albicans mutants lacking key glyoxylate cycle, oxidative and nitrosative stress genes. We found that the glyoxylate cycle plays a crucial role in fungal resistance against neutrophils. The inability to respond to oxidative stress (in cells lacking superoxide dismutase 5 or glutathione reductase 2) renders C. albicans susceptible to neutrophil killing, due to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We also show that neutrophil-derived nitric oxide is crucial for the killing of C. albicans: a yhb1Δ/Δ mutant, unable to detoxify NO•, was more susceptible to neutrophils, and this phenotype was rescued by the nitric oxide scavenger carboxy-PTIO. The stress responses of C. albicans to neutrophils are partially regulated via the stress regulator Hog1 since a hog1Δ/Δ mutant was clearly less resistant to neutrophils and unable to respond properly to neutrophil-derived attack. Our data indicate that an appropriate fungal response to all three antifungal activities, carbohydrate starvation, nitrosative stress and oxidative stress, is essential for full wild type resistance to neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Miramón
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Christine Dunker
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Hanna Windecker
- Septomics Research Centre, Friedrich Schiller University and Leibniz Institute for Natural Products Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Iryna M. Bohovych
- Aberdeen Fungal Group, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair J. P. Brown
- Aberdeen Fungal Group, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Kurzai
- Septomics Research Centre, Friedrich Schiller University and Leibniz Institute for Natural Products Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hube
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany
- Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Universitätsklinikum Jena, Jena, Germany
- Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Tau undergoes numerous posttranslational modifications during the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Some of these changes accelerate tau aggregation, while others are inhibitory. AD-associated inflammation is thought to create oxygen and nitrogen radicals such as peroxynitrite (PN). In vitro, PN can nitrate many proteins, including tau. We have previously demonstrated that tau's ability to form filaments is profoundly affected by treatment with PN and have attributed this inhibition to tyrosine nitration. However, PN is highly reactive and unstable leading to oxidative amino acid modifications through its free radical byproducts. To test whether PN can modify other amino acids in tau via oxidative modifications, a mutant form of the tau protein lacking all tyrosines (5XY → F) was constructed. 5XY → F tau readily forms filaments; however, like wild-type tau the extent of polymerization was greatly reduced following PN treatment. Since 5XY → F tau cannot be nitrated, it was clear that nonnitrative modifications are generated by PN treatment and that these modifications change tau filament formation. Mass spectrometry was used to identify these oxidative alterations in wild-type tau and 5XY → F tau. PN-treated wild-type tau and 5XY → F tau consistently displayed lysine formylation throughout tau in a nonsequence-specific distribution. Lysine formylation likely results from reactive free radical exposure caused by PN treatment. Therefore, our results indicate that PN treatment of proteins in vitro cannot be used to study protein nitration as it likely induces numerous other random oxidative modifications clouding the interpretations of any functional consequences of tyrosine nitration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel Vana
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States.
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Lee HW, Hitchcock TM, Park SH, Mi R, Kraft JD, Luo J, Cao W. Involvement of thioredoxin domain-containing 5 in resistance to nitrosative stress. Free Radic Biol Med 2010; 49:872-80. [PMID: 20550962 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2010] [Revised: 06/07/2010] [Accepted: 06/08/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Living organisms are exposed to nitrosative stress mediated by nitric oxide (NO) and its derivatives. Multiple cellular mechanisms may be needed to cope with nitrosative stress. This work takes advantage of a hypersensitive Escherichia coli genetic system to identify genes involved in resistance to nitrosative stress in mouse lungs. Mouse thioredoxin domain-containing 5 (mTrx 5) was identified as one of the candidate genes. Its ability to complement the hypersensitive phenotype in an E. coli mutant strain was confirmed by genetic analysis. Purified recombinant mouse thioredoxin domain-containing 5 protein reduced DNA damage that is sensitive to cleavage by the deamination repair enzyme endonuclease V, indicating that mTrx 5 may play a role in scavenging the reactive nitrogen species. E. coli thioredoxin 1 and thioredoxin 2 proteins also reduced the DNA damage in a similar manner. Deletion of trxA (encodes thioredoxin 1) or trxC (encodes thioredoxin 2) in E. coli resulted in a slightly higher sensitivity to nitrosative stress. On the other hand, deletion of both trxA and trxC greatly increased its sensitivity to nitrosative stress. Complementation with the mTrx 5 gene rescued the sensitive phenotype of the double deletion mutant. The potential roles that mTrx 5 may play in coping with nitrosative stress are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Wook Lee
- Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, South Carolina Experiment Station, Clemson University, Room 219 Biosystems Research Complex, 51 New Cherry Street, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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11
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Sun J, Druhan LJ, Zweier JL. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species regulate inducible nitric oxide synthase function shifting the balance of nitric oxide and superoxide production. Arch Biochem Biophys 2010; 494:130-7. [PMID: 19932078 PMCID: PMC4073618 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2009.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2009] [Accepted: 11/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Inducible NOS (iNOS) is induced in diseases associated with inflammation and oxidative stress, and questions remain regarding its regulation. We demonstrate that reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) dose-dependently regulate iNOS function. Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4)-replete iNOS was exposed to increasing concentrations of ROS/RNS and activity was measured with and without subsequent BH4 addition. Peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) produced the greatest change in NO generation rate, approximately 95% decrease, and BH4 only partially restored this loss of activity. Superoxide (O2(.-)) greatly decreased NO generation, however, BH4 addition restored this activity. Hydroxyl radical ((.)OH) mildly decreases NO generation in a BH4-dependent manner. iNOS was resistant to H2O2 with only slightly decreased NO generation with up to millimolar concentrations. In contrast to the inhibition of NO generation, ROS enhanced O2(.-) production from iNOS, while ONOO(-) had the opposite effect. Thus, ROS promote reversible iNOS uncoupling, while ONOO(-) induces irreversible enzyme inactivation and decreases both NO and O2(.-) production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Sun
- Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, and the Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Lawrence J. Druhan
- Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, and the Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Jay L. Zweier
- Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, and the Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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Inumaru VTG, Nogueira PA, Butuem IV, Riley LW, Ferrazoli L. Reactive nitrogen intermediate susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis genotypes in an urban setting. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2009; 13:665-668. [PMID: 19383204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycobacterium tuberculosis genotypes resistant to reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI) predominate in certain urban communities, suggesting that this phenotype influences disease transmission. OBJECTIVE To compare different M. tuberculosis genotypes for resistance to RNI generated in vitro. DESIGN We genotyped 420 M. tuberculosis isolates from a neighborhood in Sao Paulo, Brazil, and analyzed them for susceptibility to RNI generated in acidified sodium nitrite (ASN) solution. RESULTS Seventy-one (43%) of 167 recent-infection strains and 68 (43%) of 158 endogenous infection strains showed moderate- to high-level ASN resistance. CONCLUSION ASN resistance of M. tuberculosis is not necessarily a determining factor for enhanced transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- V T G Inumaru
- Faculdade de Saúde Pública, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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Tanyel E, Coban AY, Taşdelen Fişgin N, Tülek N, Durupinar B. [In vitro effect of reactive nitrogen and oxygen intermediates alone and in combination with some antibiotics against Brucella melitensis clinical isolates]. MIKROBIYOL BUL 2009; 43:19-26. [PMID: 19334376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Brucella spp. replicate and survive in lympho-proliferative tissues and cells, thus effective treatment of brucellosis requires the combined and long term use of intracellularly active antibiotics. Elimination of the microorganism largely depends on the reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates released by activated macrophages. In this study we aimed to determine the in vitro activity of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2; reactive oxygen intermediate) and acidified sodium nitrite (ASN; reactive nitrogen intermediate) alone and in combination with rifampicin (RIF) and tetracycline (TET) against four clinical isolates of Brucella melitensis. Initially minimal inhibitory concentrations of RIF and TET were determined by microbroth dilution susceptibility test. The activity of 2 and 5 mM H2O2 and 3 and 6 mM ASN was tested against each isolate by direct colony count from the agar plates inoculated with bacterial suspensions treated with H2O2 or ASN. The last step in the assay was to determine the combined effectiveness of RIF and TET plus H2O2 and ASN. From each three rolls of assay apparatus samples were taken at 0., 1., 6. and 24. hours and inoculated on Brucella agar. The plates were incubated at 37 degrees C for 48 hours and colonies were counted. While RIF alone or in combination with H2O2 supressed the growth of bacteria even in the first hour, TET alone did not show any effect in 24 hours. However, in combination with reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates TET affected bacterial growth starting from six hours. In conclusion, further explanation of the interactions between antibiotics and the substances produced by the immune system of the host during the infections caused by intracellular pathogens, might have an important impact on the determination of the treatment protocols and the measures to prevent relapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esra Tanyel
- Ondokuz Mayis Universitesi Tip Fakültesi, Enfeksiyon Hastaliklari ve Klinik Mikrobiyoloji Anabilim Dali, Samsun.
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14
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Sun J, Druhan LJ, Zweier JL. Dose dependent effects of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species on the function of neuronal nitric oxide synthase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 471:126-33. [PMID: 18201545 PMCID: PMC4073612 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2008.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2007] [Revised: 01/04/2008] [Accepted: 01/06/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and oxygen species (ROS) have been reported to modulate the function of nitric oxide synthase (NOS); however, the precise dose-dependent effects of specific RNS and ROS on NOS function are unknown. Questions remain unanswered regarding whether pathophysiological levels of RNS and ROS alter NOS function, and if this alteration is reversible. We measured the effects of peroxynitrite (ONOO-), superoxide (O2.-), hydroxyl radical (.OH), and H2O2 on nNOS activity. The results showed that NO production was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by all four oxidants, but only O2.- and ONOO- were inhibitory at pathophysiological concentrations (50muM). Subsequent addition of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) fully restored activity after O2.- exposure, while BH4 partially rescued the activity decrease induced by the other three oxidants. Furthermore, treatment with either ONOO- or O2.- stimulated nNOS uncoupling with decreased NO and enhanced O2.- generation. Thus, nNOS is reversibly uncoupled by O2.- (50muM), but irreversibly uncoupled and inactivated by ONOO-. Additionally, we observed that the mechanism by which oxidative stress alters nNOS activity involves not only BH4 oxidation, but also nNOS monomerization as well as possible degradation of the heme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Sun
- Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Lawrence J. Druhan
- Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Jay L. Zweier
- Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
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15
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Ponczek MB, Nowak P, Wachowicz B. The effects of nitronium ion on nitration, carbonylation and coagulation of human fibrinogen. Gen Physiol Biophys 2008; 27:55-58. [PMID: 18436984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The effect of nitronium ion on nitration, carbonylation and coagulation of human fibrinogen (Fg) in vitro was investigated. We observed that nitration of tyrosine, induced by NO2BF4 (0.01 mmol/l), was increased. No changes in carbonylation by NO2BF4 (0.01 mmol/l) were noticed. Mentioned alterations were associated with amplified coagulation of Fg. Higher concentrations of NO2BF4 (1 and 0.1 mmol/l) triggered growth of nitration and carbonylation of Fg, but led to inhibition of polymerization. Slight nitration may be responsible for increase, whereas sizable nitration and oxidation may lead to inhibition of Fg coagulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Ponczek
- Department of General Biochemistry, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90 273 Lodz, Poland.
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16
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Abstract
The study of bacterial responses to nitric oxide (NO), nitrosating agents, and other agents of nitrosative stress has a short history but has rapidly produced important insights into the interactions of these agents with model microbial systems as well as pathogenic species. Several methodological problems arise in attempting to define the global responses to these agents, whether in simply measuring growth or performing "omic" experiments in which the objective is to determine the genome-wide (transcriptomic) or proteome-wide responses. The first problem is the relatively long timescale over which the experiments are conducted--minutes, hours, or days in the case of slow-growing cultures. The second problem is not unique to NO and its congeners but concerns the difficulties encountered when sensitive and comprehensive analytical techniques (such as transcriptomics) are applied to cultures whose growth and physiology are perturbed by an inhibitor. In essence, the problem is "seeing the wood for the trees." This chapter reviews briefly the state of knowledge of NO responses and mechanisms in bacteria, particularly Escherichia coli and Campylobacter jejuni. Continuous culture has several advantages for investigating the consequences of NO exposure, and this approach is outlined with examples of recent results and conclusions. The major advantage of the chemostat is establishment of a reproducible quasi-steady state in growth, in which the growth rate can be controlled and maintained. Contrary to common belief, neither the concept nor the apparatus is difficult. Commercially available and homemade systems are described with practical advice. Establishing continuous cultures paves the way for other "omic" approaches, particularly proteomics and metabolomics, which are not covered here, as their application to the field of NO biology is in its infancy. A key to the literature describing methods suitable for assessing toxicity to microbes of NO and reactive nitrogen species is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven T Pullan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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17
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Ridnour LA, Windhausen AN, Isenberg JS, Yeung N, Thomas DD, Vitek MP, Roberts DD, Wink DA. Nitric oxide regulates matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity by guanylyl-cyclase-dependent and -independent pathways. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:16898-903. [PMID: 17942699 PMCID: PMC2040425 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0702761104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are of central importance in the proteolytic remodeling of matrix and the generation of biologically active molecules. MMPs are distinguished by a conserved catalytic domain containing a zinc ion, as well as a prodomain that regulates enzyme activation by modulation of a cysteine residue within that domain. Because nitric oxide (NO) and derived reactive nitrogen species target zinc ions and cysteine thiols, we assessed the ability of NO to regulate MMPs. A dose-dependent, biphasic regulatory effect of NO on the activity of MMPs (MMP-9, -1, and -13) secreted from murine macrophages was observed. Low exogenous NO perturbed MMP/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 levels by enhancing MMP activity and suppressing the endogenous inhibitor TIMP-1. This was cGMP-dependent, as confirmed by the cGMP analog 8-bromo-cGMP, as well as by the NO-soluble guanylyl cyclase-cGMP signaling inhibitor thrombospondin-1. Exposure of purified latent MMP-9 to exogenous NO demonstrated a concentration-dependent activation and inactivation of the enzyme, which occurred at higher NO flux. These chemical reactions occurred at concentrations similar to that of activated macrophages. Importantly, these results suggest that NO regulation of MMP-9 secreted from macrophages may occur chemically by reactive nitrogen species-mediated protein modification, biologically through soluble guanylyl-cyclase-dependent modulation of the MMP-9/TIMP-1 balance, or proteolytically through regulation of MMP-1 and -13, which can cleave the prodomain of MMP-9. Furthermore, when applied in a wound model, conditioned media exhibiting peak MMP activity increased vascular cell migration that was MMP-9-dependent, suggesting that MMP-9 is a key physiologic mediator of the effects of NO in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jeffrey S. Isenberg
- Laboratory of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Nolan Yeung
- Cognosci, 2 Davis Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709; and
| | | | - Michael P. Vitek
- Division of Neurology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710
| | - David D. Roberts
- Laboratory of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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18
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Rutkowski R, Pancewicz SA, Rutkowski K, Rutkowska J. [Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in inflammatory process]. Pol Merkur Lekarski 2007; 23:131-136. [PMID: 18044345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated in every cell during normal oxidation. The most important ROS include: superoxide anion (O2*-), hydroxyl radical (OH*), hydroperoxyl radical (HO2*), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and singlet oxygen ((1)O2*-). Reactive oxygen species can react with key cellular structures and molecules altering their biological function. Similarly reactive nitrogen species (RNS) such as nitric oxide (NO) or peroxinitrite anion (ONOO-) have physiological activity or reacts with different types of molecules to form toxic products. ROS and RNS are important in process of energy generation, lipids peroxidation, protein and DNA oxidation, nitration, nitrosation or nitrosylation and catecholamine response. Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species are neutralized by enzymatic activity or natural antioxidants that stop the initial formation of radicals. Overproduction of ROS or RNS results in "oxidative" or "nitrosative" stress which contributes to variety of pathological processes typical for different cancer, neurodegenerative, viral, toxic or inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryszard Rutkowski
- Akademia Medyczna w Białymstoku, Samodzielna Pracownia Diagnostyki Oddechowej i Bronchoskopii.
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19
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Castillo SS, Levy M, Thaikoottathil JV, Goldkorn T. Reactive nitrogen and oxygen species activate different sphingomyelinases to induce apoptosis in airway epithelial cells. Exp Cell Res 2007; 313:2680-6. [PMID: 17498692 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2007.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2006] [Revised: 03/28/2007] [Accepted: 04/01/2007] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Airway epithelial cells are constantly exposed to environmental insults such as air pollution or tobacco smoke that may contain high levels of reactive nitrogen and reactive oxygen species. Previous work from our laboratory demonstrated that the reactive oxygen species (ROS), hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), specifically activates neutral sphingomyelinase 2 (nSMase2) to generate ceramide and induce apoptosis in airway epithelial cells. In the current study we examine the biological consequence of exposure of human airway epithelial (HAE) cells to reactive nitrogen species (RNS). Similar to ROS, we hypothesized that RNS may modulate ceramide levels in HAE cells and induce apoptosis. We found that nitric oxide (NO) exposure via the NO donor papa-NONOate, failed to induce apoptosis in HAE cells. However, when papa-NONOate was combined with a superoxide anion donor (DMNQ) to generate peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)), apoptosis was observed. Similarly pure ONOO(-)-induced apoptosis, and ONOO(-)-induced apoptosis was associated with an increase in cellular ceramide levels. Pretreatment with the antioxidant glutathione did not prevent ONOO(-)-induced apoptosis, but did prevent H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis. Analysis of the ceramide generating enzymes revealed a differential response by the oxidants. We confirmed our findings that H(2)O(2) specifically activated a neutral sphingomyelinase (nSMase2). However, ONOO(-) exposure did not affect neutral sphingomyelinase activity; rather, ONOO(-) specifically activated an acidic sphingomyelinase (aSMase). The specificity of each enzyme was confirmed using siRNA to knockdown both nSMase2 and aSMase. Silencing nSMase2 prevented H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis, but had no effect on ONOO(-)-induced apoptosis. On the other hand, silencing of aSMase markedly impaired ONOO(-)-induced apoptosis, but did not affect H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis. These findings support our hypothesis that ROS and RNS modulate ceramide levels to induce apoptosis in HAE cells. However, we found that different oxidants modulate different enzymes of the ceramide generating machinery to induce apoptosis in airway epithelial cells. These findings add to the complexity of how oxidative stress promotes lung cell injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sianna Castillo
- Signal Transduction, UC Davis, Genome Biomedical Sciences Facility 451 E. Health Sciences Dr, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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20
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Hermosura MC, Garruto RM. TRPM7 and TRPM2-Candidate susceptibility genes for Western Pacific ALS and PD? Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2007; 1772:822-35. [PMID: 17395433 PMCID: PMC1994999 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2007.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2006] [Revised: 02/17/2007] [Accepted: 02/20/2007] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recent findings implicating TRPM7 and TRPM2 in oxidative stress-induced neuronal death thrust these channels into the spotlight as possible therapeutic targets for neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we describe how the functional properties of TRPM7 and TRPM2 are interconnected with calcium (Ca(2+)) and magnesium (Mg(2+)) homeostasis, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and immune mechanisms, all principal suspects in neurodegeneration. We focus our discussion on Western Pacific Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinsonism Dementia (PD) because extensive studies conducted over the years strongly suggest that these diseases are ideal candidates for a gene-environment model of etiology. The unique mineral environment identified in connection with Western Pacific ALS and PD, low Mg(2+) and Ca(2+), yet high in transition metals, creates a condition that could affect the proper function of these two channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith C Hermosura
- Bekesy Laboratory of Neurobiology, Pacific Biosciences Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1993 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
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21
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Abstract
In a previous screen for Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutants that are hypersusceptible to reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI), two genes associated with the M. tuberculosis proteasome were identified. One of these genes, pafA (proteasome accessory factor A), encodes a protein of unknown function. In this work, we determined that pafA is in an operon with two additional genes, pafB and pafC. In order to assess the contribution of these genes to RNI resistance, we isolated mutants with transposon insertions in pafB and pafC. In contrast to the pafA mutant, the pafB and pafC mutants were not severely sensitized to RNI, but pafB and pafC were nonetheless required for full RNI resistance. We also found that PafB and PafC interact with each other and that each is likely required for the stability of the other protein in M. tuberculosis. Finally, we show that the presence of PafA, but not PafB or PafC, regulates the steady-state levels of three proteasome substrates. Taken together, these data demonstrate that PafA, but not PafB or PafC, is critical for maintaining the steady-state levels of known proteasome substrates, whereas all three proteins appear to play a role in RNI resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Festa
- New York University School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, 550 First Avenue, Medical Sciences Building Room 236, New York, NY 10016, USA
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22
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Abstract
Environmental stresses may lead to selection for hypermutator bacterial cells, which have an increased chance of generating beneficial variants. With stress removal, cost of mutation exceeds the fitness advantage, selecting against hypermutators. Hypermutators arise through several mechanisms, including inactivation of mismatch repair genes (MMR) or induction of error-prone polymerases. Helicobacter pylori may provide an alternative mechanism of stress-induced mutagenesis, since it lacks the MMR genes and error-prone polymerases found in other bacterial species, and possesses an endogenously high mutation frequency. In this study, we expose H. pylori strains to reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species, stressors found in their natural environment. These exposures directly resulted in elevated rates of spontaneous point mutation, deletion between direct repeats, and intergenomic recombination. We demonstrate that these effects are transient and do not involve selection for hypermutator strains. That H. pylori possesses direct repeats in regions where potential gene rearrangements can occur suggests a mechanism for targeted mutation in response to stress that avoids the deleterious fitness costs of fixed hypermutation. These studies provide a new paradigm for adaptation under increased selective pressures that may be present in other prokaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine M Kang
- Department of Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 550 First Ave., New York, NY 10016, USA.
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23
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Bottai D, Batoni G, Esin S, Florio W, Brancatisano FL, Favilli F, Maisetta G, Campa M. The secretion antigen SA5K has a role in the adaptation of Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin to intracellular stress and hypoxia. Microbes Infect 2006; 8:2254-61. [PMID: 16828326 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2006.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2005] [Revised: 04/12/2006] [Accepted: 04/26/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The Mycobacterium tuberculosis TB8.4 (Rv1174c) gene encodes a secreted protein of 8.4 kDa (TB8.4) which has been suggested to be involved in reactivation of dormant mycobacteria. We have previously reported that inactivation of an identical gene (sa5k) in Mycobacterium bovis BCG causes impaired ability of the mutant strain (BCGsa5k::aph) to grow inside human macrophages. This study aimed to investigate the role of TB8.4 in the reactivation of aged cultures of BCG as well as the role of the sa5k gene in the resistance of BCG to intracellular stress conditions and adaptation to hypoxia. Although when added to aged cultures of BCG, TB8.4 caused a statistically significant increase in the number of colony-forming units, a similar effect was obtained in cultures incubated with BSA, suggesting a non-specific growth stimulation by TB8.4. Compared to parental BCG, the BCGsa5k::aph strain showed an increased susceptibility to reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates and to acid stress and an impaired ability to adapt to reduced O2 concentrations, when tested in the oxygen-limited Wayne culture system. These results suggest that the product of the sa5k gene (SA5K protein) has a role in both resistance of BCG to intracellular stress and in its adaptation to hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Bottai
- Dipartimento di Patologia Sperimentale, Biotecnologie Mediche, Infettivologia ed Epidemiologia, University of Pisa, Via San Zeno 35/39, 56127 Pisa, Italy
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24
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Gloire G, Legrand-Poels S, Piette J. NF-kappaB activation by reactive oxygen species: fifteen years later. Biochem Pharmacol 2006; 72:1493-505. [PMID: 16723122 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2006.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1133] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2006] [Revised: 04/05/2006] [Accepted: 04/07/2006] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The transcription factor NF-kappaB plays a major role in coordinating innate and adaptative immunity, cellular proliferation, apoptosis and development. Since the discovery in 1991 that NF-kappaB may be activated by H(2)O(2), several laboratories have put a considerable effort into dissecting the molecular mechanisms underlying this activation. Whereas early studies revealed an atypical mechanism of activation, leading to IkappaBalpha Y42 phosphorylation independently of IkappaB kinase (IKK), recent findings suggest that H(2)O(2) activates NF-kappaB mainly through the classical IKK-dependent pathway. The molecular mechanisms leading to IKK activation are, however, cell-type specific and will be presented here. In this review, we also describe the effect of other ROS (HOCl and (1)O(2)) and reactive nitrogen species on NF-kappaB activation. Finally, we critically review the recent data highlighting the role of ROS in NF-kappaB activation by proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha and IL-1beta) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), two major components of innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Gloire
- Center for Biomedical Integrated Genoproteomics (CBIG), Virology and Immunology Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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25
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Abstract
Cellular oxidative injury has been implicated in aging and a wide array of clinical disorders including ischemia-reperfusion injury; neurodegenerative diseases; diabetes; inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, arthritis, and hepatitis; and drug-induced toxicity. However, available antioxidants have not proven to be particularly effective against many of these disorders. A possibility is that some of the antioxidants do not reach the relevant sites of free radical generation, especially if mitochondria are the primary source of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The SS (Szeto-Schiller) peptide antioxidants represent a novel approach with targeted delivery of antioxidants to the inner mitochondrial membrane. The structural motif of these SS peptides centers on alternating aromatic residues and basic amino acids (aromatic-cationic peptides). These SS peptides can scavenge hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite and inhibit lipid peroxidation. Their antioxidant action can be attributed to the tyrosine or dimethyltyrosine residue. By reducing mitochondrial ROS, these peptides inhibit mitochondrial permeability transition and cytochrome c release, thus preventing oxidant-induced cell death. Because these peptides concentrate >1000-fold in the inner mitochondrial membrane, they prevent oxidative cell death with EC50 in the nM range. Preclinical studies support their potential use for ischemia-reperfusion injury and neurodegenerative disorders. Although peptides have often been considered to be poor drug candidates, these small peptides have excellent "druggable" properties, making them promising agents for many diseases with unmet needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel H Szeto
- Department of Pharmacology, Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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26
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Abstract
Ras GTPases cycle between inactive GDP-bound and active GTP-bound states to modulate a diverse array of processes involved in cellular growth control. We have previously shown that both NO/O(2) (via nitrogen dioxide, (*)NO(2)) and superoxide radical anion (O(2)(*)(-)) promote Ras guanine nucleotide dissociation. We now show that hydrogen peroxide in the presence of transition metals (i.e., H(2)O(2)/transition metals) and peroxynitrite also trigger radical-based Ras guanine nucleotide dissociation. The primary redox-active reaction species derived from H(2)O(2)/transition metals and peroxynitrite is O(2)(*)(-) and (*)NO(2), respectively. A small fraction of hydroxyl radical (OH(*)) is also present in both. We also show that both carbonate radical (CO(3)(*)(-)) and (*)NO(2), derived from the mixture of peroxynitrite and bicarbonate, facilitate Ras guanine nucleotide dissociation. We further demonstrate that NO/O(2) and O(2)(*)(-) promote Ras GDP exchange with GTP in the presence of a radical-quenching agent, ascorbate, or NO, and generation of Ras-GTP promotes high-affinity binding of the Ras-binding domain of Raf-1, a downstream effector of Ras. S-Nitrosylated Ras (Ras-SNO) can be formed when NO serves as a radical-quenching agent, and hydroxyl radical but not (*)NO(2) or O(2)(*)(-) can further react with Ras-SNO to modulate Ras activity in vitro. However, given the lack of redox specificity associated with the high redox potential of OH(*), it is unclear whether this reaction occurs under physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongyun Heo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina, 530 Mary Ellen Jones Building, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7260, USA
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27
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Lee SYH, Munerol B, Pollard S, Youdim KA, Pannala AS, Kuhnle GGC, Debnam ES, Rice-Evans C, Spencer JPE. The reaction of flavanols with nitrous acid protects against N-nitrosamine formation and leads to the formation of nitroso derivatives which inhibit cancer cell growth. Free Radic Biol Med 2006; 40:323-34. [PMID: 16413414 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2005] [Revised: 08/16/2005] [Accepted: 08/18/2005] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Studies have suggested that diets rich in polyphenols such as flavonoids may lead to a reduced risk of gastrointestinal cancers. We demonstrate the ability of monomeric and dimeric flavanols to scavenge reactive nitrogen species derived from nitrous acid. Both epicatechin and dimer B2 (epicatechin dimer) inhibited nitrous acid-induced formation of 3-nitrotyrosine and the formation of the carcinogenic N-nitrosamine, N-nitrosodimethylamine. The reaction of monomeric and dimeric epicatechin with nitrous acid led to the formation of mono- and di-nitroso flavanols, whereas the reaction with hesperetin resulted primarily in the formation of nitrated products. Although, epicatechin was transferred across the jejunum of the small intestine yielding metabolites, its nitroso form was not absorbed. Dimer B2 but not epicatechin monomer inhibited the proliferation of, and triggered apoptosis in, Caco-2 cells. The latter was accompanied by caspase-3 activation and reductions in Akt phosphorylation, suggesting activation of apoptosis via inhibition of prosurvival signaling. Furthermore, the dinitroso derivative of dimer B2, and to a lesser extent the dinitroso-epicatechin, also induced significant toxic effects in Caco-2 cells. The inhibitory effects on cellular proliferation were paralleled by early inhibition of ERK 1/2 phosphorylation and later reductions in cyclin D1 levels, indicating modulation of cell cycle regulation in Caco-2 cells. These effects highlight multiple routes in which dietary derived flavanols may exert beneficial effects in the gastrointestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Y H Lee
- Molucular Nutrition Group, School of Biosciences, University of Reading, Reading RG2 6AP, UK
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28
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Ranjan P, Heintz NH. S-phase arrest by reactive nitrogen species is bypassed by okadaic acid, an inhibitor of protein phosphatases PP1/PP2A. Free Radic Biol Med 2006; 40:247-59. [PMID: 16413407 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2005] [Revised: 06/03/2005] [Accepted: 08/08/2005] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In mammalian cells DNA damage activates a checkpoint that halts progression through S phase. To determine the ability of nitrating agents to induce S-phase arrest, mouse C10 cells synchronized in S phase were treated with nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)) or SIN-1, a generator of reactive nitrogen species (RNS). SIN-1 or NO(2) induced S-phase arrest in a dose- and time-dependent manner. As for the positive controls adozelesin and cisplatin, arrest was accompanied by phosphorylation of ATM kinase; dephosphorylation of pRB; decreases in RF-C, cyclin D1, Cdc25A, and Cdc6; and increases in p21. Comet assays indicated that RNS induce minimal DNA damage. Moreover, in a cell-free replication system, nuclei from cells treated with RNS were able to support control levels of DNA synthesis when incubated in cytosolic extracts from untreated cells, whereas nuclei from cells treated with cisplatin were not. Induction of phosphatase activity may represent one mechanism of RNS-induced arrest, for the PP1/PP2A phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid inhibited dephosphorylation of pRB; prevented decreases in the levels of RF-C, cyclin D1, Cdc6, and Cdc25A; and bypassed arrest by SIN-1 or NO(2), but not cisplatin or adozelesin. Our studies suggest that RNS may induce S-phase arrest through mechanisms that differ from those elicited by classical DNA-damaging agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya Ranjan
- Department of Pathology and Vermont Cancer Center, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
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Abstract
Susceptibilities of 12 clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates to acidified sodium nitrite (ASN) were compared. The results demonstrate that 8 of the 12 isolates exhibited enhanced survival levels in 1.5 mM ASN compared to levels in medium alone, suggesting that low concentrations of reactive nitrogen intermediates have a hormetic effect on M. tuberculosis in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Benjamin Brugmann
- Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, School of Allied Health Professions, Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, New Orleans, 70112-2223, USA
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Florio W, Batoni G, Esin S, Bottai D, Maisetta G, Favilli F, Brancatisano FL, Campa M. Influence of culture medium on the resistance and response of Mycobacterium bovis BCG to reactive nitrogen intermediates. Microbes Infect 2005; 8:434-41. [PMID: 16298152 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2005] [Revised: 07/14/2005] [Accepted: 07/15/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present work was to evaluate the influence of the culture medium on the resistance and response of Mycobacterium bovis BCG to reactive nitrogen intermediates, in vitro. BCG was grown in Sauton, Dubos or Middlebrook 7H9 medium and exposed to sodium nitroprusside (SNP) for up to 7 days. The percentage of bacilli that survived was significantly lower in Middlebrook 7H9 than in Sauton or Dubos medium. Addition of SNP to Middlebrook 7H9 caused an increase in the RedOx potential in either the absence or the presence of BCG, while addition of the compound to Sauton medium gave rise to an increase in the RedOx potential only in the absence of bacteria, whereas a decrease in the RedOx potential was observed in the presence of BCG. The resistance of BCG to SNP in the different media did not correlate with the concentration of peroxynitrite in culture supernatants. BCG grown in different media showed a differential protein expression pattern, as assessed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Exposure of BCG to sub-lethal concentrations of SNP in Middlebrook 7H9, but not in Sauton medium, revealed a differential expression of at least 38 protein species. Altogether these results demonstrate that the growth medium may have a remarkable influence on the resistance and the response of BCG to SNP and suggest that the different resistance of BCG in the two media is unlikely to be due to a differential antioxidant effect of the medium itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Florio
- Dipartimento di Patologia Sperimentale, Biotecnologie Mediche, Infettivologia ed Epidemiologia, Università di Pisa, Via S. Zeno 35-39, 56127 Pisa, Italy.
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31
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Abstract
A screen for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) mutants sensitive to reactive nitrogen intermediates identified transposon insertions in the presumptive proteasomal ATPase gene mpa (mycobacterium proteasome ATPase; Rv2115c). mpa mutants are attenuated in both wild type and nitric oxide synthase 2 deficient mice. In this work, we show that attenuation of mpa mutants is severe, and that Mpa is an ATPase associated with various cellular activities (AAA) ATPase that forms hexameric rings resembling the eukaryotic complex p97/valosin-containing protein (VCP). Point mutations in the conserved Walker box ATPase motifs of Mpa greatly reduced or abolished ATPase activity in vitro and abrogated protection of Mtb against acidified nitrite. A mutant Mpa protein missing only its last two amino acids retained ATPase activity, yet failed to protect Mtb against nitrite. The corresponding strain was attenuated in mice. Thus, Mpa is an ATPase whose enzymatic activity is necessary but not sufficient to protect against reactive nitrogen intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Heran Darwin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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Tao L, Liu HR, Gao F, Qu Y, Christopher TA, Lopez BL, Ma XL. Mechanical traumatic injury without circulatory shock causes cardiomyocyte apoptosis: role of reactive nitrogen and reactive oxygen species. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005; 288:H2811-8. [PMID: 15695560 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.01252.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Apoptotic cell death plays a critical role in tissue injury and organ dysfunction under a variety of pathological conditions. The present study was designed to determine whether apoptosis may contribute to posttraumatic cardiac dysfunction, and if so, to investigate the mechanisms involved. Male adult mice were subjected to nonlethal traumatic injury, and cardiomyocyte apoptosis, cardiac function, and cardiac production of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species were determined. Modified Noble-Collip drum trauma did not result in circulatory shock, and the 24-h survival rate was 100%. No direct mechanical traumatic injury was observed in the heart immediately after trauma. However, cardiomyocyte apoptosis gradually increased and reached a maximal level 12 h after trauma. Significantly, cardiac dysfunction was observed 24 h after trauma in the isolated perfused heart. This was completely reversed when apoptosis was blocked by administration of a nonselective caspase inhibitor immediately after trauma. In the traumatized hearts, reactive nitrogen species (e.g., nitric oxide) and reactive oxygen species (e.g., superoxide) were both significantly increased, and maximal nitric oxide production preceded maximal apoptosis. Moreover, a highly cytotoxic reactive species, peroxynitrite, was markedly increased in the traumatic heart, and there was a significant positive correlation between cardiac nitrotyrosine content and caspase 3 activity. Our present study demonstrated for the first time that nonlethal traumatic injury caused delayed cell death and that apoptotic cardiomyocyte death contributes to posttrauma organ dysfunction. Antiapoptotic treatments, such as blockade of reactive nitrogen oxygen species generation, may be novel strategies in reducing posttrauma multiple organ failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Tao
- Dept. of Emergency Medicine, Jefferson Medical College, 1020 Sansom St., Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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Vatassery GT. Impairment of Brain Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation Accompanying Vitamin E Oxidation Induced by Iron or Reactive Nitrogen Species: A Selective Review. Neurochem Res 2004; 29:1951-9. [PMID: 15662831 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-004-6870-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are exposed to large fluxes of iron, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Hence they are susceptible to oxidative stress, a process inhibited by vitamin E. Our investigations show that iron uncouples oxidative phosphorylation whereas peroxynitrite and nitrite are inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidation of mitochondrial vitamin E is accompanied by generation of lipid peroxidation products, altered enzyme activity and electrical conductance etc., and result in inefficient oxidative phosphorylation. Vitamin E is important for mitochondrial function because: (1) Prior investigations have shown that vitamin E is essential for maintaining mitochondrial respiration. (2) Vitamin E is the most potent, lipid-soluble antioxidant localized ideally in mitochondrial membranes. (3) The decline in respiratory control ratios (RCR) of rat brain mitochondria exposed to peroxynitrite closely paralleled the oxidative elimination of vitamin E. (4) Finally, iron is a strong uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation in brain mitochondria from vitamin E deficient animals and not from controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Govind T Vatassery
- Research Service and GRECC, VA Medical Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55417, USA.
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Fujimoto Y, Uno E, Sakuma S. Effects of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species on cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 activities. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2004; 71:335-40. [PMID: 15380821 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2004.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2004] [Accepted: 06/16/2004] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The effects of reactive oxygen species (superoxide anion radical--O(2)*-, hydrogen peroxide--H(2)O(2) and hydroxyl radical--*OH; the reaction products of xanthine plus xanthine oxidase system) and reactive nitrogen species [nitric oxide--NO*; from 1-hydroxyl-2-oxo-3-(N-methyl-3-aminopropyl)-3-methyl-1-triazene--NOC7 and peroxynitrite--ONOO(-)] on the activities of purified cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and -2 were studied. Xanthine plus xanthine oxidase suppressed the COX-1 and -2 activities in a xanthine oxidase concentration-dependent fashion. This effect was reversed by addition of catalase to the reactive oxygen species-generating system but not by superoxide dismutase or mannitol, indicating that H(2)O(2) is the responsible metabolite. NOC7 activated the COX-1 activity but inhibited the COX-2 activity at concentrations ranging from 1 to 50 microM. Experiments utilizing a NO* antidote, carboxy-2-phenyl-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl 3-oxide revealed that the observed effects of NOC7 are caused by NO*.ONOO(-), a product of NO* and O(2)*-, both activated and inhibited the COX-1 and -2 activities, depending on ONOO(-) concentration. At a low concentration of ONOO(-) (5 microM) there was enhancement of the COX-1 and -2 activities, but with higher concentrations there was suppression of these two enzyme activities (COX-1, at 200 microM; COX-2, >50 microM). These results suggest that H(2)O(2), NO* and ONOO(-) can have different modulatory effects on the COX-1 and -2 activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohko Fujimoto
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, Osaka University of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 4-20-1 Nasahara, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1094, Japan.
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Abstract
Much attention has been paid to nitric oxide (NO) research since its discovery as a physiological mediator in the cardiovascular system. In recent years, newer roles have been attributed to this molecule and its close relatives, termed collectively reactive nitrogen species (RNS). These roles relate to different mechanisms of protein modification, among which S-nitrosylation of cysteines has emerged as a potential new paradigm in signal transduction and regulation of protein function. We review here the chemical basis of this modification compared with other protein modifications related to nitric oxide, as well as the kind of specificity we can expect from it. We also review the current methodologies that can be applied to the study of S-nitrosylation and identification of S-nitrosylated proteins in cells, and detail the relevance of this modification in several proteins related to cardiovascular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Martínez-Ruiz
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investiaciones Cientificas and Instituto Reina Sofia de Investigaciones Nefrológicas, Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, Madrid E-28040
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Park SY, Ko HH, Song JH, Han ES, Lee CS. Differential effect of nitrogen species on changes in mitochondrial membrane permeability due to mitomycin c in lung epithelial cells. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2004; 369:312-21. [PMID: 14767634 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-004-0864-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2003] [Accepted: 12/19/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The effect of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) against the cytotoxicity of mitomycin c (MMC) in lung epithelial cells was assessed by measuring the effect on mitochondrial membrane permeability. RNS had a differential effect against cytotoxicity of MMC depending on concentration. Viability loss in cells exposed to MMC was decreased by inhibitors of caspase-3, -8 and -9 and attenuated by antioxidants (N-acetylcysteine, dithiothreitol, ascorbate and rutin). Addition of 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1) differentially affected the MMC-induced cell death and GSH depletion concentration dependently with a maximal inhibitory effect at 150 microM. Ascorbate, superoxide dismutase and haemoglobin prevented the inhibitory effect of 150 microM SIN-1 on 10 microg/ml MMC-induced cell death. SIN-1 inhibited the MMC-induced nuclear damage, loss in mitochondrial transmembrane potential, cytosolic accumulation of cytochrome c, caspase-3 activation, increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and depletion of GSH. SIN-1 also attenuated cell death due to H(2)O(2). The cytotoxicity of MMC in the presence of oxidants or RNS producers was much less than the sum of the each effect of MMC and producer. SIN-1 may inhibit the MMC-induced viability loss in lung epithelial cells by suppressing the mitochondrial membrane permeability change and by interaction of its products with MMC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se Young Park
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, 156-756 Seoul, South Korea
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Rousseau C, Winter N, Pivert E, Bordat Y, Neyrolles O, Avé P, Huerre M, Gicquel B, Jackson M. Production of phthiocerol dimycocerosates protects Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the cidal activity of reactive nitrogen intermediates produced by macrophages and modulates the early immune response to infection. Cell Microbiol 2004; 6:277-87. [PMID: 14764111 DOI: 10.1046/j.1462-5822.2004.00368.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutants unable to synthesize phthiocerol dimycocerosates (DIMs) was recently shown to be impaired in mouse lungs. However, the precise role of these molecules in the course of infection remained to be determined. Here, we provide evidence that the attenuation of a DIM-deficient strain takes place during the acute phase of infection in both lungs and spleen of mice, and that this attenuation results in part from the increased sensitivity of the mutant to the cidal activity of reactive nitrogen intermediates released by activated macrophages. We also show that the DIM-deficient mutant, the growth and survival of which were not impaired within resting macrophages and dendritic cells, induced these cells to secrete more tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin (IL)-6 than the wild-type strain. Although purified DIM molecules by themselves had no effect on the activation of macrophages and dendritic cells in vitro, we found that the proper localization of DIMs in the cell envelope of M. tuberculosis is critical to their biological effects. Thus, our findings suggest that DIM production contributes to the initial growth of M. tuberculosis by protecting it from the nitric oxide-dependent killing of macrophages and modulating the early immune response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Rousseau
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Cobbs CS, Whisenhunt TR, Wesemann DR, Harkins LE, Van Meir EG, Samanta M. Inactivation of wild-type p53 protein function by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in malignant glioma cells. Cancer Res 2003; 63:8670-3. [PMID: 14695179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023]
Abstract
Malignant gliomas are the most common primary brain tumors in adults, and the most malignant form, glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is usually rapidly fatal. Most GBMs do not have p53 mutations, although the p53 tumor suppressor pathway appears to be inactivated. GBMs grow in a hypoxic and inflammatory microenvironment, and increased levels of the free radicals nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide () occur in these malignancies in vivo. Peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) is a highly reactive molecule produced by excess NO and that can posttranslationally modify and inactivate proteins, especially zinc finger transcription factors such as p53. We demonstrated previously that GBMs have evidence of tyrosine nitration, the "footprint" of peroxynitrite-mediated protein modification in vivo, and that peroxynitrite could inhibit the specific DNA binding ability of wild-type p53 protein in glioma cells in vitro. Here we show that both authentic peroxynitrite and SIN-1 (3-morpholinosydnonimine hydrochloride), a molecule that decomposes into NO and to form peroxynitrite, can inhibit wild-type p53 function in malignant glioma cells. Concentrations of peroxynitrite associated with a tumor inflammatory environment caused dysregulation of wild-type p53 transcriptional activity and downstream p21(WAF1) expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles S Cobbs
- Surgical Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham Department of Surgery, Division of Neurosurgery, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA.
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Myers JT, Tsang AW, Swanson JA. Localized reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates inhibit escape of Listeria monocytogenes from vacuoles in activated macrophages. J Immunol 2003; 171:5447-53. [PMID: 14607950 PMCID: PMC2972186 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.10.5447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) evades being killed after phagocytosis by macrophages by escaping from vacuoles into cytoplasm. Activated macrophages are listericidal, in part because they can retain Lm in vacuoles. This study examined the contribution of reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI) and reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI) to the inhibition of Lm escape from vacuoles. Lm escaped from vacuoles of nonactivated macrophages within 30 min of infection. Macrophages activated with IFN-gamma, LPS, IL-6, and a neutralizing Ab against IL-10 retained Lm within the vacuoles, and inhibitors of ROI and RNI blocked inhibition of vacuolar escape to varying degrees. Measurements of Lm escape in macrophages from gp91(phox-/-) and NO synthase 2(-/-) mice showed that vacuolar retention required ROI and was augmented by RNI. Live cell imaging with the fluorogenic probe dihydro-2',4,5,6,7,7'-hexafluorofluorescein coupled to BSA (DHFF-BSA) indicated that oxidative chemistries were generated rapidly and were localized to Lm vacuoles. Chemistries that oxidized DHFF-BSA were similar to those that retained Lm in phagosomes. Fluorescent conversion of DHFF-BSA occurred more efficiently in smaller vacuoles, indicating that higher concentrations of ROI or RNI were generated in more confining volumes. Thus, activated macrophages retained Lm within phagosomes by the localization of ROI and RNI to vacuoles, and by their combined actions in a small space
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse T. Myers
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-0620
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-0620
| | - Albert W. Tsang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-0620
| | - Joel A. Swanson
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-0620
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-0620
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40
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Loprasert S, Sallabhan R, Whangsuk W, Mongkolsuk S. Compensatory increase in ahpC gene expression and its role in protecting Burkholderia pseudomallei against reactive nitrogen intermediates. Arch Microbiol 2003; 180:498-502. [PMID: 14614594 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-003-0621-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2003] [Revised: 10/15/2003] [Accepted: 10/16/2003] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In the human pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei, katG encodes the antioxidant defense enzyme catalase-peroxidase. Interestingly, a B. pseudomallei mutant, disrupted in katG, is hyperresistant to organic hydroperoxide. This hyperresistance is due to the compensatory expression of the alkyl hydroperoxide reductase gene ( ahpC) and depends on a global regulator OxyR. The KatG-deficient mutant is also highly resistant to reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI). When overproduced, the B. pseudomallei AhpC protein, protected cells against killing by RNI. The levels of resistance to both organic peroxide and RNI returned to those of the wild-type when the katG mutant was complemented with katG. These studies establish the partially overlapping defensive activities of KatG and AhpC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suvit Loprasert
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Lak Si, Bangkok 10210, Thailand.
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41
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Nys M, Deby-Dupont G, Habraken Y, Legrand-Poels S, Kohnen S, Ledoux D, Canivet JL, Damas P, Lamy M. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluids of ventilated patients with acute lung injury activate NF-κB in alveolar epithelial cell line: role of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and cytokines. Nitric Oxide 2003; 9:33-43. [PMID: 14559430 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2003.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
In human alveolar epithelial cell line, we investigated the binding activity of NF-kappaB induced by the bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALs) from ventilated patients with acute lung injury (ALI), in correlation with the concentrations of inflammatory cytokines, RNOS, and the severity of the ALI. In BALs obtained in 67 patients (16 bronchopneumonia, 14 infected ARDS, 20 ARDS, and 17 ALI patients without bronchopneumonia and no ARDS), we measured endotoxin, IL-1beta, IL-8, and nitrated proteins (NTP), the activity of myeloperoxidase, and the capacity to activate the NF-kappaB in alveolar A549 cells by electrophoretic mobility shift and supershift assays. The neutrophil counts and mean IL-1beta, IL-8, myeloperoxidase, and NTP values were increased in bronchopneumonia and infected ARDS groups compared to ARDS and ALI without bronchopneumonia and no ARDS groups (P<0.001). The number of neutrophils was correlated to those of IL-1beta, IL-8, myeloperoxidase, NTP, and endotoxin in all groups (P<0.0001). NF-kappaB activity was induced in alveolar like cells by BALs in all groups, was higher in bronchopneumonia and infected ARDS groups (P<0.02), and was correlated to IL-1beta (P=0.0002), IL-8 (P=0.02), NTP (P=0.014), myeloperoxidase (P=0.016), and neutrophil counts (P=0.003). BALs of bronchopneumonia and infected ARDS patients had increased inflammatory mediators (compared to ARDS and ALI without bronchopneumonia and no ARDS patients) that correlated to neutrophil counts and to the NF-kappaB-binding activity. These mediators and NF-kappaB activation may induce an amplification of inflammatory phenomena. By in vitro studies, we confirmed that NO-derived species (10(-6) to 10(-5)M peroxynitrite and 10(-5)M nitrites) and myeloperoxidase (at concentration equivalent to that found in BALs) can participate in the NF-kappaB activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nys
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, University of Liège, B4000 Sart Tilman, Liège, Belgium.
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Jibiki I, Hashimoto S, Maruoka S, Gon Y, Matsuzawa A, Nishitoh H, Ichijo H, Horie T. Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1-mediated signaling pathway regulates nitric oxide-induced activator protein-1 activation in human bronchial epithelial cells. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 167:856-61. [PMID: 12623859 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.2204042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Exhaled nitric oxide (NO) is increased in individuals with bronchial asthma. NO may have antiinflammatory and proinflammatory effects; however, its role in bronchial asthma is unclear. In the present study, to clarify this issue we examined the effect of NO in inducing activator protein-1 (AP-1) activation in human bronchial epithelial cells (BEC) and a role of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase1 (ASK1), an upstream kinase kinase of c-Jun-NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in NO-mediated AP-1 activation. The results showed that (1) the reactive nitrogen generating species NOR-1(+/--(E)-methyl-2-[(E)-hydroxykmino]-5-nitro-6-methoxy-3-hexeneamide]) induced AP-1 activation determined by AP-1-dependent luciferase gene activity, and an NO scavenger, carboxyl-PTIO, attenuated NOR-1-induced AP-1 activation; (2) NOR-1 phosphorylated ASK1, JNK, and p38 MAPK; and (3) transient transfection of the dominant negative form of AKS1 attenuated NOR-1-induced AP-1 activation in BEC. To further characterize the role of ASK-1 cascade, the dominant negative form of ASK1-stable transfected porcine artery endothelial (PAE) cells were used. AP-1 activity and JNK and p38 MAPK phosphorylation were depressed in the dominant-negative form of ASK1-stable transfected PAE cells. These results indicate that NO is capable of inducing AP-1 activation, and that ASK1-p38 MAPK/JNK cascade regulates AP-1 activation in NO-stimulated BEC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itsuro Jibiki
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchikamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan
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Lee SH, Chang DK, Goel A, Boland CR, Bugbee W, Boyle DL, Firestein GS. Microsatellite instability and suppressed DNA repair enzyme expression in rheumatoid arthritis. J Immunol 2003; 170:2214-20. [PMID: 12574395 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.4.2214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen and nitrogen are produced by rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial tissue and can potentially induce mutations in key genes. Normally, this process is prevented by a DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system that maintains sequence fidelity during DNA replication. Key members of the MMR system include MutSalpha (hMSH2 and hMSH6) and MutSbeta (hMSH2 and hMSH3). To provide evidence of DNA damage in inflamed synovium, we analyzed synovial tissues for microsatellite instability (MSI). MSI was examined by PCR on genomic DNA of paired synovial tissue and peripheral blood cells of RA patients using specific primer sequences for five key microsatellites. Surprisingly, abundant MSI was observed in RA synovium compared with osteoarthritis tissue. Western blot analysis for the expression of MMR proteins demonstrated decreased hMSH6 and increased hMSH3 in RA synovium. To evaluate potential mechanisms of MMR regulation in arthritis, fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) were isolated from synovial tissues and incubated with the NO donor S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine. Western blot analysis demonstrated constitutive expression of hMSH2, 3, and 6 in RA and osteoarthritis FLS. When FLS were cultured with S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine, the pattern of MMR expression in RA synovium was reproduced (high hMSH3, low hMSH6). Therefore, oxidative stress can relax the DNA MMR system in RA by suppressing hMSH6. Decreased hMSH6 can subsequently interfere with repair of single base mutations, which is the type observed in RA. We propose that oxidative stress not only creates DNA adducts that are potentially mutagenic, but also suppresses the mechanisms that limit the DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Heon Lee
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Immunology, Division of Gastroenterology, School of Medicine, University of California at San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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Coban AY, Ekinci B, Durupinar B. [In vitro susceptibility of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to reactive oxygen and nitrogen products]. MIKROBIYOL BUL 2003; 37:27-33. [PMID: 12838675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the in-vitro susceptibility of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium against reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates, on five different strains. SH5014 as a parental strain, PP120 as a soxRS mutant, SH7616 as a acrAB efflux pump mutant, SZH KUEN 557 as a standard strain and a clinical isolate, were included to the study. Hydrogen peroxide (at 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 mM concentrations) as reactive oxygen intermediate (ROI) and DETA-NO (at 1, 2, 4 mg/ml concentrations) as nitric oxide donor, in addition with acidified sodium nitrite (at 25, 50, 100 mM concentrations) as reactive nitrogen intermediate (RNI) were used. As a result, susceptibility of PP120 to RNI and ROI was found similar with SZH KUEN 557 and the clinical isolate, while SH7616 and SH5014 were found more susceptible than the others. These data indicated that further studies were necessary on the genetic regulatory systems in Salmonella which control the resistance against RNI and ROI-dependent antimicrobial systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Yilmaz Coban
- Ondokuz Mayis Universitesi Tip Fakültesi, Mikrobiyoloji ve Klinik Mikrobiyoloji Anabilim Dali, Samsun
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Abstract
Susceptibility of six isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (CB3.3, CDC1551, RJ2E, C.C.13, H37Rv, and H37Ra) and two isolates of Mycobacterium bovis (Ravenel and BCG) to reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI) and reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI) was determined by standard in vitro survival assays. After 21 days of incubation, the survival of most strains exposed to either acidified sodium nitrite (ASN) or hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) was significantly lower than the same strains unexposed to these RNI or ROI products. However, after 50 days of incubation, these differences in susceptibility became less apparent for strains exposed to ASN but not for strains exposed to H(2)O(2). The recovery of these strains after exposure to RNI suggests that the effect of RNI on M. tuberculosis is bacteriostatic. The in vitro concentrations of ROI and RNI used in these assays were higher than those expected in vivo. These observations suggest that, in vivo, RNI expression at physiologically achievable concentrations may keep M. tuberculosis from proliferating but that removal of RNI may allow the organisms to proliferate. Furthermore, the ability of some M. tuberculosis strains to cause rapidly progressive disease may relate to their intrinsic levels of RNI and ROI resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia A Firmani
- School of Public Health, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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O'Reilly P, Hickman-Davis JM, McArdle P, Young KR, Matalon S. The role of nitric oxide in lung innate immunity: modulation by surfactant protein-A. Mol Cell Biochem 2002; 234-235:39-48. [PMID: 12162458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
Surfactant protein A (SP-A) and alveolar macrophages are essential components of lung innate immunity. Alveolar macrophages phagocytose and kill pathogens by the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. In particular, peroxynitrite, the reaction product of superoxide and nitric oxide, appears to have potent antimicrobial effects. SP-A stimulates alveolar macrophages to phagocytose and kill pathogens and is important in host defense. However, SP-A has diverse effects on both innate and adaptive immunity, and may stimulate or inhibit immune function. SP-A appears to mediate toxic or protective effects depending on the immune status of the lung. In contrast to mouse or rat cells, it has been difficult to demonstrate nitric oxide production by human macrophages. We have recently demonstrated that human macrophages produce nitric oxide and use it to kill Klebsiella pneumoniae. SP-A either stimulates or inhibits this process, depending on the activation state of the macrophage. Given its diverse effects on immune function, SP-A may prove to be an effective therapy for both infectious and inflammatory diseases of the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip O'Reilly
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 35294, USA
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Abstract
Transformed fibroblasts generate extracellular superoxide anions through the recently identified membrane-associated NADPH oxidase. These cell-derived superoxide anions exhibit signaling functions such as regulation of proliferation and maintenance of the transformed state. Their dismutation product hydrogen peroxide regulates the intracellular level of catalase, whose activity has been observed to be upregulated in certain transformed cells. After glutathione depletion, transformed cell-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) exhibit apoptosis-inducing potential through the metal-catalyzed Haber-Weiss reaction. Moreover, transformed cell-derived ROS represent key elements for selective and efficient apoptosis induction by natural antitumor systems (such as fibroblasts, granulocytes and macrophages). These effector cells release peroxidase, which utilizes target cell-derived hydrogen peroxide for HOCl synthesis. In a second step, HOCl interacts with target cell-derived superoxide anions and forms apoptosis-inducing hydroxyl radicals. In a parallel signaling pathway, effector cell-derived NO interacts with target cell-derived superoxide anions and generates the apoptosis inducer peroxynitrite. Therefore, transformed cell-derived ROS determine transformed cells as selective targets for induction of apoptosis by these effector systems. It is therefore proposed that transformed cell derived ROS interact with associated cells to exhibit directed and specific signaling functions, some of which are beneficial and some of which can become detrimental to transformed cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Bauer
- Abteilung Virologie, Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Universität Freiburg, Germany.
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