Tactical treatment with copper oxide wire particles and symptomatic levamisole treatment using the FAMACHA(©) system in indigenous goats in South Africa

Haemonchosis is considered to be the most economically important gastrointestinal disease of small ruminants in the tropics and subtropics. However, chemical anthelmintics, which were the mainstay of control, have been compromised by a high prevalence of resistance worldwide. Copper oxide wire particles (COWP) have been shown to have anthelmintic effects, but few studies have examined their use under field conditions. The use of COWP was therefore evaluated as a tactical anthelmintic treatment in indigenous goats raised under communal farming conditions in Bergville, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. At the beginning of the summer rainfall season (October 2007), the faecal egg counts of 172 female goats belonging to 15 farmers were determined and this sampling continued every four weeks until the second week of January 2008. The goats within each of the 15 herds were ranked according to their faecal egg counts for this week. The goats were sequentially paired off within each ranking starting with those goats with the highest counts. One goat from each pair was randomly allocated to a treated or control group. Two weeks later, a 4 g COWP bolus was randomly administered to each goat in the treated group. Faecal egg counts were carried out on the goats two weeks following treatment, and the sampling of the goats then proceeded every four weeks until October 2008. Except for the six-week period prior to the administration of the COWP, the goats were examined according to the FAMACHA(©) system and symptomatically treated with 12 mg/kg levamisole when anaemic. The percentage reduction in faecal egg count due to the COWP treatment was 89.0%. Mean pre- and post-treatment faecal egg counts for the COWP-treated group (n=73) were 2347 eggs per gram of faeces (epg) and 264 epg, respectively. The corresponding values for the untreated controls (n=66) were 2652 epg and 2709 epg. The prevalence of Haemonchus spp. larvae in pre- and post-treatment faecal cultures was 72% and 46%, respectively. Symptomatic anthelmintic treatments in combination with mid-summer tactical treatments with COWP appear to be useful strategies for the control of Haemonchus contortus in indigenous goats in this farming system and this approach could have application in other similar agro-ecological zones.

Validation of the FAMACHA© eye colour chart using sensitivity/specificity analysis on two South African sheep farms

A validation study of the FAMACHA(©) system for clinical evaluation of anaemia due to Haemonchus contortus was conducted on two commercial sheep farms in the summer rainfall region of South Africa. In this region, the Haemonchus season lasts from October to April. On Farm 1 the system was tested over a period of five successive years in consecutive sets of young stud Merino replacement rams and ewes examined at intervals of 3-5 weeks over each Haemonchus season, under routine farming conditions. When FAMACHA(©) scores of 3, 4, and 5 and haematocrit values of ≤ 22%, ≤ 19%, and ≤ 15% were separately considered to be anaemic, sensitivity on Farm 1 ranged from a maximum of 83% for a haematocrit cut-off of ≤ 15%, to 40% for a haematocrit cut-off of ≤ 22%. Sensitivity increased to 93% when FAMACHA(©) scores of 2, 3, 4, and 5 were considered anaemic at a cut-off value of ≤ 19%, but the positive predictive value decreased to 0.43, indicating that many non-anaemic animals would be treated. The analysis indicated a high level of classification bias on Farm 1, with the animals consistently being classified one FAMACHA(©) category lower (i.e. less anaemic) than reality. On Farm 2 the test was conducted over two successive years in yearling rams evaluated at weekly to fortnightly intervals during each worm season. Every ram judged to be in FAMACHA(©) category 4 or 5 was bled for haematocrit determination, and it was only dewormed with effective anthelmintics if the haematocrit was 15% or lower. When FAMACHA(©) scores of 3, 4, and 5 and haematocrit values of ≤ 22% and ≤ 19% were separately considered to be anaemic on Farm 2, sensitivity ranged from 64% for a haematocrit cut-off of ≤ 22%, to 80% for a cut-off of ≤ 19%. For identical haematocrit cut-off values and proportions of the sampled flock considered to be diseased as for Farm 1, sensitivity was always higher for Farm 2. On the other hand, further analysis of the data indicated that the magnitude of the error on Farm 1 was very consistent on average over the entire trial period. The results of this study indicate that (i) persons introduced to the system should not only be trained, but also be evaluated for accuracy of application; (ii) the sensitivity of the FAMACHA(©) diagnostic system should ideally be evaluated at shorter intervals to avoid production losses due to failure to detect anaemic animals which may be at risk of death; (iii) that calibration of the FAMACHA(©) scoring is essential per individual evaluator, and (iv) that animals should be examined at weekly intervals during periods of the highest worm challenge.

Post mortem identification of Kalicephalus colubri colubri (Nematoda: Diaphanocephalidae) in a captive mole snake (Pseudaspis cana) in South Africa

Necropsy examination of a captive emaciated, dehydrated adult female Mole snake (Pseudaspis cana) in October 2007 revealed multiple cutaneous abscesses. Other findings included renal and hepatic atrophy, hepatic haemosiderosis, multifocal granulomatous hepatitis associated with acid-fast bacteria as well as pulmonary congestion and oedema. Large numbers of the nematode Kalicephalus colubri colubri were recovered from the oesophagus and stomach, representing the 1st reported case of K. colubri from a Mole snake in South Africa. The lesions caused by K. c. colubri were insignificant, but the presence of worms may have contributed to weight loss.

The helminth community of Helmeted Guineafowls, Numida meleagris (Linnaeus, 1758), in the north of Limpopo Province, South Africa

The helminths of 15 Helmeted Guineafowls were collected in the north of Limpopo Province, South Africa. A total of 11 cestode, ten nematode and a single acanthocephalan species were present. Species richness ranged from 8 to 16 species per host, and nine core and nine secondary species accounted for 40.9% of the component parasite community. The remaining 18.2% comprised satellite species. Core species represented 91% of all the worms present. Individual intensities ranged from 66 to 2,724 per host and overdispersion was pronounced. There were no significant differences regarding the abundance and species richness between male and female hosts. The number of component species and overall abundance did not differ significantly between juvenile and adult hosts, but Cyrnea parroti was significantly more abundant, and the prevalence of Hadjelia truncata was higher in young birds than in adults. In contrast, Gongylonema congolense and Porogynia paronai were absent in juveniles, but had a prevalence of 60% and 70%, respectively, in adults. Pairwise Spearman's rank correlation yielded one positive and 10 negative significant species correlations. A single trematode, Dicrocoelium macrostomum, was collected from five of nine guineafowls, but was not included in the helminth community study.

Helminth parasites of Natal long-fingered bats, Miniopterus natalensis (Chiroptera : Miniopteridae), in South Africa : research communication

The helminth community infecting Miniopterus natalensis was studied at two localities, the De Hoop Nature Reserve (DHNR) (n = 57), Western Cape Province and Pretoria (n = 12), Gauteng Province, South Africa. Hosts from the DHNR had formed part of an earlier, unrelated study and were all pregnant females. A single hymenolepidid cestode species, the nematodes Molinostrongylus ornatus and Litomosa chiropterorum together with nematodes of the subfamily Capillariinae were present at both study sites, while a single digenean, Allassogonoporus sp., was only found in hosts from the DHNR. The prevalence of helminth infections was high at both localities, 68.4 % in the DHNR and 77.7 % in Pretoria, whereas the mean intensity of infection was low at the DHNR (3.76 ± 3.15), but higher in Pretoria (10.4 ± 9.9). Molinostrongylus ornatus and, to a lesser extent L. chiropterorum, were the main contributors to the higher intensities in Pretoria. The species richness ranged from 0 to 4 at both localities.

Helminth parasites of Natal long-fingered bats, Miniopterus natalensis (Chiroptera: Miniopteridae), South Africa

The helminth community infecting Miniopterus natalensis was studied at two localities, the De Hoop Nature Reserve (DHNR) (n = 57), Western Cape Province and Pretoria (n = 12), Gauteng Province, South Africa. Hosts from the DHNR had formed part of an earlier, unrelated study and were all pregnant females. A single hymenolepidid cestode species, the nematodes Molinostrongylus ornatus and Litomosa chiropterorum together with nematodes of the subfamily Capillariinae were present at both study sites, while a single digenean, Allassogonoporus sp., was only found in hosts from the DHNR. The prevalence of helminth infections was high at both localities, 68.4% in the DHNR and 77.7% in Pretoria, whereas the mean intensity of infection was low at the DHNR (3.76 +/- 3.15), but higher in Pretoria (10.4 +/- 9.9). Molinostrongylus ornatus and, to a lesser extent L. chiropterorum, were the main contributors to the higher intensities in Pretoria. The species richness ranged from 0 to 4 at both localities.

Helminths of guineafowls in Limpopo Province, South Africa

Between July 2005 and November 2006 the gastro-intestinal helminths of 15 Helmeted guineafowls and a single Crested guineafowl from Musina, Limpopo Province were examined, and in July and August 2005 helminths were collected from five Helmeted guineafowls from Mokopane in the same province. The acanthocephalan Mediorhynchus gallinarum, the cestodes Abuladzugnia gutterae, Davainea nana, Hymenolepis cantaniana, Numidella numida, Octopetalum numida, Ortleppolepis multiuncinata, Porogynia paronai, Raillietina angusta, Raillietina pintneri, Raillietina steinhardti and Raillietina sp. and the nematodes Ascaridia numidae, Cyrnea parroti, Gongylonema congolense, Hadjelia truncata, Sicarius caudatus, Subulura dentigera, Subulura suctoria, Subulura sp., Tetrameres numida and an unidentified subulurid were recovered. A single trematode species, Dicrocoelium macrostomum, was present in the liver. Mediorhynchus gallinarum, A. gutterae, O. multiuncinata, H. truncata and S. caudatus are recorded for the first time from Helmeted guineafowls, as well as from South Africa. South Africa is a new geographic record for D. macrostomum, G. congolense and D. nana. Subulura suctoria, G. congolense and H. truncata from the Crested guineafowl constitute new host-parasite associations.

A check list of the helminths of guineafowls (Numididae) and a host list of these parasites

Published and personal records have been compiled into a reference list of the helminth parasites of guineafowls. Where data on other avian hosts was available these have been included for completeness' sake and to give an indication of host range. The parasite list for the Helmeted guineafowls, Numida meleagris, includes five species of acanthocephalans, all belonging to a single genus, three trematodes belonging to three different genera, 34 cestodes representing 15 genera, and 35 nematodes belonging to 17 genera. The list for the Crested guineafowls, Guttera edouardi, contains a single acanthocephalan together with 10 cestode species belonging to seven genera, and three nematode species belonging to three different genera. Records for two cestode species from genera and two nematode species belonging to a single genus have been found for the guineafowl genus Acryllium. Of the 70 helminths listed for N. meleagris, 29 have been recorded from domestic chickens.

Tetrameres numida n. sp. (Nematoda: Tetrameridae) from Helmeted guineafowls, Numida meleagris (Linnaeus, 1758), in South Africa

Tetrameres numida n. sp. from the proventriculus of Helmeted guineafowls, Numida meleagris, in South Africa is described from eight male and four female specimens. The new species shares some characteristics with other Tetrameres species, but can be differentiated by a unique combination of characters. It bears two rows of cuticular spines extending over the whole length of the body and possesses two spicules. The left spicule measures 1699-2304 microm and the right one 106-170 microm. Caudal spines are arranged in three ventral and three lateral pairs and the tail is 257-297 microm long. Diagnostic criteria of some of the previously described species of the genus Tetrameres from Africa and other parts of the world have been compiled from the literature and are included here.

Helminth parasites of gemsbok (Oryx gazella) in the Klein Karoo

The number and species of helminth parasites from three gemsbok (Oryx gazella) were recorded, and their faecal nematode egg counts and the level of pasture contamination determined. Six nematode genera were recovered and four species identified, of which Trichostrongylus rugatus was the most prevalent. Other nematode species recovered were Cooperia sp., Agriostomum sp., Haemonchus contortus, Nematodirus spathiger and Ostertagia ostertagi. None of the worms were present in all animals studied, and no new host associations were found. Cysticerci were recovered from the mesenteries of one gemsbok and a further two unidentifiable helminths were recovered from the abomasum and the kidney fat layer of another antelope.

Eustrongylides sp. (Nematoda: Dioctophymatoidea) from the stomach of a Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti, 1768, in Botswana

During a study conducted between 2003 and 2005 on the diet of Nile crocodiles in Botswana, two young adult nematodes, one male and one female, belonging to the genus Eustrongylides Jägerskiöld, 1909 were recovered from the stomach contents of one of these animals. The caudal bursa of the male is present and the ejaculatory duct could be identified, but the spicule could not be seen. The vulva of the female has opened and the anus is situated on a terminal protruberance. Measurements and drawings of these specimens are provided, together with some data on the occurrence and life-cycles of members of the genus Eustrongylides in crocodilians world-wide and in African hosts in particular. Piscivorous birds are the usual final hosts of these nematodes. It is probable that the specimens described herein had developed in a paratenic fish host, and that the latter had been eaten by the crocodile.

First record of Cylicospirura (Cylicospirura) felineus (Chandler, 1925) Sandground, 1933 (Nematoda: Spirocercidae) from a domestic cat in South Africa

Cylicospirura (Cylicospirura) felineus (Chandler, 1925) Sandground, 1933 is reported from a cat in South Africa for the first time. The nematode was present in a gastric parasitic nodule in a male domestic cat, and three males were recovered as well as the anterior parts of three and the posterior parts of two gravid females. The heads of two specimens of undetermined sex were also found. Part of the removed parasitic nodule was processed for histopathological examination. The parasitic nodule was located in the submucosa and slightly expanded into the muscular layer. In its centre were small necrotic areas containing debris of inflammatory cells, adult nematodes and numerous bacterial colonies. Neutrophils, eosinophils, plasma cells and lymphocytes, as well as fibroblasts, were the predominant cell types. The serosal surface of the stomach remained unaffected. Some comparative morphological as well as ecological data concerning Cylicospirura (Cylicospirura) Vevers, 1922 in other feline hosts, mainly from Australia, India and North America, are included.

Mediorhynchus gallinarum (Acanthocephala: Gigantorhynchidae) in Helmeted guineafowls, Numida meleagris, in the Kruger National Park, South Africa

Mediorhynchus gallinarum was recovered from the small intestines of 36 of 50 Helmeted guineafowls sampled from August 1988 to May 1989. The intensity of infection ranged from 1-141 worms per host, with a mean intensity of 23.2 (+/- 34) and a median intensity of 5. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test revealed no significant differences between the mean worm burdens of male and female birds at the 5% level (P > 0.05). Slightly more female than male acanthocephalans were collected. The majority (63.4%) of females had eggs with fully-developed embryos, 9% had immature eggs, 21.2% had no eggs and the egg status of 6.4% could not be determined. No seasonal pattern of intensity of infection emerged from the data, but worm burdens were markedly higher after good rains in February 1989. South Africa constitutes a new geographic record for M. gallinarum.

AN EXAMINATION OF THE INFRACOMMUNITIES AND COMPONENT COMMUNITIES FROM IMPALA (AEPYCEROS MELAMPUS) IN THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, SOUTH AFRICA

The intestinal helminth parasites of the impala from the Kruger National Park, South Africa, were examined to describe the parasite community structure. Demographic variation and the associated differences in behavior were used to further investigate the patterns of community composition. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to test for differences in species richness and mean abundance between the various demographic groups, and nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordination was used to compare community composition. Seventeen species of nematodes, totaling more than 1.3 million worms, were recovered. Males harbored a greater number of nematode species than did females, but adult females were more heavily infected than their male counterparts. Lambs acquired infections early in life, and their parasite community composition rapidly approached that of the older animals. The parasite community in the juvenile and adult males was significantly different from the community of the adult females. These data suggest that social and feeding behavior of the different age-sex classes structure the parasite component community of impala. Additionally, the distinction between common and rare parasites, and their classification in other herbivores, implies complex transmission dynamics that includes extensive species sharing within the Kruger National Park.

Gastric nematodes of Nile crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti, 1768, in the Okavango River, Botswana

The ascaridoid nematodes Dujardinascaris madagascariensis Chabaud & Caballero, 1966, Dujardinascaris dujardini (Travassos, 1920), Gedoelstascaris vandenbrandeni (Baylis, 1929) Sprent, 1978 and Multicaecum agile (Wedl, 1861) Baylis, 1923 were recovered from the stomach contents of Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti, 1768 from the Okavango River, Botswana, together with Eustrongylides sp., a dioctophymatoid nematode usually parasitizing piscivorous birds. Dujardinascaris madagascariensis was present in most of the infected hosts, while the remaining species were mostly represented in single collections in one to three hosts. All four ascaridoid nematodes represent new geographic records.

A check-list of the pentastomid parasites of crocodilians and freshwater chelonians

Based on published records and own data a summary is given of the geographical distribution of the currently known species of pentastomid parasites infecting crocodiles and alligators, as well as freshwater chelonians. A brief generic diagnosis is provided for each genus. Fourteen out of the currently 23 living crocodilian species have been recorded as being host to one or more pentastomes. Out of the 32 pentastome species six are considered species inquirendae. Presently, six genera of crocodilian pentastomes, Agema, Alofia, Leiperia, Sebekia, Selfia and Subtriquetra are recognized. African crocodiles harbour eight pentastome species, six of which have been recorded from the Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus. Three species belong to the genus Sebekia, Alofia being represented by two and Leiperia by only one species. Two species, Alofia parva and Agema silvaepalustris, occur in the dwarf crocodile, Osteolaemus tetraspis, and the slender-snouted crocodile, Crocodylus cataphractus, exclusively, but a single Sebekia species is shared with the Nile crocodile. The genus Agema is endemic to the African region. Infective stages of the pentastome Sub triquetra rileyi, thought to utilize Nile crocodiles as final hosts, have been recovered only from fishes. The largest number of pentastome species is found in the Australasian region. Of these, the Indo-Pacific croc odile, Crocodylus porosus, harbours seven, representing the genera Alofia, Sebekia, Lei peria and Selfia. Selfia is exclusive to the latter host. The genus Subtriquetra has been reported from "Indian crocodiles", a term possibly referring to either Crocodylus palustris, Crocodylus porosus or Gavialis gangeticus. Ten species of pentastomes parasitizing the crocodilian genera Alligator, Caiman, Crocodylus and Melanosuchus have been recorded from the Neotropical region including the southern states of the North American continent. The two most wide-spread pentastome genera, Alofia and Sebekia, have been recorded together with representatives of the genus Sub triquetra and immature and larval forms of Leiperia. To date the two monospecific genera, Pelonia, from two terrapin species, Pelusios sinuatus and Pelomedusa subrufa, in South Africa, and Diesingia from Hydraspis geoffroyana and Hydromedusa tectifera in South America, are the only chelonian pentastomes recovered world-wide. A possible exception is the crocodilian pentastome Sebekia mississippiensis which can reach maturity in exper imentally infected terrapins.

HELMINTHS IN SYMPATRIC POPULATIONS OF MOUNTAIN REEDBUCK (REDUNCA FULVORUFULA) AND GRAY RHEBOK (PELEA CAPREOLUS) IN SOUTH AFRICA

Helminths of mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula fulvorufula) and gray rhebok (Pelea capreolus) were investigated in South Africa between June 1999 and February 2002. Forty-one mountain reedbuck were culled at Sterkfontein Dam Nature Reserve over 8 different periods, and 25 mountain reedbuck were culled at Tussen die Riviere Nature Reserve over 3 different periods. A total of 17 kinds of helminths were found at the 2 sites, including 15 nematodes, 1 trematode, and 1 cestode. At Sterkfontein, the most prevalent and abundant species were Cooperia yoshidai, Longistrongylus schrenki, and Haemonchus contortus, with the latter 2 being more abundant during November/December than at other times of the year, probably because infective larvae increased on pasture at that time. No statistical differences were found in parasite loads between male and female mountain reedbuck. No correlation was found between fecal egg counts and adult worm counts or between parasite counts and body condition. At Tussen die Riviere, helminths in mountain reedbuck were less prevalent and abundant than at Sterkfontein. The most important species were Nematodirus spathiger, Trichostrongylus falculatus, and Cooperia rotundispiculum. Four gray rhebok died of natural causes at Sterkfontein, from which 5 kinds of helminths were recovered, including C. yoshidai and Paracooperioides peleae.

Anguillicola papernai (Nematoda: Anguillicolidae) and other helminths parasitizing the African longfin eel Anguilla mossambica

The swim bladder nematode Anguillicola papernai Moravec & Taraschewski, 1988 has been investigated as regards its occurrence in longfin eels Anguilla mossambica (Peters) in rivers in South Africa. A. papernai revealed a prevalence of around 50% and a mean intensity of about 6 adult worms at 1 sampling site but were less abundant in 3 others. Field observations suggest a more narrow habitat preference than that of Anguillicola crassus and a seasonal pattern of abundance. African longfin eels harboured a poor helminth community. In addition to A. papernai, 2 gastro-intestinal nematodes occurred, the stomach worm Heliconema longissimum Ortlepp, 1923 as the dominant species, and the intestinal Paraquimperia africana Moravec, Boomker & Taraschewski, 2000. Experiments were undertaken using European eels Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus) and copepods as laboratory hosts. The morphology of larvae and adult parasites obtained from these experimental hosts is described. The ultrastructure of adult worms recovered from wild longfin eels was studied. The 'papilla-like excrescences of fibrous structure' on the adult worms' cuticle, as mentioned in the original description, are in fact the attachment points of thick cords of fibers interconnecting the epicuticle with the hypodermis. Such a structure has not yet been described from any other species of Anguillicola Yamaguti, 1935. At present in South Africa, Mozambique and Madagascar attempts are on the way to establish an eel management like in Asia and Europe including eel farming. In this context, care should be taken to prevent the introduction of non-endemic eel parasites into Africa and Madagascar. On the other hand, the future commercial management of African eel species should not lead to the spread of A. papernai or other parasites of African eel species to Europe or elsewhere. In this study A. papernai has been experimentally demonstrated to be capable of reproducing in the European eel and of using European copepods as intermediate hosts.

Studies on the genus <i>Setaria Viborg<i/>, 1795 in South Africa. III. <i>Setaria thwaitei<i/> Mönnig, 1933

Mönnig (1933) described Setaria thwaitei from a sable antelope, Hippotragus niger, the type host, as well as from roan antelope, Hippotragus equinus, and waterbuck, Kobus ellipsiprymnus. Yeh (1959) considered Setaria thwaitei to be synonym of Setaria hornbyi. Material collected from roan antelopes, sable antelopes and gemsbuck, Oryx gazella, from several localities in the north and south of South Africa, together with Mönnig's (1933) material, were re-examined. Measurements of the adult worms obtained in this study were compared with those in the original description of the species. Scanning electron microscopy of the anterior and posterior regions of the female worms confirmed S. thwaitei as a valid species.

Parasites of South African wildlife. XVIII. Cooperia pigachei n. sp. (Nematoda : Cooperiidae) from the mountain reedbuck, Redunca fulvorufula (Afzelius, 1815). Onderstepoort J Vet Res 2004. [DOI: 10.4102/ojvr.v71i3.256]

A new species of Cooperia, for which the name Cooperia pigachei n. sp. is proposed, was recovered from a mountain reedbuck, Redunca fulvorufula, from the Sterkfontein Dam Nature Reserve, Free State Province, and is described and illustrated. It is close to Cooperia neitzi Mönnig, 1932 and the South African race of Cooperia rotundispiculum in having more than 14 longitudinal cuticular ridges and in that the lateral cervical synlophe is of the closed type. The new species differs from all the other species of the genus in that the lateral branches of the dorsal ray are large and T-shaped. The spicules are robust, over 0.3 mm long and have large, curved shoes on their tips.

Parasites of South African wildlife. XVIII. Cooperia pigachei n. sp. (Nematoda: Cooperiidae) from the mountain reedbuck, Redunca fulvorufula (Afzelius, 1815)

A new species of Cooperia, for which the name Cooperia pigachei n. sp. is proposed, was recovered from a mountain reedbuck, Redunca fulvorufula, from the Sterkfontein Dam Nature Reserve, Free State Province, and is described and illustrated. It is close to Cooperia neitzi Mönnig, 1932 and the South African race of Cooperia rotundispiculum in having more than 14 longitudinal cuticular ridges and in that the lateral cervical synlophe is of the closed type. The new species differs from all the other species of the genus in that the lateral branches of the dorsal ray are large and T-shaped. The spicules are robust, over 0.3 mm long and have large, curved shoes on their tips.

Studies on the genus Setaria Viborg, 1795 in South Africa. III. Setaria thwaitei Mönnig, 1933

Mönnig (1933) described Setaria thwaitei from a sable antelope, Hippotragus niger, the type host, as well as from roan antelope, Hippotragus equinus, and waterbuck, Kobus ellipsiprymnus. Yeh (1959) considered Setaria thwaitei to be synonym of Setaria hornbyi. Material collected from roan antelopes, sable antelopes and gemsbuck, Oryx gazella, from several localities in the north and south of South Africa, together with Mönnig's (1933) material, were re-examined. Measurements of the adult worms obtained in this study were compared with those in the original description of the species. Scanning electron microscopy of the anterior and posterior regions of the female worms confirmed S. thwaitei as a valid species.

Redescription of Diesingia megastoma (Diesing, 1836) Sambon, 1922, a pentastomid parasite from the South American terrapin Hydromedusa tectifera Cope

Slide-mounted material of the pentastomid parasite Diesingia megastoma (Diesing, 1836) Sambon, 1922 from the South American chelonian Hydromedusa tectifera Cope is reviewed and the perfunctory, often omissive, description of the species is amended. The strong morphological similarities between D. megastoma and the crocodilian and chelonian pentastome genera of the family Sebekiidae Sambon, 1922, Alofia Giglioli, 1922, Selfia Riley, 1994, Sebekia Sambon, 1922, Agema Riley, Hill & Huchzermeyer, 1997, Leiperia Sambon, 1922 and Pelonia Junker & Boomker, 2002, clearly place Diesingia Sambon, 1922 within the same family. However, the unique combination of its main diagnostic criteria makes Diesingia a distinct genus. The absence of an elaborate, flared cirrus-tip in D. megastoma distinguishes it from Leiperia, while emphasizing its similarity to the remaining genera mentioned above. D. megastoma resembles Alofia in that it possesses smooth, flat-topped hooks and an anteriorly open oral cadre with an oesophageal peg. The copulatory spicules of Diesingia, however, lack the double-hooked collar, typical for Alofia and Selfia. Unlike the peg-like extension of the fulcra of the hooks of Sebekia, that of D. megastoma is cowl-like and carries spines only on the anterior fulcra. Moreover, the hooks of Sebekia are usually convex and spinose and the ovoid oral cadre is closed anteriorly. Diesingia differs from Pelonia through the latter's smooth but dorsally convex and extension-free hooks. The copulatory spicules of Pelonia and Agema are reminiscent of the basic build found in Sebekia, whereas in D. megastoma the short, ventral extension of the cowry shell-shaped base of the copulatory spicules has been transformed into a structure resembling the collembolan fulcrum. The latter is connected to the base via a joint, a configuration which is unique in the Sebekiidae.

PATTERNS OF ASSOCIATION, NESTEDNESS, AND SPECIES CO-OCCURRENCE OF HELMINTH PARASITES IN THE GREATER KUDU, TRAGELAPHUS STREPSICEROS, IN THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, SOUTH AFRICA, AND THE ETOSHA NATIONAL PARK, NAMIBIA

The helminth parasites of the greater kudu from the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, and the Etosha National Park (ENP), Namibia, were examined to determine the major patterns of spatial and demographic variation in community structure and to evaluate nonrandomness in parasite community assembly. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordination procedures were used to test for differences in parasite community composition between hosts of the 2 parks and between hosts of different demographic groups within KNP. Infracommunities within KNP were also examined for patterns of nonrandomness using 2 null models, i.e., nestedness and species co-occurrence. Infracommunities of KNP and ENP were significantly different from each other, as were infracommunities of different host demographic groups within KNP. Parasite species in the greater kudu from KNP displayed significant levels of nestedness and were found to co-occur less frequently than expected by chance; however, this lack of co-occurrence was significant only when all demographic groups were considered. When restricted to any particular age class, co-occurrence patterns could not be distinguished from random. Overall, these data suggest that biogeography and host demographics are important factors in determining community organization of helminth parasites in the greater kudu.

Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XLI. Arthropod parasites of impalas, Aepyceros melampus, in the Kruger National Park

Ectoparasites were collected from impalas, Aepyceros melampus, at four localities within the Kruger National Park, namely Skukuza, in the Biyamiti region, Crocodile Bridge and Pafuri. Animals were also examined at Skukuza during a severe drought and at Skukuza and Pafuri towards the end of a second drought. Parasite burdens were analysed in relation to locality, sex, age class, month and drought. The impalas were infested with 13 ixodid ticks species, including two that were identified only to genus level. Except for four animals at Pafuri, all were infested with Amblyomma hebraeum. The highest intensity of infestation with larvae of this tick occurred from April to June and during November and December at Skukuza and in the Biyamiti region. Infestation with nymphs was highest during late winter. All animals were infested with Boophilus decoloratus, and the intensity of infestation was highest during spring. The intensity of infestation with Rhipicephalus appendiculatus was highest at Crocodile Bridge and at Pafuri, and that of Rhipicephalus zambeziensis at Skukuza. With both the latter species the intensity of infestation of larvae was highest from April to August, of nymphs from July to September or October and of adults during February and March. Rhipicephalus kochi was present only at Pafuri. The impalas also harboured five louse species and two species of hippoboscid flies. The intensity of infestation with lice tended to be greater during late winter and spring than during other seasons and greater on lambs than on yearlings on which it was greater than on adult animals.

Parasites of South African wildlife. XVII. Ostertagia triquetra n. sp. (Nematoda: Trichostrongylina) from the grey rhebuck, Pelea capreolus (Forster, 1790)

Re-examination of Teladorsagia hamata (Mönnig, 1932) Durette-Desset, 1989 reported from grey rhebuck, Pelea capreolus (Forster, 1790) proved it to be a new species of Ostertagi Ransom, 1907. The new species, for which the name Ostertagia triquetra n. sp. is proposed, differs from Teladorsagia hamata in the configuration of the bursal rays (2-1-2 in the former, 2-2-1 in the latter), and in that the interno-dorsal branch of the spicules bears a process that is triangular and convex in the new species, but concave and shaped like an ice-cream scoop in Teladorsagia hamata. Ostertagia triquetra has so far been found only in grey rhebuck in the Eastern Cape Province while Teladorsagia hamata was recorded from springbok, Antidorcas marsupialis (Zimmerman, 1780) and gemsbok, Oryx gazella (Unnaeus, 1758) in the western part of the country.

Studies on the genus Setaria Viborg, 1795 in South Africa. II. Setaria scalprum (Von Linstow, 1908) and Setaria saegeri (Le Van Hoa, 1961)

Setaria scalprum (Von Linstow, 1908) and Setaria saegeri (Le Van Hoa, 1961) are closely related filarid species that occur in the smaller antelope of Africa. Material previously collected from common dulker, Sylvicapra grimmia, steenbok, Raphicerus campestris and grysbok, Raphicerus melanotis, from several localities in the northern and eastern regions of South Africa was re-examined and measurements of adult worms were compared with those given in the original descriptions of the species. Scanning electron microscopy of the anterior and posterior regions of the female worms confirmed the validity of the two species. Differences in the postdeirid, ventral transverse bands and bosses on the cuticle of the male specimens were also observed. Setaria saegeri in common duiker and grysbok is a new parasite record for these hosts.

A survey on the occurrence of resistance to anthelmintics of gastrointestinal nematodes of goats in Mozambique

A survey to study the extent of anthelmintic resistance was conducted in Maputo and Gaza, two of the ten provinces of Mozambique, during February and March, 1999. A total of 12 flocks, six in Maputo and six in Gaza, was surveyed. The faecal egg count reduction test was used to assess the efficacy of three anthelmintics most often used in Mozambique, namely albendazole, fenbendazole and levamisole. The degree of resistance was calculated using two different methods, and varied according to the method used. Using the formula of Coles, Bauer, Borgsteede, Geerts, Klei, Taylor & Waller (1992), resistance to the benzimidazoles was detected in one flock in Maputo and one in Gaza, and to levamisole in three flocks in Maputo and one in Gaza. When the formula of Dash, Hall & Barger (1988) was used, however, resistance to the benzimidazoles was detected in only one flock in Maputo, and no resistance to levamisole was detected. The 12 farms surveyed were too few for conclusions to be made on the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in goats in Mozambique as a whole. Therefore, an extensive survey at national level is needed. This study gives evidence, however, that anthelmintic resistance in nematode parasites of goats is an emerging problem, to which special attention should be paid.

Redescription of some Spauligodon spp. and Parapharyngodon spp., and of skrjabinodon mabuyae (Sandground, 1936) inglis, 1968 (Pharyngodonidae: Oxyuroidea) from insectivorous South African lizards

As part of a study on the helminth parasites of South African lizards several species of saurians were collected from localities in the North West Province, the Northern Province, Mpumalanga Province and Gauteng Province. Spauligodon blydeensis (Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001) from the Cape thick-toed gecko, Pachydactylus capensis, Spauligodon molpoensis (Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001) from Wahlberg's velvet gecko, Homopholis wahibergii, Parapharyngodon margaritiferi, Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001 from the skink, Mabuya margaritifer, Parapharyngodon gerrhosauri, Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001 from the plated lizard, Gerrhosaurus flavigularis and Skrjabinodon mabuyae (Sandground, 1936) Inglis, 1968 from the skinks Mabuya punctatissima, Mabuya spilogaster and Mabuya varia are redescribed. The different Spauligodon spp. in the subcontnent may be separated on the presence or absence of spicules in the males, the presence or absence of spines on the tail of both the males and females, as well as on the size and shape of the eggs, and the configuration of the polar caps. The Parapharyngodon spp. are distinguished mainly by the morphological characters of the males, such as the width of the caudal alae and the size of the pre- and adanal papillae. Female Parapharyngodon spp. closely resemble each other and some could not be identified to the species level since males were absent. Spinose larvae, together with adult Parapharyngodon spp. were recovered from Mabuya margaritifer. All Parapharyngodon spp. larvae described to date are spinose and since the larvae in this study were collected together with adult Parapharyngodon spp., we consider them to belong to the same genus. Skrjabinodon mabuyae differs from the closely related Skrjabinodon mabuiensis in the presence of a spicule in the male and lateral alae in the female. The former nematode is described for the first time from skinks in South Africa.

Description of Pelonia africana n. g., n. sp. (Pentastomida: Sebekidae) from the lungs of Pelomedusa subrufa and Pelusios sinuatus (Chelonia) in South Africa

The terrapins Pelomedusa subrufa and Pelusios sinuatus taken from a water reservoir in the Northern Province, South Africa, were examined for pentastome infections. Two immature specimens, a patent female and a mature male, were obtained from the lungs of four hosts, each of which harboured a single specimen. Based on the morphology of the specimens the new monospecific genus, Pelonia africana n. g., n. sp., is described. It is characterized by smooth, dorsally convex hooks with sharply bent blades. The oral cadre is more or less U-shaped. Delicate chitinous fibres, which can be difficult to see, connect the lateral prongs anteriorly. In this, as well as the morphology of the copulatory spicules, it is most like Sebekia wedli. The latter, however, possesses spinous hooks, which are absent in P. africana. The hooks are slightly and the copulatory spicules markedly larger in P. africana than in S. wedli. The lack of a double-hooked collar at the terminal end of the cowry-shell shaped base of each copulatory spicule and the absence of a peg-like extension of the oral cadre into the oesophagus, distinguishes P. africana from members of the genus Alofia. The oral cadre of the South American species Diesingia megastoma, from aquatic chelonians, is more than twice the size than that of Pelonia and there is a distinct difference in shape. The hooks of the genus Diesingia are flat-topped, and both the anterior as well as the posterior fulcra carry cowl-like extensions. The number of annuli, 55-60 in D. megastoma and approximately 30 in P. africana, further separates the two genera. The most striking feature of Diesingia which sets it apart from Pelonia and the other genera of the family Sebekidae, is the configuration of its copulatory spicules. Pelonia and Diesingia share morphological features with all the other sebekiids, but it is the unique combination of diagnostic characters that separates the two genera from those, as well as from each other.

Redescription of some Thelandros and Tachygonetria spp. (Pharyngodonidae: Oxyuroidea) from the omnivorous plated lizard, Gerrhosaurus validus validus A. Smith, 1849 in South Africa

Thelandros schusteri Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001, Thelandros luciusi Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001, Thelandros boomkeri Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001, Tachygonetria bainae Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001, Tachygonetria chabaudi Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001 and Tachygonetria petterae Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001 from the plated lizard, Gerrhosaurus validus validus A. Smith 1849 from three localities in the north-eastern region of South Africa are redescribed. Classification keys are available only for the males of the species and because male and female nematodes in copula were not observed in this study as well as the similarity of the females, it was not possible to identify the females to the species level. Thelandros schusteri, Thelandros boomkeri and Thelandros luciusi were provisionally paired with female Type E, Tachygonetria bainae with female Type C, Tachygonetria chabaudi with female Type A and Tachygonetria petterae with female Type D. Female Types B and F could not be paired. The richness and composition of species of the Pharyngodonidae of Gerrhosaurus validus validus is close to that of tortoises and differs from the pharyngodonid fauna of the insectivorous lizards that have been studied. In the latter, only the genera Spauligodon, Skrjabinodon and Parapharyngodon were recovered. The pharyngodonid fauna of Gerrhosaurus validus validus seems to have originated by capture from local herbivorous reptiles. The three Tachygonetria spp. most closely resemble forms in South African tortoises. The three Thelandros spp. redescribed here not only show strong similarities to those of herbivorous Agama spp., but also to those parasitic in tortoises and could have been acquired from either.

Paraspirura bettinae n. sp. from a South African skink with comments on spirurid nematodes from saurians and mammals

The spirurid nematode, Paraspirura bettinae n. sp., described from Mabuya spilogaster (Scincidae) in South Africa (Molopo Reserve), can be distinguished from the single known species of the genus, Paraspirura mabuyae Sandground, 1936 (also reviewed) by the larger size of the eggs, the shape of the tail of the female, and the smaller body size in both sexes. The cephalic anatomy of Paraspirura spp. does not fit the original description but appears similar to that of spirurid parasites of mammals, Spirura spp. and Protospirura spp. Previous descriptions did not mention the rim and bulges in members of Protospirura. Paraspirura appears close to Protospirura, particularly to Protospirura muricola from the Ethiopian region, but it is distinct because of the persistence of the larval caudal tubercles in the adult stage, the simple right spicule without alae, and the more developed rim and bulges. The species parasitic in saurians may have arisen from Protospirura spp. by capture, or the spirurids of mammals may have been derived from species of Paraspirura and quickly split into a Protospirura line and a more specialized Spirura assemblage.

Studies on the genus Setaria Viborg, 1795 in South Africa. I. Setaria africana (Yeh, 1959)

Setaria africana (Yeh, 1959) is represented by two subspecies, Setaria africana africana Troncy, Graber & Thal, 1976 from giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus) from the Central African Republic and Cameroon and Setaria africana farchai Troncy, Graber & Thal, 1976 from bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), also from the Central African Republic. Material collected from nyala (Tragelaphus angasii), bushbuck and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) from several localities in the eastern region of South Africa was re-examined. Measurements of adult worms confirmed the differences between the two subspecies and scanning electron microscopy showed that the deirids of S. africana africana are single whereas those of S. africana farchaiare double. Setaria africana farchaiis recorded for the first time in South Africa.

Description of Madathamugadia hiepei n. sp. (nematoda: Splendidofilariinae), a parasite of a South African gecko, and its development in laboratory bred Phlebotomus dubosqi (Diptera: Psychodidae)

Madathamugadia hiepei n. sp., Splendidofilariinae, a parasite of a South African gecko Pachydactylus turneri is described together with its development obtained experimentally in Phlebotomus duboscqi (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae). This new species differs from the two small, more highly evolved groups with a short tail and atrophied postcloacal papillae, the first group consisting of two Madagascan species, M. zonosauri and M. hopluri, parasites of the Gerrhosauridae and Iguanidae, and the second containing three species from the Ethiopian Region, M. huambensis, M. versterae and M. bissani, parasites of the Scincidae. It also differs from M. ineichi, the most primitive species of the genus (cuticularised buccal capsule, no atrophy of head papillae and largest number of precloacal papillae), a parasite of the Cordylidae in South Africa. M. hiepei is close to the two species parasitic in the Gekkonidae of the Mediterranean subregion, M. ivaschkini and M. wanjii, all three of which have a post-oesophageal vulva. However, the new species can be distinguished from the Mediterranean parasites by (a) the shorter oesophagus, (b) the number and position of the cloacal papillae and (c) the microfilaria. The three filariae of this group and M. ineichi, the only ones of which aspects of the life-cycles are known, experimentally develop in phlebotomine sand flies.

Molineus cati n. sp. (Nematoda, Trichostrongylina, Molineoidea), a parasite of feral cats, Felis catus Linnaeus, 1758 in South Africa

A new species of the genus Molineus Cameron, 1923 was recovered from feral cats, Felis catus Linnaeus, 1758, in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Because of a caudal bursa with rays of the 2-1-2 type, but with the extremities of rays 4 nearer those of rays 3 than those of rays 5, the new species is closely related to seven Neotropical Molineus spp., four parasitic in Primates, two parasitic in Mustelidae and one a parasite of Procyonidae. Amongst these species, only Molineus barbaris Cameron, 1936, a parasite of Tayra barbara (Mustelidae) from Trinidad and Molineus vexillarius (Dunn, 1961), a parasite of Tamarinus nigricollis (Primates) from Peru have rays 4 longer than two-thirds the length of rays 3, like the new species. However, the new species is differentiated from the other two in that rays 9 arise at the level of the bifurcation of the dorsal ray and not after the division as is the case with M. barbaris and M. vexillarius.

Leiperia cincinnalis Sambon, 1922 (Pentastomida) from Nile crocodiles Crocodylus niloticus in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, with a description of the male

A single male and several adult females of the pentastomid Leiperia cincinnalis were recovered from the trachea of five of six Nile crocodiles examined in 1995 and 1998. Infective larvae, pre-adult males and females, as well as mature males, occurred in clusters in the pulmonary artery but infective larvae and pre-adult females were also occasionally taken from the lungs. Irrespective of the developmental stage, the intensity of infection was 3, 6, 48, 72 and 79. Sixty-four percent of eggs recovered from the posterior part of the uterus of a patent L. cincinnalis female contained fully-developed primary larvae and these were used to infect 24 Mozambique bream Oreochromis mossambicus. Within a week of infection all the fish died and hatched primary larvae were recovered from the stomach and anterior part of the intestine. Eggs that had not hatched were found to be unsegmented. The total primary larval count in seven fish was 18, 12, 1, 25, 16, >40 and >50. Descriptions with detailed measurements are given of the females, the males, the eggs, the primary larvae and the infective larvae of L. cincinnalis.

Selected chemical parameters in the blood and metals in the organs of the Nile crocodile, Crocodylus Niloticus, in the Kruger National Park

Healthy and sick crocodiles of varying sizes were examined from the Olifants River in the central part of the Kruger National Park, the Sabi River in the southern part and the Shingwedzi River in the northern region. Blood was collected for the determination of certain parameters and samples of fat, muscle, kidney and liver tissue were collected and analyzed for their heavy metal content. The results of the blood analyses are within the range recorded in the literature, but the metal analyses were inconclusive as similar data are not available for comparison. The results of the metal analyses are presented here for use as baseline and reference data.

A check-list of the nematode parasites of South African Serpentes (snakes) and Sauria (lizards)

Published records, in combination with own data have been brought together to provide data on parasite/host relationships of reptiles that occur in the Republic of South Africa. A total of 62 nematode species belonging to 23 genera and 11 families are recorded from 20 snake and 21 lizard species. The genera Kalicephalus, Spauligodon, Ophidascaris and Abbreviata are especially well represented with between five and eight species per genus. The most nematode species were recorded from the flap-neck chameleon, Chamaeleo dilepis (eight), the puff-adder, Bitis arietans (eight) and the water monitor, Varanus niloticus (seven). All synonyms of parasites and hosts are given.

Parasites of South African wildlife. XVI. Helminths of some antelope species from the Eastern and Western Cape Provinces

The numbers and species of helminths recovered from one black wildebeest, Connochaetes gnou, three eland, Taurotragus oryx, 18 mountain reedbuck, Redunca fulvorufula, one red hartebeest, AIcelaphus buselaphus and two springbok, Antidorcas marsupialis, in the Mountain Zebra National Park, Eastern Cape Province; two black wildebeest, two grey rhebuck, Pelea capreolus, two mountain reedbuck and four springbok in the Karoo National Park, Western Cape Province; two bontebok, Damaliscus pygargus dorcas, two eland, two gemsbok, Oryx gazella and two springbok in the West Coast National Park, Western Cape Province; and a single springbok on a farm near Bredasdorp, Western Cape Province, are recorded. Nematodes belonging to a total of 12 genera and 20 species were identified. A single cestode was also recovered. Sixteen new host associations are recorded for the nematodes and one for the cestode Moniezia benedeni. Nematodirus spathiger had the widest host spectrum and with the exception of black wildebeest, was collected from all the host species examined.

Paraquimperia Africana n. sp (Nematoda : Quimperiidae), a new intestinal parasite of the eel Anguilla mossambica Peters, in South Africa

A new seuratoid nematode of the family Quimperiidae, Paraquimperia africana n. sp., is described from the small intestine of the longfin eel, Anguilla mossambica Peters, from the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The new species is characterized mainly by the presence of a ventral sucker in mature males, short spicules (147-171 microm), the number and arrangement of caudal papillae, the postesophageal position of the excretory pore, and by the slender female tail. In this new species, a variability in the number (3-5 pairs) of subventral preanal papillae was observed. Paraquimperia africana is the first representative of the genus in Africa. In view of recent reports, Paraquimperia aditum (Mueller, 1934) is considered a junior synonym of Paraquimperia tenerrima (Linstow, 1878). Paraquimperia xenentodonia Gupta and Bakshi, 1984 is considered a species inquirenda.

Experimental studies with Stronglyloides papillosus in goats

Unusual clinical and pathological observations in the field in goats and sheep suffering from Strongyloides papillosus infection prompted experimental work on this parasite. Goats were infected percutaneously with either single or multiple, low or high levels of S. papillosus. Young goats up to 12 months of age were found to be the most susceptible. Some animals, however, showed substantial resistance to infective doses. Clinical signs included transient diarrhoea, misshapen, elongated faecal pellets terminally, dehydration, anorexia, cachexia, gnashing of teeth, foaming at the mouth, anaemia and nervous signs such as ataxia, a wide-based stance, stupor and nystagmus. A 'pushing syndrome' was seen in 22% of the animals. The pathological changes are described and included enteritis, status spongiosus in the brain, hepatosis leading to rupture of the liver, nephrosis, pulmonary oedema, interstitial pneumonia and pneumonia. About 6% of the goats died acutely from fatal hepatic rupture. The development of an acquired immunity was determined. The immunity elicited an allergic skin reaction at the application site of larvae or injection sites of larval metabolites. This immunity, however, could be breached by large doses of larvae. The most profound clinicopathological changes induced by the parasites were an anaemia (most pronounced in the young goats) and hypophosphataemia. Trace element analyses provided evidence of Cu, Mn and possibly Se deficiencies in some goats.

Pentastomid infections in Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, with a description of the males of Alofia simpsoni

Two Nile crocodiles were obtained from two different localities in the Kruger National Park, one a healthy specimen, the other in a severely debilitated condition. Both were males over 3 m long and both harboured the three pentastome genera Sebekia, Alofia and Leiperia. The genus Sebekia was represented by three species, Sebekia wedli Giglioli, 1922, Sebekia cesarisi Giglioli, 1922 and Sebekia okavangoensis Riley & Huchzermeyer, 1995. Of the genus Alofia two species, Alofia simpsoni Riley, 1994 and Alofia nilotici Riley & Huchzermeyer, 1995 were found. The male of A. simpsoni, formerly unknown, is described and the description of the females emended. Leiperia cincinnalis Sambon, 1922 was the only Leiperia present. Whereas Sebekia and Alofia were recovered from the bronchioles and lung parenchyma, female Leiperia occurred in the trachea and bronchi, and infective larvae as well as immature males and females, were collected from the lungs, the heart and the aorta. Adult Subtriquetra (Family Subtriquetridae) were not present in the nasopharynx of either crocodile. The intensity of infection was low in the healthy crocodile and had no negative effect on the host. In contrast, the debilitated crocodile was heavily infected and its poor condition is ascribed to its high pentastome burden. Histopathology revealed lesions in the tracheal wall and the lungs accompanied by chronic granulomata with secondary fungal infection as well as severe chronic multifocal granulomatous pneumonia.

Experimental studies on the life-cycle of Sebekia wedli (Pentastomida: Sebekidae)

Four young Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) were infected with infective pentastome larvae obtained from naturally infected Mozambique bream, Oreochromis mossambicus, and red-breasted bream, Tilapia rendalli swierstrai in the Kruger National Park. At day 95 post infection one of the crocodiles died and three female and four male S. wedli were recovered from its lungs. One pair was found in copula but the uteri of the females were not yet developed. Males and females were of about equal size. After 226 d post infection the three remaining crocodiles were sacrificed. Two of these harboured no pentastomes but eight were taken from the lungs of the third. The sex ratio had shifted in favour of the females, seven females and one male being present. One of the females recovered from the crocodiles was placed in saline and produced 3,400 eggs. These were used to infect eight guppies, Poecilia reticulata. Within 31 d two infective stages of S. wedli had developed in one of the guppies thus completing the life-cycle of the pentastome. S. wedli recovered from experimentally infected final hosts were slightly smaller than those recovered from a wild-caught final host.

Pentastomid infections in cichlid fishes in the Kruger National Park and the description of the infective larva of Subtriquetra rileyi n. sp

During 1995, studies were conducted on the pentastome fauna of the cichlid fishes Tilapia rendalli and Oreochromis mossambicus in the Kruger National Park. The prevalence of infective pentastome larvae was 40.5% in T. rendalli and 9.2% in O. mossambicus. Encapsulated nymphs of Leiperia cincinnalis were taken from the mesentery, while Sebekia wedli was either encapsulated or free-living in the swim bladder. The subtriquetrids moved about freely in the swim bladder. L. cincinnalis was present in 0.5% of T. rendalli and 0.8% of O. mossambicus and additional descriptions and measurements of the nymphs are presented. S. wedli was present in 2.5% of O. mossambicus and a new Subtriquetra species, for which the name Subtriquetra riley n. sp. is proposed, in 7.5%. This ratio in T. rendalli was 40.5% and 2.2%, respectively. Of the infected T. rendalli, 89% harboured one or two sebekiid larvae, while a single fish harboured eight. Fish infected with S. rileyi contained only one larva each. The condition factor of infected T. rendalli was compared statistically to that of uninfected fish and no significant difference found. However, infected fish were significantly shorter and lighter than uninfected ones. S. rileyi differs from the other three known Subtriquetra spp., Subtriquetra subtriquetra, Subtriquetra megacephala and Subtriquetra shipleyi in both hook size and annulus counts. Furthermore, S. subtriquetra occurs in South American crocodilians (Riley 1986), and S. megacephala and S. shipleyi in crocodilians in India (Fain 1961). This is the first record of the genus occurring in Africa and although adult specimens of S. rileyi n. sp. were not obtained, we assume that the new species is specific to Nile crocodiles.

Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XXXV. Ixodid ticks and bot fly larvae in the Bontebok National Park

Ixodid ticks were collected during February of each year from 1983-1992 from bontebok and grey rhebok in the Bontebok National Park, Western Cape Province. When available other mammals as well as ground-nesting birds and leopard tortoises were examined. Eleven tick species were recovered. Rhipicephalus nitens followed by Rhipicephalus glabroscutatum and an Ixodes sp. (near I. pilosus) were the most abundant, while Amblyomma marmoreum infested the widest host range. The larvae of three bot files were also collected. Gedoelstia sp. and Strobiloestrus sp. larvae were recovered from bontebok and grey rhebok and larvae of Oestrus ovis only from grey rhebok.

Spauligodon timbavatiensis n. sp. (Nematoda: Pharyngodonidae) from Pachydactylus turneri (Sauria: Gekkonidae) in the northern province, South Africa

Spauligodon timbavatiensis n. sp. (Nematoda: Pharyngodonidae) from the large intestine of Pachydactylus turneri (Sauria: Gekkonidae) in the Northern Province (RSA) is described and illustrated. It is the fifth species in the Ethiopian region, the others being Spauligodon smithi from Pachydactylus bibronii and Spauligodon petersi from Mabuya sulcata, both in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa, Spauligodon morgani from Mabuya striata in Malawi, and Spauligodon dimorpha from Chamaeleo pardalis in Madagascar. The males of the new species differ from S. smithi in that the adcloacal papillae are single (bifid in S. smithi), from S. petersi in the presence of a spicule and having narrow lateral alae (wide and triangular in S. petersi) and from S. dimorpha and S. morgani in having a spicule. Furthermore, S. timbavatiensis differs from S. morgani in lacking spines on the tail. The females of the new species have a long tail and truncated egg ends as opposed to the short, spiky tail and pointed eggs of S. morgani, a spiny tail and truncated eggs as opposed to the smooth tail and pointed eggs of S. petersi and a longer oesophagus than S. smithi. Furthermore, the females of S. dimorpha and S. morgani are much larger than those of S. timbavatiensis. In addition, the excretory pore opens behind the posterior end of the oesophageal bulb in the new species, while in S. smithi and S. dimorpha it opens at the level of the end of the oesophageal bulb.

Helminths and bot fly larvae of wild ungulates on a game ranch in central province, Zambia

Helminths and bot fly larvae were collected from 11 wild ungulate species on a game ranch in the Central Province of Zambia. New host-parasite records are: Calicophoron sp. from defassa waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa and Kafue lechwe Kobus leche kafuensis; Avitellina centripunctata, Gaigeria pachyscelis and Gedoelstia cristata from tsessebe Damaliscus lunatus lunatus; Cooperia rotundispiculum from common reedbuck Redunca arundinum; Dictyocaulus filaria from greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros; Dictyocaulus sp. from tsessebe and defassa waterbuck and Strobiloestrus sp. from sable antelope Hippotragus niger. Most of the other parasites collected are first records for Zambia and thus extend the distribution ranges of several species.

Parasites of South African wildlife. XV. Helminths of scrub hares, Lepus saxatilis in the Kruger National Park

A total of 145 scrub hares from three localities in the Kruger National Park were examined for helminths: 124 at Skukuza, 15 at Shingwedzi, and three each at Pretoriuskop and Pafuri. Trichostrongylus deflexus was the most prevalent and most abundant nematode, and was collected from hares from all four localities. Trichostrongylus falculatus was present in three localities. Trichostrongylus thomasi and Dermatoxys vlakhaasi occurred only at Skukuza in 50 and 23%, respectively, of the hares examined. The cestode Mosgovoyia pectinata and the nematode genus Impalaia were each recovered from three localities and Cooperia hungi from two. There was no apparent seasonal pattern of abundance of the worms, and the intensities of infection of male and female hares were similar. With the exception of D. vlakhaasi, all the helminths recovered in this study represent new records for scrub hares in South Africa.