The aquatic animal pandemic crisis

The growth of aquaculture over the past 50 years has been accompanied by the emergence of aquatic animal diseases, many of which have spread to become pandemic in countries or continents. An analysis of 400 emerging disease events in aquatic animals that were logged by the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science between 2002 and 2017 revealed that more than half were caused by viruses. However, in molluscs, most events were parasitic. Categorising these events indicated that the key processes underpinning emergence were the movement of live animals and host switching. Profiles of key pathogens further illustrate the importance of wild aquatic animals as the source of new infections in farmed animals. It is also clear that the spread of new diseases through the largescale movement of aquatic animals for farming, for food and for the ornamental trade has allowed many to achieve pandemic status. Many viral pathogens of fish (e.g. infectious salmon anaemia, viral haemorrhagic septicaemia) and shrimp (e.g. white spot syndrome virus) affect a large proportion of the global production of key susceptible species. Wild aquatic animal populations have also been severely affected by pandemic diseases, best exemplified by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a fungal infection of amphibians, whose emergence and spread were driven by the movement of animals for the ornamental trade. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is now widespread in the tropics and subtropics and has caused local extinctions of susceptible amphibian hosts. Given the rising demand for seafood, aquacultural production will continue to grow and diseases will continue to emerge. Some will inevitably achieve pandemic status, having significant impacts on production and trade, unless there are considerable changes in global monitoring and the response to aquatic animal diseases.

In vitro gill cell monolayer successfully reproduces in vivo Atlantic salmon host responses to Neoparamoeba perurans infection

An in vitro model to study the host response to Neoparamoeba perurans, the causative agent of amoebic gill disease (AGD), was evaluated. The rainbow trout gill derived cell line, RTgill-W1, was seeded onto permeable cell culture supports and maintained asymmetrically with apical seawater. Cells were inoculated with either a passage attenuated or a recent wild clone of N. perurans. Amoebae, loaded with phagocytosed fluorescent beads, were observed associated with host cells within 20 min post inoculation (pi). By 6 h small foci of cytopathic effect appeared and at 72 h cytolysis was observed, with total disruption of the cell monolayer at 96 h pi. Due to cell monolayer disruption, the platform could not support proliferation of amoebae, which showed a 3-log reduction in parasite 18S rRNA mRNA after 72 h (10⁶ copies at 1 h to 10³ at 72 h pi). SEM observations showed amoebae-like cells with either short pseudopodia and a malleiform shape, or, long pseudopodia embedded within the gill cells and erosion of the cell monolayer. To study the host immune response, inoculated gill cells were harvested from triplicate inserts at 0, 1, 3, 6, 24 and 48 h pi, and expression of 12 genes involved in the Atlantic salmon response to AGD was compared between infected and uninfected cells and between amoebic clones. Both clones induced similar host inmate immune responses, with the up-regulation of proinflammatory cytokine IL1β, complement C3 and cell receptor MHC-1. The Th2 pathway was up-regulated, with increased gene expression of the transcription factor GATA3, and Th2 cytokines IL10, IL6 and IL4/13A. PCNA and AG-2 were also up-regulated. The wild clone induced significantly higher up-regulation of IL1β, MHC-1, PCNA, lysozyme and IL10 than the attenuated clone for at least some exposure times, but AG-2 gene expression was higher in cells inoculated with the attenuated one. A principal component analysis showed that AG-2 and IL10 were key genes in the in vitro host response to N. perurans. This in vitro model has proved to be a promising tool to study host responses to amoebae and may therefore reduce the requirement for in vivo studies when evaluating alternative therapeutants to AGD control.

An experimental means of transmitting pancreas disease in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. fry in freshwater

A challenge model for pancreas disease in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. fry, was developed comparing two salmonid alphavirus (SAV) subtypes: SAV1 and SAV5. Viral doses of 3 × 10(5) TCID50  mL(-1) for SAV1 and 3 × 10(4) for SAV5 were tested in triplicate tanks, each containing 450 salmon fry. Cumulative mortalities of 1.2% were recorded. Titres of virus recovered from the mortalities ranged from 10(2) to 10(7) TCID50  mL(-1) . Fry were sampled at 3, 5 and 7.5 weeks post-challenge. Sampling after 3 weeks revealed a high prevalence of infection in the absence of clinical signs, and infectious virus was recovered from 80% and 43% of sampled fry infected with SAV1 and SAV5, respectively. After 5 weeks pancreas, heart and red skeletal muscle lesions were generally observed, whilst degeneration in white skeletal muscle was observed only in fish infected with SAV1. In situ hybridisation confirmed the presence of viral genome in infected pancreas, heart and muscle. After 7.5 weeks, infectious virus (both isolates) was recovered from 13.3% of the fish sampled, with a viral titre of 10(2) TCID50  mL(-1) . Clearly, salmon fry are susceptible to SAV infection and pancreas disease.

Thrombolysis risk prediction: applying the SITS-SICH and SEDAN scores in South African patients

At present, the only specific medical treatment for acute ischaemic stroke is intravenous administration of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator within 4.5 hours of stroke onset. In the last year, two scores for risk stratification of intracranial haemorrhage have been derived from multicentric European trial groups, the Safe Implementation of Treatment in Stroke - Symptomatic IntraCerebral Haemorrhage risk score (SITS-SICH) and the SEDAN score. The aim of this study was to pilot their use in a cohort of patients treated at a South African tertiary hospital. Prospectively collected data were used from a cohort of 41 patients who underwent thrombolysis at Groote Schuur Hospital from 2000 to 2012. Computerised tomography brain imaging was available for review in 23 of these cases. The SITS-SICH and SEDAN scores were then applied and risk prediction was compared with outcomes. Two patients suffered symptomatic intracranial haemorrhage (SICH), representing 4.9% (95% CI: 0-11.5%) of the cohort. This was comparable to the SICH rate in both the SITS-SICH (5.1%) and SEDAN (6.5%) cohorts. Patient scores in the Groote Schuur Hospital cohort appeared similar to those of the validation cohorts of both SITS-SICH and SEDAN. With increasing use of thrombolysis in a resource-constrained setting, these scores represent a potentially useful tool in patient selection of those most likely to benefit from intravenous thrombolysis, reducing risk for SICH and with the added benefit of curtailing cost.

Ameson metacarcini sp. nov. (Microsporidia) infecting the muscles of Dungeness crabs Metacarcinus magister from British Columbia, Canada

The Dungeness crab Metacarcinus magister supports a large and valuable fishery along the west coast of North America. Since 1998, Dungeness crabs exhibiting pink- to orange-colored joints and opaque white musculature have been sporadically observed in low prevalence from the Fraser River delta of British Columbia, Canada. We provide histological, ultrastructural, and molecular evidence that this condition is caused by a new microsporidian parasite. Crabs displaying gross symptoms were confirmed to have heavy infections of ovoid-shaped microsporidian spores (~1.8 × 1.4 µm in size) within muscle bundles of the skeletal musculature. The parasite apparently infected the outer periphery of each muscle bundle, and then proliferated into the muscle fibres near the centre of each infected bundle. Light infections were observed in heart tissues, and occasionally spores were observed within the fixed phagocytes lining the blood vessels of the hepatopancreas. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed multiple life stages of a monokaryotic microsporidian parasite within the sarcoplasm of muscle fibres. Molecular analysis of partial small subunit rRNA sequence data from the new species revealed an affinity to Ameson, a genus of Microsporidia infecting marine crustaceans. Based on morphological and molecular data, the new species is distinct from Nadelspora canceri, a related microsporidian that also infects the muscles of this host. At present, little is known about the distribution, seasonality, and transmission of A. metacarcini in M. magister.

Sphaerothecum destruens pathology in cyprinids

Sphaerothecum destruens is a significant intracellular parasite of fish which has caused disease and mortalities in cultured north American Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha and Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Several hosts for S. destruens have been identified within the Salmonidae family, and the histopathology of the infection can differ between hosts. Recently, S. destruens has been associated with the most invasive cyprinid species in Europe, topmouth gudgeon Pseudorasbora parva. Accurate disease identification based on thorough descriptions of clinical signs and histopathology in this new range of hosts is thus paramount to support further epizootiological studies. In this study, the associated histopathology of S. destruens infection is described along with its pathogenesis in the endangered cyprinid sunbleak Leucaspius delineatus. Histological examination of 100 L. delineatus in a wild population in the south of England revealed the presence of S. destruens infections, with a prevalence of 5% with S. destruens, suggesting an over-dispersed distribution within the L. delineatus sample. Clinical signs of the infection were absent, but histological examination revealed the presence of both disseminated and nodular lesions in several organs.

Numerical Modeling and Column Experiments to Simulate the Alkaline Disturbed Zone Around a Cementitious Radioactive Waste Repository

In order to be able to describe the migration of an alkaline plume, coupled chemistry and flow computer models may be employed. A series of laboratory column experiments were conducted to test the capabilities of currently available coupled models to predict product solids and output fluid compositions as a function of time. The predictions did not replicate all the variations of Ca:Si observed during mineralogical analysis, probably due the unavailability of sufficient kinetic and thermodynamic data for the range of calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) phases of interest. However, the predictions do reproduce the variation of Ca:Si ratios with time and distance along the columns. A better understanding of the above processes will lead to greater confidence in predictive modelling of the migration of alkaline plumes away from the cementitious barriers of radioactive waste disposal facilities.

Can CO2 hydrate assist in the underground storage of carbon dioxide?

The sequestration of CO2 in the deep geosphere is one potential method for reducing anthropogenic emissions to the atmosphere without necessarily incurring a significant change in our energy-producing technologies. Containment of CO2 as a liquid and an associated hydrate phase, under cool conditions, offers an alternative underground storage approach compared with conventional supercritical CO2 storage at higher temperatures. We briefly describe conventional approaches to underground storage, review possible approaches for using CO2 hydrate in CO2 storage generally, and comment on the important role CO2 hydrate could play in underground storage. Cool underground storage appears to offer certain advantages in terms of physical, chemical and mineralogical processes, which may usefully enhance trapping of the stored CO2. This approach also appears to be potentially applicable to large areas of sub-seabed sediments offshore Western Europe.

Phylogenetic and morphological characterisation of the green algae infesting blue mussel Mytilus edulis in the North and South Atlantic oceans

Blue mussels Mytilus edulis with shell deformations and green pustules containing parasitic algae were collected at 3 coastal sites (Burøy, Norway; Bockholm, Denmark; Goose Green, Falkland Islands). A comparative study, including mussel histopathology, algal morphology, ultrastructure and phylogenetic position was performed. Green pustules were mainly located in the posterior portion of the mantle and gonad tissues and the posterior adductor muscle. Electron microscopy confirmed the presence of algal cells with similar morphology to Coccomyxa parasitica. Algae were oval shaped with a single nucleus and chloroplast, 1 or 2 mitochondria and a dense granular cytoplasm with a lipid inclusion body, Golgi apparatus and small vesicles. Partial small subunit (SSU) rRNA phylogeny confirmed the inclusion of parasitic algae into the Coccomyxa clade. However, the sequence identity between almost full SSU rRNA sequences of parasitic algae and others in this clade yielded an unexpected result. Green algae from mussels were distant from C. parasitica Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa (CCAP) strain 216/18 (94% identity), but very similar (99% identity) to C. glaronensis (a lichen endosymbiont) and green endophytes from the tree Ginkgo biloba. The CCAP strain 216/18 was a sister sequence to Nannochloris algae, far from the Coccomyxa clade. These results suggest a misidentification or outgrowth of the original CCAP strain 216/18 by a different 'Nannochloris-like' trebouxiophycean organism. In contrast, our sequences directly obtained from infested mussels could represent the true C. parasitica responsible for the green pustules in blue mussels.

Emergence of cold water strawberry disease of rainbow trout Oncorynchus mykiss in England and Wales: outbreak investigations and transmission studies

Cold water strawberry disease (CWSD), or red mark syndrome (RMS), is a severe dermatitis affecting the rainbow trout Oncorynchus mykiss. The condition, which presents as multifocal, raised lesions on the flanks of affected fish, was first diagnosed in Scotland in 2003 and has since spread to England and Wales. Results of field investigations indicated the condition had an infectious aetiology, with outbreaks in England linked to movements of live fish from affected sites in Scotland. Transmission trials confirmed these results, with 11 of 149 and 106 of 159 naive rainbow trout displaying CWSD-characteristic lesions 104 to 106 d after being cohabited with CWSD-affected fish from 2 farms (Farm B from England and Farm C from Wales, respectively). The condition apparently has a long latency, with the first characteristic lesions in the previously naive fish not definitively observed until 65 d (650 day-degrees) post-contact with affected fish. Affected fish from both outbreak investigations and the infection trial were examined for the presence of viruses, oomycetes, parasites and bacteria using a combination of techniques and methodologies (including culture-independent cloning of PCR-amplified bacterial 16S rRNA genes from lesions), with no potentially causative infectious agent consistently identified. The majority of the cloned phylotypes from both lesion and negative control skin samples were assigned to Acidovorax-like beta-Proteobacteria and Methylobacterium-like alpha-Proteobacteria.

Isolation of a cyprinid herpesvirus 2 from goldfish, Carassius auratus (L.), in the UK

Haematopoietic necrosis virus [cyprinid herpesvirus 2 (CyHV-2)] was isolated during disease outbreaks in goldfish, Carassius auratus, at an ornamental fish retail site in southern England in 2004. Signs of disease included lethargy and inappetence and were first seen after water temperatures increased from 14-15 to 19-21 degrees C. External gross pathology included pale patches on the gills and skin and internally the spleen was enlarged, often with distinctive white nodules. The most prominent histopathological changes observed were necrotic lesions in the spleen and kidney and focal patches of necrosis in the gill lamellae. Necrotic cells often contained nuclei with marginated chromatin and pale intranuclear inclusions. Ultrastructural examination of the spleen tissue revealed typical herpesvirus-like particles measuring 100 nm in diameter. The virus was isolated from extracts of gill tissue in KF-1 cells at 20 degrees C and oligonucleotide primer sets were designed based on conserved gene sequences and used to amplify viral DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The PCR assays were then used to detect the virus in DNA extracted from tissues sampled during earlier disease investigations at the retail site owner's holding facility in 2002 and 2003 and stored at -70 degrees C since then. Polymerase gene-specific PCR amplification products obtained from tissue samples and from the virus isolated in cell culture shared 100% nucleotide sequence identity with the published sequence for CyHV-2.

A parasitic scuticociliate infection in the Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus)

A histophagous ciliate infection was discovered in a number of Norway lobsters (Nephrops norvegicus) from the Clyde Sea Area, Scotland. Silver-carbonate staining of cultured ciliates revealed an oral apparatus and additional structural features that are morphologically similar to scuticociliates in the genus Mesanophrys, which are known to parasitize crustaceans. However, ribosomal DNA sequences (ITS1/5.8S/ITS2) of the ciliate were identical to Orchitophyra stellarum, a parasitic scuticociliate of sea stars with a different morphology from Mesanophrys spp. and to the ciliate from N. norvegicus. Associated pathology included degeneration and necrosis of the myocardial heart muscle, and large numbers of ciliates in the gill filaments.

DNA adduct analysis and histopathological biomarkers in European flounder (Platichthys flesus) sampled from UK estuaries

The presence of genotoxic and potentially carcinogenic chemical contaminants in the estuarine and coastal marine environment is well documented. In this study, European flounder (Platichthys flesus) sampled from eight UK estuaries were analysed for hepatic DNA adducts, using the 32P-postlabelling assay and liver histopathology as part of an on going survey to establish the health status of UK estuaries. Fish were collected from the estuaries Tyne, Mersey, Thames, Alde (reference site), Belfast, Forth, Clyde and Southampton. At the majority of contaminated sites (Southampton, Thames, Clyde, Tyne and Mersey) the predominant DNA adduct profile consisted of diagonal radioactive zones (DRZs). In contrast, flounder collected from the Forth, Alde and Belfast lacked DRZs with only background levels of DNA damage being observed. Statistically significant differences were observed between several of the sites sampled with the hepatic DNA adduct levels detected in flounder from Southampton, Thames and Clyde statistically elevated (P < 0.05) over those levels detected at the Tyne (Southampton and Thames only), Forth, Alde and Belfast. Histological analysis of these samples revealed a range of lesions including foci of cellular alteration, hepatocellular fibrillar inclusions, nuclear pleomorphisms along with non-toxicopathic changes/alterations, such as those associated with cell turnover (apoptosis, necrosis, regeneration) and immune-related functions (melanomacrophage aggregates, inflammation). Although it is difficult to associate higher prevalence of these lesion types with specific sites, generally, the lowest prevalence was seen in flounder captured from the Alde estuary, with higher prevalence (particularly of melanomacrophage aggregates, inflammation and necrotic foci) seen in fish from the contaminated sites.

Pathology and ultrastructure of an intranuclear bacilliform virus (IBV) infecting brown shrimp Crangon crangon (Decapoda: Crangonidae)

The brown shrimp Crangon crangon supports an important fishery in Europe (over 25000 t, valued at 80 million euros in 2000). Through the course of histopathological screening of crustaceans from the Clyde estuary, western Scotland, for the biological effect of contaminants, we have discovered a highly prevalent (up to 100%) non-occluded intranuclear bacilliform virus (IBV) infection in the hepatopancreatic tubule epithelia and midgut epithelia of wild C. crangon. This is the first report of an IBV in this family. We have termed this virus Crangon crangon bacilliform virus (CcBV). Histological and ultrastructural observations suggest that this virus is similar to other IBVs previously described from crabs and penaeid shrimps. The nuclei of virus-infected epithelial cells contained an eosinophilic, hypertrophied viroplasm that marginalised the chromatin of the host nucleus. Infected cells were often separated from their neighbouring cells and their nuclei appeared apoptotic. In heavily infected shrimp, apoptotic cells were expelled into the lumen of the hepatopancreatic tubule or the midgut. Following this stage, some hepatopancreatic tubules became degenerate, with remnants of the basement membrane and myoepithelial lining remaining. Transmission electron microscopy of hypertrophic nuclei revealed the presence of rod-shaped and cylindrical, envelope-bound virions. These virions did not form arrays and were not embedded within occlusion bodies, but did appear to be partially occluded in an amorphous matrix that corresponded to a granular viroplasm. The ultrastructure, morphology and size of the nucleocapsid and the complete virion aligns the virus most closely to the IBVs previously reported from other decapod crustaceans. Due to the pathological manifestation of IBV infection in C. crangon, it appears likely that it can act as a population modulator, particularly at sites where infection prevalence is high, such as that observed in the Clyde estuary.

Co-infection by a yeast-like organism in Hematodinium-infected European edible crabs Cancer pagurus and velvet swimming crabs Necora puber from the English Channel

During the winter months, edible crabs Cancer pagurus and velvet swimming crabs Necora puber from the English Channel can harbour infections by a Hematodinium sp. dinoflagellate. This parasite is responsible for a highly pathological condition known as 'Pink Crab Disease' (PCD) in the edible crab. In the current study, a high proportion (between 25 and 100%) of Hematodinium-infected edible and velvet swimming crabs captured from 2 sites in the English Channel also harboured a systemic infection by a yeast-like organism. This is the first report of such an infection in crabs. Budding yeast-like cells were observed intracellularly in circulating haemocytes and free in the host plasma. These cells stained positively with silver and periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) reactions. Despite an apparent haemocytopoenia in Hematodinium-infected crabs, haemocytic encapsulation of yeast-like cells was evident, while no such response was observed against Hematodinium sp. plasmodia. It is hypothesised that Hematodinium infection in these crabs may either increase the likelihood of secondary infections via an indirect suppression of the host immune system, or alternatively, decrease the likelihood of competitive growth inhibition by stimulating the host immune system to encapsulate and destroy secondary pathogens. Results are discussed with regard to the likely identity of the yeast-like organism, and the role of secondary pathogens in the eventual mortality of Hematodinium-infected hosts.

Oral gemifloxacin once daily for 5 days compared with sequential therapy with i.v. ceftriaxone/oral cefuroxime (maximum of 10 days) in the treatment of hospitalized patients with acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis

In a randomized, open-label, controlled, multicentre study, the clinical and bacteriological efficacy, safety and tolerability of oral gemifloxacin (320 mg once daily, 5 days) was compared with sequential intravenous (i.v.) ceftriaxone (1 g once daily, maximum 3 days) followed by oral cefuroxime axetil (500 mg twice daily, maximum 7 days) in adult hospitalized patients with acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis (AECB) (n = 274). The clinical success rates at follow-up (21-28 days post-therapy) in the clinical per-protocol population (the primary endpoint) were 86.8% (105/121) for gemifloxacin vs. 81.3% (91/112) for ceftriaxone/cefuroxime (treatment difference = 5.5,95% CI -3.9,14.9). The corresponding clinical results in the clinical intention-to-treat (ITT) population were 82.6% (114/138) vs. 72.1% (98/136), respectively (treatment difference = 10.5,95% CI 0.7, 20.4).Thus, gemifloxacin had significantly higher clinical success rates than ceftriaxone/cefuroxime. The median time to discharge was 9 days in the gemifloxacin group vs. 11 days in the ceftriaxone/cefuroxime group (P = 0.04, Wilcoxon test). At follow-up, 120/138 (87.0%) gemifloxacin-treated patients had been discharged from hospital, compared with 111/136 (81.6%) ceftriaxone/cefuroxime-treated patients in the clinical ITT population. Both treatments were generally well tolerated and there was no significant difference between the treatment groups in the incidence or type of adverse events reported. A 5-day course of oral gemifloxacin was shown by this study to be at least equivalent to sequential i.v. ceftriaxone/cefuroxime axetil (for up to 10 days) in patients with AECB who require hospital treatment.

Infection by a Hematodinium-like parasitic dinoflagellate causes Pink Crab Disease (PCD) in the edible crab Cancer pagurus

The edible crab (Cancer pagurus) supports a large and valuable fishery in UK waters. Much of the catch is transported live to continental Europe in specially designed live-well ('vivier') vehicles. During the winter of 2000/2001, many trap-caught crabs from Guernsey, Channel Islands, UK, were reportedly moribund and pink in colour. These crabs generally died before and during vivier transportation. We provide histological, immunological, and molecular evidence that this condition is associated with infection by a Hematodinium-like dinoflagellate parasite similar to that previously reported in C. pagurus and to an infection causing seasonal mass mortalities of the Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus). Pathologically, every altered host bore the infection, which was characterised by very large numbers of plasmodial and vegetative stages in the haemolymph and depletion of reserve cells in the hepatopancreas. Due to the hyperpigmentation of the carapace and appendages, we have called this infection 'Pink Crab Disease' (PCD). Similar Hematodinium infections cause 'Bitter Crab Disease' in tanner and snow crabs, which has had a negative effect on their marketability. At present, little is known about the seasonality, transmission, and market impact of this infection in C. pagurus.

Purification and characterization of the human PDE4A catalytic domain (PDE4A330-723) expressed in Sf9 cells

The human PDE4A catalytic domain (PDE4A330-723) expressed in Sf9 cells was found to be heavily phosphorylated on both serines of the conserved SPS motif by mass spectrometric analysis. The purified protein exists as a tetramer at a concentration approximately 1 mg/ml from light scattering measurement and has a Km of 2 microM in hydrolyzing cAMP. In comparison, a partially purified PDE4A330-723 expressed in Escherichia coli has an apparent Km of 10 microM. The EC50 values for the Mg2+- or Co2+-mediated cAMP hydrolysis between the two enzymes differed by less than twofold. In addition, both enzymes exhibit similar sensitivities toward inhibition by a diverse set of inhibitors. Together with the fact that its adjacent peptide was covalently labeled by an electrophilic cAMP analogue, these results support that the SPS motif is not part of but is positioned near the active site. An efficient purification protocol that provides a highly purified PDE4A catalytic domain suitable for crystallization study is described.

The use of 3-[2-(N,N-diethyl-N-methylammonium)ethyl]-7-methoxy-4-methylcoumarin (AMMC) as a specific CYP2D6 probe in human liver microsomes

Recently, a novel nonfluorescent probe 3-[2-(N,N-diethyl-N-methylammonium)-ethyl]-7-methoxy-4-methylcoumarin (AMMC), which produces a fluorescent metabolite AMHC (3-[2-(N,N-diethyl-N-methylammonium)ethyl]-7-hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin) was used with microsomes containing recombinant enzymes (rCYP) to monitor CYP2D6 inhibition in a microtiter plate assay. This article describes the studies that were performed in human liver microsomes (HLM) to establish the selectivity of AMMC toward CYP2D6. Metabolism studies in HLM showed that AMMC was converted to one metabolite identified by mass spectrometry as AMHC. Kinetic studies indicated an apparent K(m) of 3 microM with a V(max) of 20 pmol/min. mg of protein for the O-demethylation reaction. The O-demethylation of AMMC in HLM was inhibited significantly in the presence of a CYP2D6 inhibitory antibody. Using a panel of various HLM preparations (n = 12), a good correlation (r(2) = 0.95) was obtained between AMMC O-demethylation and bufuralol metabolism, a known CYP2D6 substrate, but not with probes for the other major xenobiotic metabolizing CYPs. Finally, only rCYP2D6 showed detectable metabolism in experiments conducted with rCYPs using AMMC at a concentration of 1.5 microM (near K(m)). However, at a concentration of 25 microM AMMC, rCYP1A also contributed significantly to the formation of AMHC. Knowing the experimental conditions under which AMMC was selective for CYP2D6, a microtiter assay was developed to study the inhibition of various compounds in HLM using the fluorescence of AMHC as an indication of CYP2D6 activity. The inhibition potential of various chemicals was found to be comparable to those determined using the standard CYP2D6 probe, bufuralol, which requires high-performance liquid chromatography separation for the analysis of its CYP2D6-mediated 1'-hydoxylated metabolite.

The YRD Motif Is a Major Determinant of Substrate and Inhibitor Specificity in T-cell Protein-tyrosine Phosphatase

We have studied T-cell protein-tyrosine phosphatase (TCPTP) as a model phosphatase in an attempt to unravel amino acid residues that may influence the design of specific inhibitors. Residues 48--50, termed the YRD motif, a region that is found in protein-tyrosine phosphatases, but absent in dual-specificity phosphatases was targeted. YRD derivatives of TCPTP were characterized by steady-state kinetics and by inhibition studies with BzN-EJJ-amide, a potent inhibitor of TCPTP. Substitution of Asp(50) to alanine or Arg(49) to lysine, methionine, or alanine significantly affected substrate hydrolysis and led to a substantial decrease in affinity for BzN-EJJ-amide. The influence of residue 49 on substrate/inhibitor selectivity was further investigated by comparing subsite amino acid preferences of TCPTP and its R49K derivative by affinity selection coupled with mass spectrometry. The greatest effect on selectivity was observed on the residue that precedes the phosphorylated tyrosine. Unlike wild-type TCPTP, the R49K derivative preferred tyrosine to aspartic or glutamic acid. BzN-EJJ-amide which retains the preferred specificity requirements of TCPTP and PTP1B was equipotent on both enzymes but greater than 30-fold selective over other phosphatases. These results suggest that Arg(49) and Asp(50) may be targeted for the design of potent and selective inhibitors of TCPTP and PTP1B.

Reproductive performance of postpartum dairy cows under a highly intervenient breeding program involving timed insemination and combinations of GnRH, prostaglandin F2alpha and human chorionic gonadotropin

Lactating Holstein cows (n=288) were grouped as pairs at parturition and randomly assigned to two treatments (control, C vs intervenient treatment, T). The reproductive management of the Group C cows (n=130) consisted of the intramuscular administration of 500 microg PGF2alpha analogue (PG) on Days 28 and 63 postpartum and breeding on the basis of estrus signs with the a.m.-p.m. rule after Day 63. Cows that were not bred by 77 d postpartum received another injection of PG and were bred at estrus or 84 h after PG treatment. Pregnancy diagnoses were perfomed by palpation of the uterus per rectum 42 to 48 d after AI. Cows in the T group (n=139) received intramuscular injections of 100 microg GnRH 14 d and PG 28 d after calving. On Day 56 postpartum, cows were given a second dose of GnRH followed by PG on Day 63 postpartum and a third GnRH injection 48 h after PG (OvSynch). Cows were inseminated at a fixed time (22+/-1 h) after GnRH. Five days after the fixed-time insemination cows were given 1500 IU hCG i.m.. Group C and T cows that returned to service or were diagnosed as non-pregnant continued to receive PG at intervals of 14 d with breeding at estrus or 84 h after the second PGF2alpha dose. A sustained increase in milk progesterone concentration was observed in 59.0% of T cows after GnRH administration on Day 14. A similar rise in milk progesterone concentrations was observed in 53.8% of C cows. The PG on Day 28 induced luteolysis more in Group T cows (53.2%) than in Group C cows (36.9%). The PG on Day 63 reduced milk progesterone concentrations to basal levels in 50.7% of T and 49.2% of Group C animals. The first service pregnancy rates (T, 40.3% vs C, 36.2%) and the overall pregnancy rates (all services, T, 83.5% vs C, 86.9%) were not different between the two groups. The two treatments did not differ in the interval from first service to pregnancy, calving to pregnancy or in calving interval, number of services per pregnancy or culling rates.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid type B receptors with specific heterodimer composition and postsynaptic actions in hippocampal neurons are targets of anticonvulsant gabapentin action

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) activates two qualitatively different inhibitory mechanisms through ionotropic GABA(A) multisubunit chloride channel receptors and metabotropic GABA(B) G protein-coupled receptors. Evidence suggests that pharmacologically distinct GABA(B) receptor subtypes mediate presynaptic inhibition of neurotransmitter release by reducing Ca2+ conductance, and postsynaptic inhibition of neuronal excitability by activating inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) conductance. However, the cloning of GABA(B) gb1 and gb2 receptor genes and identification of the functional GABA(B) gb1-gb2 receptor heterodimer have so far failed to substantiate the existence of pharmacologically distinct receptor subtypes. The anticonvulsant, antihyperalgesic, and anxiolytic agent gabapentin (Neurontin) is a 3-alkylated GABA analog with an unknown mechanism of action. Here we report that gabapentin is an agonist at the GABA(B) gb1a-gb2 heterodimer coupled to Kir 3.1/3.2 inwardly rectifying K+ channels in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Gabapentin was practically inactive at the human gb1b-gb2 heterodimer, a novel human gb1c-gb2 heterodimer and did not block GABA agonism at these heterodimer subtypes. Gabapentin was not an agonist at recombinant GABA(A) receptors as well. In CA1 pyramidal neurons of rat hippocampal slices, gabapentin activated postsynaptic K+ currents, probably via the gb1a-gb2 heterodimer coupled to inward rectifiers, but did not presynaptically depress monosynaptic GABA(A) inhibitory postsynaptic currents. Gabapentin is the first GABA(B) receptor subtype-selective agonist identified providing proof of pharmacologically and physiologically distinct receptor subtypes. This selective agonism of postsynaptic GABA(B) receptor subtypes by gabapentin in hippocampal neurons may be its key therapeutic advantage as an anticonvulsant.

Factors associated with being a bovine-virus diarrhoea (BVD) seropositive dairy herd in the Møre and Romsdal County of Norway

Factors associated with being a bovine-virus diarrhoea (BVD) seropositive dairy herd were studied in a case-control study of 314 dairy herds in the Møre and Romsdal County of Norway. Information was collected through a mailed questionnaire, and associations were modeled using conditional logistic regression after selecting variables by a best-subset procedure. Purchasing of animals, use of common pasture, herd-to-herd contact over pasture fences, purchasing cattle with insufficient health (about BVD) documentation, and not using dairy advisors were associated with higher risk. In addition, younger farmers were more likely to have a bovine-virus diarrhoea seropositive herd than older farmers. 'Other animal traffic', including use of common animal housing in the summer months and exchange of calves between farmers were also risk factors. Collectively, these factors could explain 51% of the seropositive herds.

Proteinase inhibitors from Nicotiana alata enhance plant resistance to insect pests

The ornamental tobacco (Nicotiana alata) produces one 6-kDa chymotrypsin inhibitor and four 6-kDa trypsin inhibitors from a single 40.3-kDa precursor protein. Three different approaches have been used to assess the potential of these proteinase inhibitors (PIs) in insect control. The first was an in-vitro approach in which all five inhibitors, the single chymotrypsin inhibitor or three of the four trypsin inhibitors were tested for their ability to inhibit gut protease activity in insects from four orders. The second approach was to incorporate the N. alata PIs in the artificial diet of the native budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera) and the black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus). H. punctigera larvae and T. commodus nymphs had a significant (P<0.01) reduction in growth after ingestion of the PI and were more lethargic than insects on the control diet. Several of the H. punctigera larvae also failed to complete moulting at the third or fourth instar. The third approach was to express the N. alata PIs in transgenic tobacco under the control of the 35S CaMV promoter. When H. punctigera larvae were fed tobacco leaves expressing the N. alata PIs at 0.2% soluble protein, significant (P<0.01) differences in mortality and/or growth rate were observed.

Crystal structure of the yeast cell-cycle control protein, p13suc1, in a strand-exchanged dimer

BACKGROUND

p13(suc1) from fission yeast is a member of the CDC28 kinase specific (CKS) class of cell-cycle control proteins, that includes CKS1 from budding yeast and the human homologues CksHs1 and CksHs2. p13(suc1) participates in the regulation of p34(cdc2), a cyclin-dependent kinase controlling the G1-S and the G2-M transitions of the cell cycle. The CKS proteins are believed to exert their regulatory activity by binding to the kinase, in which case their function may be governed by their conformation or oligomerization state. Previously determined X-ray structures of p13(suc1), CksHs1 and CksHs2 show that these proteins share a common fold but adopt different oligomeric states. Monomeric forms of p13(suc1) and CksHs1 have been solved. In addition, CksHs2 and p13(suc1) have been observed by X-ray crystallography in assemblies of strand-exchanged dimers. Analysis of various assemblies of the CKS proteins, as found in different crystal forms, should help to clarify their role in cell-cycle control.

RESULTS

We report the X-ray crystal structure of p13(suc1) to 1.95 A resolution in space group C2221. It is present in the crystals as a strand-exchanged dimer. The overall monomeric fold is preserved in each lobe of the dimer but a single beta-strand (Ile94-Asp102) is exchanged between the central beta-sheets of each molecule.

CONCLUSIONS

Strand exchange, which has been observed for p13(suc1) in two different space groups, and for CksHs2, is now confirmed to be an intrinsic feature of the CKS family. A switch between levels of assembly may serve to coordinate the function of the CKS proteins in cell-cycle control.

Overall efficacy of chronically administered recombinant bovine somatotropin to lactating dairy cows

Recombinant bST at daily dosages of 0, 10.3, 20.6, and 41.2 mg/d were injected for 266 d into 8, 10, 9, and 9 Holstein cows, respectively. Treatment effects of recombinant bST were assessed for milk production traits, BW, blood components, and health and reproductive variables. Data reported compare controls to all bST-treated cows. There was an average increase of 18% in 3.5% FCM for bST versus control cows. This increase resulted in enhanced feed efficiency for bST cows, as their DM intakes were not elevated above those of the control cows. Recovery of BW was similar between control and bST groups. Milk composition was unaffected except for a slight decrease in protein percentage during the first 9 wk of treatment, and an elevated SCC between wk 19 and 28. Blood parameters were not different between control and bST cows, except for hematocrit, which decreased with bST treatment. The only health and reproductive parameters affected by bST were mastitis and days open, which were increased in the highest dosage groups.