The EBI2 receptor is coexpressed with CCR5 in CD4+ T cells and boosts HIV-1 R5 replication

OBJECTIVE

CCR5, a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), is used by most HIV strains as a coreceptor. In this study, we looked for other GPCRs able to modify HIV-1 infection.

DESIGN

We analyzed the effects of one GPCR coexpressed with CCR5, EBI2, on HIV-1 replicative cycle.

METHODS

We identified GPCRs expressed in primary CD4+CCR5+ T cells by multi-RT-qPCR. We studied GPCR dimerization by FRET technology. Cell lines expressing EBI2 were established by transduction with HIV vectors. HIV-1 entry was quantified with virions harboring β-lactamase fused to the viral protein vpr, early and late HIV-1 transcriptions by qPCR, NFkB nuclear activation by immunofluorescence and transfection, and viral production by measuring p24 concentration in culture supernatant by ELISA.

RESULTS

We showed that EBI2 is naturally expressed in primary CD4+CCR5+ T cells, and that CCR5 and EBI2 heterodimerize. We observed that this coexpression reduced viral entry by 50%. The amount of HIV reverse transcripts was similar in cells expressing or not EBI2. Finally, the presence of EBI2 induced the translocation of NFkB and activated HIV-1 genome expression. Globally, the result was a drastic HIV-1 R5, but not X4, overproduction in EBI2-transduced cells.

CONCLUSIONS

EBI2 expression in CD4+CCR5+ cells boosts HIV-1 R5 productive infection. As the natural ligand for EBI2 is present in blood and lymphoid tissues, the constant EBI2 activation might increase HIV replication in CD4+ T cells. It might be of interest to test the effect of EBI2 antagonists on the residual viral production persisting in patients aviremic under treatment.

Synthesis and pharmacological characterization of conformationally restricted 2-amino-Adipic acid analogs and carboxycyclopropyl glycines as selective metabotropic glutamate 2 receptor agonists

The metabotropic glutamate (Glu) receptors (mGluRs) are G-protein coupled receptors, which play a central role in modulating excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, the development of tool compounds thereto, continues to interest the scientific community. In this study, we report the design and synthesis of new conformationally restricted 2-aminoadipic acid (2AA) 2-4, and glutamic acid 5, 6 analogs, which share the cyclopropane ring as the restrictor. The analogs were characterized at rat mGlu1-8 in an IP-One functional assay. While the 2AA analogs 3a, 4a and CCG-I analog 5a were shown to be selective mGlu2 agonists with low micromolar potencies, CCG-II analog 5b was shown to be a potent full agonist at mGlu2 (EC50 = 82 nM) with ∼15-fold selectivity over mGlu3, >25-fold selectivity over group III, and >60-fold selectivity over group I subtypes. An in silico study was performed to address this significant change (>3500 fold) in potency upon introduction of this methyl group (L-CCG-II vs 5b).

Design, Synthesis, Pharmacology, and In Silico Studies of (1S,2S,3S)-2-((S)-Amino(carboxy)methyl)-3-(carboxymethyl)cyclopropane-1-carboxylic Acid (LBG30300): A Picomolar Potency Subtype-Selective mGlu2 Receptor Agonist

Metabotropic glutamate (Glu) receptors (mGlu receptors) play a key role in modulating excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS). In this study, we report the structure-based design and pharmacological evaluation of densely functionalized, conformationally restricted glutamate analogue (1S,2S,3S)-2-((S)-amino(carboxy)methyl)-3-(carboxymethyl)cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (LBG30300). LBG30300 was synthesized in a stereocontrolled fashion in nine steps from a commercially available optically active epoxide. Functional characterization of all eight mGlu receptor subtypes showed that LBG30300 is a picomolar agonist at mGlu2 with excellent selectivity over mGlu3 and the other six mGlu receptor subtypes. Bioavailability studies on mice (IV administration) confirm CNS exposure, and an in silico study predicts a binding mode of LBG30300 which induces a flipping of Tyr144 to allow for a salt bridge interaction of the acetate group with Arg271. The Tyr144 residue now prevents Arg271 from interacting with Asp146, which is a residue of differentiation between mGlu2 and mGlu3 and thus could explain the observed subtype selectivity.

Different EGF-induced receptor dimer conformations for signaling and internalization

The structural basis of the activation and internalization of EGF receptors (EGFR) is still a matter of debate despite the importance of this target in cancer treatment. Whether agonists induce dimer formation or act on preformed dimers remains discussed. Here, we provide direct evidence that EGF-induced EGFR dimer formation as best illustrated by the very large increase in FRET between snap-tagged EGFR subunits induced by agonists. We confirm that Erlotinib-related TK (tyrosine kinase) inhibitors also induce dimer formation despite the inactive state of the binding domain. Surprisingly, TK inhibitors do not inhibit EGF-induced EGFR internalization despite their ability to fully block EGFR signaling. Only Erlotinib-related TK inhibitors promoting asymmetric dimers could slow down this process while the lapatinib-related ones have almost no effect. These results reveal that the conformation of the intracellular TK dimer, rather than the known EGFR signaling, is critical for EGFR internalization. These results also illustrate clear differences in the mode of action of TK inhibitors on the EGFR and open novel possibilities to control EGFR signaling for cancer treatment.

Targeting the Brain with Single-Domain Antibodies: Greater Potential Than Stated So Far?

Treatments for central nervous system diseases with therapeutic antibodies have been increasingly investigated over the last decades, leading to some approved monoclonal antibodies for brain disease therapies. The detection of biomarkers for diagnosis purposes with non-invasive antibody-based imaging approaches has also been explored in brain cancers. However, antibodies generally display a low capability of reaching the brain, as they do not efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier. As an alternative, recent studies have focused on single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) that correspond to the antigen-binding fragment. While some reports indicate that the brain uptake of these small antibodies is still low, the number of studies reporting brain-penetrating sdAbs is increasing. In this review, we provide an overview of methods used to assess or evaluate brain penetration of sdAbs and discuss the pros and cons that could affect the identification of brain-penetrating sdAbs of therapeutic or diagnostic interest.

Biased signaling due to oligomerization of the G protein-coupled platelet-activating factor receptor

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important drug targets that mediate various signaling pathways by activating G proteins and engaging β-arrestin proteins. Despite its importance for the development of therapeutics with fewer side effects, the underlying mechanism that controls the balance between these signaling modes of GPCRs remains largely unclear. Here, we show that assembly into dimers and oligomers can largely influence the signaling mode of the platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFR). Single-particle analysis results show that PAFR can form oligomers at low densities through two possible dimer interfaces. Stabilization of PAFR oligomers through cross-linking increases G protein activity, and decreases β-arrestin recruitment and agonist-induced internalization significantly. Reciprocally, β-arrestin prevents PAFR oligomerization. Our results highlight a mechanism involved in the control of receptor signaling, and thereby provide important insights into the relationship between GPCR oligomerization and downstream signaling.

G protein-coupled receptors can control the Hippo/YAP pathway through Gq signaling

The Hippo pathway is an evolutionarily conserved kinase cascade involved in the control of tissue homeostasis, cellular differentiation, proliferation, and organ size, and is regulated by cell-cell contact, apical cell polarity, and mechanical signals. Miss-regulation of this pathway can lead to cancer. The Hippo pathway acts through the inhibition of the transcriptional coactivators YAP and TAZ through phosphorylation. Among the various signaling mechanisms controlling the hippo pathway, activation of G12/13 by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) recently emerged. Here we show that a GPCR, the ghrelin receptor, that activates several types of G proteins, including G12/13, Gi/o, and Gq, can activate YAP through Gq/11 exclusively, independently of G12/13. We revealed that a strong basal YAP activation results from the high constitutive activity of this receptor, which can be further increased upon agonist activation. Thus, acting on ghrelin receptor allowed to modulate up-and-down YAP activity, as activating the receptor increased YAP activity and blocking constitutive activity reduced YAP activity. Our results demonstrate that GPCRs can be used as molecular switches to finely up- or down-regulate YAP activity through a pure Gq pathway.

GPCR interaction as a possible way for allosteric control between receptors

For more than twenty years now, GPCR dimers and larger oligomers have been the subject of intense debates. Evidence for a role of such complexes in receptor trafficking to and from the plasma membrane have been provided. However, one main issue is of course to determine whether or not such a phenomenon can be responsible for an allosteric and reciprocal control (allosteric control) of the subunits. Such a possibility would indeed add to the possible ways a cell integrates various signals targeting GPCRs. Among the large GPCR family, the class C receptors that include mGlu and GABA_B receptors, represent excellent models to examine such a possibility as they are mandatory dimers. In the present review, we will report on the observed allosteric interaction between the subunits of class C GPCRs, both mGluRs and GABA_BRs, and on the structural bases of these interactions. We will then discuss these findings for other GPCR types such as the rhodopsin-like class A receptors. We will show that many of the observations made with class C receptors have also been reported with class A receptors, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in the allosteric control between subunits in GPCR dimers may not be unique to class C GPCRs.

HTRF® Total and Phospho-YAP (Ser127) Cellular Assays

The YAP protein is a co-transcription factor increasing the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation and repressing the expression of genes important for cell differentiation and apoptosis. It is regulated by several inputs, like the Hippo pathway, through the action of kinases that phosphorylate YAP on several residues. The level of phosphorylation of the residues serine 127 (S127) of YAP is generally assessed in cellular models, native tissues, and organs, as a marker of YAP activity and location, and is regulated by numerous partners. This phosphorylation event is classically detected using a western blot technical approach. Here, we describe a novel approach to detect both the relative amount of total YAP (T-YAP assay) and the phosphorylation of the residue S127 of YAP (S127-P-YAP assay) using a HTRF^®-based method. This easy-to-run method can easily be miniaturized and allows for a high-throughput analysis in 96/384-well plate format, requiring less cellular material and being more rapid than other approaches.

The G Protein-Coupled Receptor UT of the Neuropeptide Urotensin II Displays Structural and Functional Chemokine Features

The urotensinergic system was previously considered as being linked to numerous physiopathological states, including atherosclerosis, heart failure, hypertension, pre-eclampsia, diabetes, renal disease, as well as brain vascular lesions. Thus, it turns out that the actions of the urotensin II (UII)/G protein-coupled receptor UT system in animal models are currently not predictive enough in regard to their effects in human clinical trials and that UII analogs, established to target UT, were not as beneficial as expected in pathological situations. Thus, many questions remain regarding the overall signaling profiles of UT leading to complex involvement in cardiovascular and inflammatory responses as well as cancer. We address the potential UT chemotactic structural and functional definition under an evolutionary angle, by the existence of a common conserved structural feature among chemokine receptorsopioïdergic receptors and UT, i.e., a specific proline position in the transmembrane domain-2 TM2 (P2.58) likely responsible for a kink helical structure that would play a key role in chemokine functions. Even if the last decade was devoted to the elucidation of the cardiovascular control by the urotensinergic system, we also attempt here to discuss the role of UII on inflammation and migration, likely providing a peptide chemokine status for UII. Indeed, our recent work established that activation of UT by a gradient concentration of UII recruits Gαi/o and Gα13 couplings in a spatiotemporal way, controlling key signaling events leading to chemotaxis. We think that this new vision of the urotensinergic system should help considering UT as a chemotactic therapeutic target in pathological situations involving cell chemoattraction.

Functional Characterisation of Eel Dopamine D2 Receptors and Involvement in the Direct Inhibition of Pituitary Gonadotrophins

In various vertebrate species, dopamine (DA) exerts an inhibitory action on reproduction. In the European eel, DA plays a pivotal role in the inhibitory control of gonadotroph function and the blockade of puberty. In vivo studies have suggested that this effect is mediated by receptors pharmacologically related to the D2 family. In the European eel, two distinct D2 receptor (D2-R) paralogous genes have been identified (D2A-R and D2B-R) and both were shown to be expressed in the pituitary. We investigated the potential role of each paralogue in the control of gonadotroph function in this species. Eel recombinant D2A-R or D2B-R were expressed in HEK 293 cells, with a universal Gα subunit, and receptor activation was followed by inositol phosphate production. Recombinant D2-Rs exhibited a comparable affinity for DA, although they had differential affinities for mammalian D2-R agonists and antagonists, supporting subtle structure/activity differences. Furthermore, using eel pituitary cell primary cultures, the expression by gonadotroph cells of both native eel D2-R paralogues was examined by in situ hybridisation of D2A-R or D2B-R transcripts, coupled with immunofluorescence of luteinising hormone (LH)β or follicle-stimulating (FSH)β. LH and to a lesser extent, FSH cells expressed both D2-R transcripts but with a clear predominance of D2B-R. Notably, D2B-R transcripts were detected for the majority of LH cells. Accordingly, using these cultures, we showed that DA potently inhibited basal and testosterone-stimulated LHβ expression and less potently basal and activin-stimulated FSHβ expression. We also tested some D2-R antagonists, aiming to select the most adequate one to be used in innovative protocols for induction of eel sexual maturation. We identified eticlopride as the most potent inhibitor of DA action on basal and stimulated LH expression in vitro. Our data suggest a differential functionalisation of the duplicated receptor genes and demonstrate that mainly D2B-R is involved in the dopaminergic inhibitory control of eel gonadotroph function.

Post-endocytotic Deubiquitination and Degradation of the Metabotropic γ-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor by the Ubiquitin-specific Protease 14

Mechanisms controlling the metabotropic γ-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABAB) cell surface stability are still poorly understood. In contrast with many other G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), it is not subject to agonist-promoted internalization, but is constitutively internalized and rapidly down-regulated. In search of novel interacting proteins regulating receptor fate, we report that the ubiquitin-specific protease 14 (USP14) interacts with the GABAB(1b)subunit's second intracellular loop. Probing the receptor for ubiquitination using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET), we detected a constitutive and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced ubiquitination of the receptor at the cell surface. PMA also increased internalization and accelerated receptor degradation. Overexpression of USP14 decreased ubiquitination while treatment with a small molecule inhibitor of the deubiquitinase (IU1) increased receptor ubiquitination. Treatment with the internalization inhibitor Dynasore blunted both USP14 and IU1 effects on the receptor ubiquitination state, suggesting a post-endocytic site of action. Overexpression of USP14 also led to an accelerated degradation of GABABin a catalytically independent fashion. We thus propose a model whereby cell surface ubiquitination precedes endocytosis, after which USP14 acts as an ubiquitin-binding protein that targets the ubiquitinated receptor to lysosomal degradation and promotes its deubiquitination.

Signaling switch of the urotensin II vasosactive peptide GPCR: prototypic chemotaxic mechanism in glioma

Multiform glioblastomas (GBM) are the most frequent and aggressive primary brain tumors in adults. The poor prognosis is due to neo-angiogenesis and cellular invasion, processes that require complex chemotaxic mechanisms involving motility, migration and adhesion. Understanding these different cellular events implies identifying receptors and transduction pathways that lead to and promote either migration or adhesion. Here we establish that glioma express the vasoactive peptide urotensin II (UII) and its receptor UT and that UT-mediated signaling cascades are involved in glioma cell migration and adhesion. Components of the urotensinergic systems, UII and UT, are widely expressed in patient-derived GBM tissue sections, glioma cell lines and fresh biopsy explants. Interestingly, gradient concentrations of UII produced chemoattracting migratory/motility effects in glioma as well as HEK293 cells expressing human UT. These effects mainly involved the G13/Rho/rho kinase pathway while partially requiring Gi/o/PI3K components. In contrast, we observed that homogeneous concentrations of UII drastically blocked cell motility and stimulated cell-matrix adhesions through a UT/Gi/o signaling cascade, partially involving phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase. Finally, we provide evidence that, in glioma cells, homogeneous concentration of UII allowed translocation of Gα13 to the UT receptor at the plasma membrane and increased actin stress fibers, lamellipodia formation and vinculin-stained focal adhesions. UII also provoked a re-localization of UT precoupled to Gαi in filipodia and initiated integrin-stained focal points. Altogether, these findings suggest that UT behaves as a chemotaxic receptor, relaying a signaling switch between directional migration and cell adhesion under gradient or homogeneous concentrations, thereby redefining sequential mechanisms affecting tumor cells during glioma invasion. Taken together, our results allow us to propose a model in order to improve the design of compounds that demonstrate signaling bias for therapies that target specifically the Gi/o signaling pathway.

A Broad G Protein-Coupled Receptor Internalization Assay that Combines SNAP-Tag Labeling, Diffusion-Enhanced Resonance Energy Transfer, and a Highly Emissive Terbium Cryptate

Although G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) internalization has long been considered as a major aspect of the desensitization process that tunes ligand responsiveness, internalization is also involved in receptor resensitization and signaling, as well as the ligand scavenging function of some atypical receptors. Internalization thus contributes to the diversity of GPCR-dependent signaling, and its dynamics and quantification in living cells has generated considerable interest. We developed a robust and sensitive assay to follow and quantify ligand-induced and constitutive-induced GPCR internalization but also receptor recycling in living cells. This assay is based on diffusion-enhanced resonance energy transfer (DERET) between cell surface GPCRs labeled with a luminescent terbium cryptate donor and a fluorescein acceptor present in the culture medium. GPCR internalization results in a quantifiable reduction of energy transfer. This method yields a high signal-to-noise ratio due to time-resolved measurements. For various GPCRs belonging to different classes, we demonstrated that constitutive and ligand-induced internalization could be monitored as a function of time and ligand concentration, thus allowing accurate quantitative determination of kinetics of receptor internalization but also half-maximal effective or inhibitory concentrations of compounds. In addition to its selectivity and sensitivity, we provided evidence that DERET-based internalization assay is particularly suitable for characterizing biased ligands. Furthermore, the determination of a Z'-factor value of 0.45 indicates the quality and suitability of DERET-based internalization assay for high-throughput screening (HTS) of compounds that may modulate GPCRs internalization.

Biased signaling regulates the pleiotropic effects of the urotensin II receptor to modulate its cellular behaviors

Biased agonism by G-protein-coupled receptor ligands has opened up strategies for targeted physiological or therapeutic actions. We hypothesized that urotensin II (UII)-derived peptides displayed unexpected physiological effects because of such biased signaling on the UII human urotensin (hUT) receptor. We determined the coupling to G proteins and β-arrestins of the UII-activated hUT receptor expressed in HEK293 using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) biosensors, as well as the production of IP1-3 and cAMP using homogenous time-resolved Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) (HTRF)-based assays. The activated receptor coupled to Gi1, GoA, Gq, and G13, excluding Gs, and recruited β-arrestins 1 and 2. Integration of these pathways led to a 2-phase kinetic phosphorylation of ERK1/2 kinases. The tested peptides induced three different profiles: UII, urotensin-related peptide (URP), and UII4-11 displayed the full profile; [Orn(8)]UII and [Orn(5)]URP activated G proteins, although with pEC50s 5-10× higher, and did not or barely recruited β-arrestin; urantide also failed to recruit β-arrestin but displayed a reversed rank order for Gi and Gq vs. Go pEC50s (-8.79±0.20, -8.43±0.21, and -7.86±0.36, respectively, for urantide, -7.87±0.10, -7.23±0.27, and -8.55±0.19, respectively, for [Orn(5)]URP) and was a partial agonist of all G-protein pathways. Interestingly, the peptides differently modulated cell survival but similarly induced cell migration and adhesion. Thus, we demonstrate biased signaling between β-arrestin and G proteins, and between G-protein subtypes, which dictates the receptor's cellular responses.

The chemokine CXC4 and CC2 receptors form homo- and heterooligomers that can engage their signaling G-protein effectors and βarrestin

G-protein-coupled receptors have been shown to assemble at least as dimers early in the biosynthetic path, but some evidence suggests that they can also form larger oligomeric complexes. Using the human chemokine receptors CXCR4 and CCR2 as models, we directly probed the existence of higher order homo- and heterooligomers in human embryonic kidney cells. Combining bimolecular fluorescence and luminescence complementation (BiFC, BiLC) with bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) assays, we show that CXCR4 and CCR2 can assemble as homo- and heterooligomers, forming at least tetramers. Selective activation of CCR2 with the human monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1) resulted in trans-conformational rearrangement of the CXCR4 dimer with an EC50 of 19.9 nM, compatible with a CCR2 action. Moreover, MCP-1 promoted the engagement of Gαi1, Gα13, Gαz, and βarrestin2 to the heterooligomer, resulting in calcium signaling that was synergistically potentiated on coactivation of CCR2 and CXCR4, demonstrating that complexes larger than dimers reach the cell surface as functional units. A mutation of CXCR4 (N119K), which prevents Gi activation, also affects the CCR2-promoted engagement of Gαi1 and βarrestin2 by the heterooligomer, supporting the occurrence of transprotomer regulation. Together, the results demonstrate that homo- and heteromultimeric CXCR4 and CCR2 can form functional signaling complexes that have unique properties.

Quantitative phosphoproteomics unravels biased phosphorylation of serotonin 2A receptor at Ser280 by hallucinogenic versus nonhallucinogenic agonists

The serotonin 5-HT_2A receptor is a primary target of psychedelic hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamine, mescaline, and psilocybin, which reproduce some of the core symptoms of schizophrenia. An incompletely resolved paradox is that only some 5-HT_2A receptor agonists exhibit hallucinogenic activity, whereas structurally related agonists with comparable affinity and activity lack such a psychoactive activity. Using a strategy combining stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture with enrichment in phosphorylated peptides by means of hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography followed by immobilized metal affinity chromatography, we compared the phosphoproteome in HEK-293 cells transiently expressing the 5-HT_2A receptor and exposed to either vehicle or the synthetic hallucinogen 1-[2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl]-2-aminopropane (DOI) or the nonhallucinogenic 5-HT_2A agonist lisuride. Among the 5995 identified phosphorylated peptides, 16 sites were differentially phosphorylated upon exposure of cells to DOI versus lisuride. These include a serine (Ser²⁸⁰) located in the third intracellular loop of the 5-HT_2A receptor, a region important for its desensitization. The specific phosphorylation of Ser²⁸⁰ by hallucinogens was further validated by quantitative mass spectrometry analysis of immunopurified receptor digests and by Western blotting using a phosphosite specific antibody. The administration of DOI, but not of lisuride, to mice, enhanced the phosphorylation of 5-HT_2A receptors at Ser²⁸⁰ in the prefrontal cortex. Moreover, hallucinogens induced a less pronounced desensitization of receptor-operated signaling in HEK-293 cells and neurons than did nonhallucinogenic agonists. The mutation of Ser²⁸⁰ to aspartic acid (to mimic phosphorylation) reduced receptor desensitization by nonhallucinogenic agonists, whereas its mutation to alanine increased the ability of hallucinogens to desensitize the receptor. This study reveals a biased phosphorylation of the 5-HT_2A receptor in response to hallucinogenic versus nonhallucinogenic agonists, which underlies their distinct capacity to desensitize the receptor.

Further insights into GPR179: expression, localization, and associated pathogenic mechanisms leading to complete congenital stationary night blindness

PURPOSE

Mutations in GPR179, which encodes the G protein-coupled receptor 179, lead to autosomal recessive complete (c) congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB), which is characterized by an ON-bipolar retinal cell dysfunction. This study further defined the exact site of Gpr179 expression and its protein localization in human retina and elucidated the pathogenic mechanism of the reported missense and splice site mutations.

METHODS

RNA in situ hybridization was performed with mouse retinal sections. A commercially available antibody was validated with GPR179-overexpressing COS-1 cells and applied to human retinal sections. Live-cell extracellular staining along with subsequent intracellular immunolocalization and ELISA studies were performed using mammalian cells overexpressing wild-type or missense mutated GPR179. Wild-type and splice site-mutated mini-gene constructs were transiently transfected, and RNA was extracted. RT-PCR-amplified products were cloned, and Sanger sequenced.

RESULTS

Mouse Gpr179 transcript was expressed in the upper part of the inner nuclear layer, and the respective human protein localized at the dendritic tips of bipolar cells in human retina. The missense mutations p.Tyr220Cys, p.Gly455Asp, and p.His603Tyr led to severely reduced cell surface localization, whereas p.Asp126His did not. The mutated splice donor site altered GPR179 splicing.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the site of expression and protein localization of human and mouse GPR179 is similar to that of other proteins implicated in cCSNB. For most of the mutations identified so far, loss of the GPR179 protein function seems to be the underlying pathogenic mechanism leading to this form of cCSNB.

The oligomeric state sets GABA(B) receptor signalling efficacy

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have key roles in cell-cell communication. Recent data suggest that these receptors can form large complexes, a possibility expected to expand the complexity of this regulatory system. Among the brain GPCRs, the heterodimeric GABA(B) receptor is one of the most abundant, being distributed in most brain regions, on either pre- or post-synaptic elements. Here, using specific antibodies labelled with time-resolved FRET compatible fluorophores, we provide evidence that the heterodimeric GABA(B) receptor can form higher-ordered oligomers in the brain, as suggested by the close proximity of the GABA(B1) subunits. Destabilizing the oligomers using a competitor or a GABA(B1) mutant revealed different G protein coupling efficiencies depending on the oligomeric state of the receptor. By examining, in heterologous system, the G protein coupling properties of such GABA(B) receptor oligomers composed of a wild-type and a non-functional mutant heterodimer, we provide evidence for a negative functional cooperativity between the GABA(B) heterodimers.

Dimers and beyond: The functional puzzles of class C GPCRs

Our understanding of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) activation has evolved during the last ten years, both at a molecular level thanks to the resolution of several crystal structures, and at a cellular level with the characterization of complexes surrounding the receptor. Class C GPCRs, including receptors for glutamate, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), taste compounds, amino acids and Ca(2+), have several structural features that make them unique in the GPCR family. First, they possess a large and structurally-defined extracellular domain, which is distal from the transmembrane core and bears the agonist binding site. Second, they form obligatory dimers providing a unique mode of activation compared to GPCRs of other classes. In this article, we aim to provide an overview of the molecular mechanisms of class C GPCR activation as dimeric entities. Furthermore, we discuss the possibility of modulating receptor function through the use of ligands or by association, direct or indirect, with other receptors (GPCRs or not) with the aim to better understand receptor function. Finally, we present the therapeutic scope for the class C GPCRs that highlights the need to fully characterize the functioning of these receptors in their native environment to develop better therapeutic molecules.

Cell-surface protein-protein interaction analysis with time-resolved FRET and snap-tag technologies: application to G protein-coupled receptor oligomerization

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are key players in cell-cell communication, the dysregulation of which has often deleterious effects leading to pathologies such as psychiatric and neurological diseases. Consequently, GPCRs represent excellent drug targets, and as such are the object of intense research in drug discovery for therapeutic application. Recently, the GPCR field has been revolutionized by the demonstration that GPCRs are part of large protein complexes that control their pharmacology, activity, and signaling. Moreover, in these complexes, one GPCR can either associate with itself, forming homodimers or homooligomers, or with other receptor types, forming heterodimeric or heterooligomeric receptor entities that display new receptor features. These features include alterations in ligand cooperativity and selectivity, the activation of novel signaling pathways, and novel processes of desensitization. Thus, it has become necessary to identify GPCR-associated protein complexes of interest at the cell surface, and to determine the state of oligomerization of these receptors and their interactions with their partner proteins. This is essential to understand the function of GPCRs in their native environment, as well as ways to either modulate or control receptor activity with appropriate pharmacological tools, and to develop new therapeutic strategies. This requires the development of technologies to precisely address protein-protein interactions between oligomers at the cell surface. In collaboration with Cisbio Bioassay, we have developed such a technology, which combines TR-FRET detection with a new labeling method called SnapTag. This technology has allowed us to address the oligomeric state of many GPCRs.

The complexity of their activation mechanism opens new possibilities for the modulation of mGlu and GABAB class C G protein-coupled receptors

In the human genome, 22 genes are coding for the class C G protein-coupled receptors that are receptors for the two main neurotransmitters glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid, for Ca(2+) and for sweet and amino acid taste compounds. In addition to the GPCR heptahelical transmembrane domain responsible for G-protein activation, class C receptors possess a large extracellular domain that is responsible for ligand recognition. Recent studies had revealed that class C receptors are homo- or heterodimers with unique mechanism of activation. In the present review, we present an up-to-date view of the structures and activation mechanism of these receptors in particular the metabotropic glutamate and GABA(B) receptors. We show how the complexity of functioning of these transmembrane proteins can be used for the development of therapeutics to modulate their activity. We emphasize on the new approaches and drugs that could potentially become important in the future pharmacology of these receptors.

Allosteric modulators of GABA(B) receptors: mechanism of action and therapeutic perspective

γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) plays important roles in the central nervous system, acting as a neurotransmitter on both ionotropic ligand-gated Cl^--channels, and metabotropic G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). These two types of receptors called GABA_A (and C) and GABA_B are the targets of major therapeutic drugs such as the anxiolytic benzodiazepines, and antispastic drug baclofen (lioresal®), respectively. Although the multiplicity of GABA_A receptors offer a number of possibilities to discover new and more selective drugs, the molecular characterization of the GABA_B receptor revealed a unique, though complex, heterodimeric GPCR. High throughput screening strategies carried out in pharmaceutical industries, helped identifying new compounds positively modulating the activity of the GABA_B receptor. These molecules, almost devoid of apparent activity when applied alone, greatly enhance both the potency and efficacy of GABA_B agonists. As such, in contrast to baclofen that constantly activates the receptor everywhere in the brain, these positive allosteric modulators induce a large increase in GABA_B-mediated responses only WHERE and WHEN physiologically needed. Such compounds are then well adapted to help GABA to activate its GABA_B receptors, like benzodiazepines favor GABA_A receptor activation. In this review, the way of action of these molecules will be presented in light of our actual knowledge of the activation mechanism of the GABA_B receptor. We will then show that, as expected, these molecules have more pronounced in vivo responses and less side effects than pure agonists, offering new potential therapeutic applications for this new class of GABA_B ligands.

G-protein-coupled receptor oligomers: two or more for what? Lessons from mGlu and GABAB receptors

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are key players in the precise tuning of intercellullar communication. In the brain, both major neurotransmitters, glutamate and GABA, act on specific GPCRs [the metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) and GABA(B) receptors] to modulate synaptic transmission. These receptors are encoded by the largest gene family, and have been found to associate into both homo- and hetero-oligomers, which increases the complexity of this cell communication system. Here we show that dimerization is required for mGlu and GABA(B) receptors to function, since the activation process requires a relative movement between the subunits to occur. We will also show that, in contrast to the mGlu receptors, which form strict dimers, the GABA(B) receptors assemble into larger complexes, both in transfected cells and in the brain, resulting in a decreased G-protein coupling efficacy. We propose that GABA(B) receptor oligomerization offers a way to increase the possibility of modulating receptor signalling and activity, allowing the same receptor protein to have specific properties in neurons at different locations.

Crosstalk between GABAB and mGlu1a receptors reveals new insight into GPCR signal integration

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have critical functions in intercellular communication. Although a wide range of different receptors have been identified in the same cells, the mechanism by which signals are integrated remains elusive. The ability of GPCRs to form dimers or larger hetero-oligomers is thought to generate such signal integration. We examined the molecular mechanisms responsible for the GABA(B) receptor-mediated potentiation of the mGlu receptor signalling reported in Purkinje neurons. We showed that this effect does not require a physical interaction between both receptors. Instead, it is the result of a more general mechanism in which the betagamma subunits produced by the Gi-coupled GABA(B) receptor enhance the mGlu-mediated Gq response. Most importantly, this mechanism could be generally applied to other pairs of Gi- and Gq-coupled receptors and the signal integration varied depending on the time delay between activation of each receptor. Such a mechanism helps explain specific properties of cells expressing two different Gi- and Gq-coupled receptors activated by a single transmitter, or properties of GPCRs naturally coupled to both types of the G protein.

Cell-surface protein-protein interaction analysis with time-resolved FRET and snap-tag technologies: application to GPCR oligomerization

Cell-surface proteins are important in cell-cell communication. They assemble into heterocomplexes that include different receptors and effectors. Elucidation and manipulation of such protein complexes offers new therapeutic possibilities. We describe a methodology combining time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) with snap-tag technology to quantitatively analyze protein-protein interactions at the surface of living cells, in a high throughput-compatible format. Using this approach, we examined whether G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are monomers or assemble into dimers or larger oligomers--a matter of intense debate. We obtained evidence for the oligomeric state of both class A and class C GPCRs. We also observed different quaternary structure of GPCRs for the neurotransmitters glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): whereas metabotropic glutamate receptors assembled into strict dimers, the GABA(B) receptors spontaneously formed dimers of heterodimers, offering a way to modulate G-protein coupling efficacy. This approach will be useful in systematic analysis of cell-surface protein interaction in living cells.

Common structural requirements for heptahelical domain function in class A and class C G protein-coupled receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are key players in cell communication. Several classes of such receptors have been identified. Although all GPCRs possess a heptahelical domain directly activating G proteins, important structural and sequence differences within receptors from different classes suggested distinct activation mechanisms. Here we show that highly conserved charged residues likely involved in an interaction network between transmembrane domains (TM) 3 and 6 at the cytoplasmic side of class C GPCRs are critical for activation of the gamma-aminobutyric acid type B receptor. Indeed, the loss of function resulting from the mutation of the conserved lysine residue into aspartate or glutamate in the TM3 of gamma-aminobutyric acid type B(2) can be partly rescued by mutating the conserved acidic residue of TM6 into either lysine or arginine. In addition, mutation of the conserved lysine into an acidic residue leads to a nonfunctional receptor that displays a high agonist affinity. This is reminiscent of a similar ionic network that constitutes a lock stabilizing the inactive state of many class A rhodopsin-like GPCRs. These data reveal that despite their original structure, class C GPCRs share with class A receptors at least some common structural feature controlling G protein activation.

Real-Time Analysis of Agonist-Induced Activation of Protease-Activated Receptor 1/Gαi1Protein Complex Measured by Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer in Living Cells

G protein-coupled receptors transmit extracellular signals into the cells by activating heterotrimeric G proteins, a process that is often followed by receptor desensitization. Monitoring such a process in real time and in living cells will help better understand how G protein activation occurs. Energy transfer-based approaches [fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET)] were recently shown to be powerful methods to monitor the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)-G protein association in living cells. Here, we used a BRET technique to monitor the coupling between the protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) and Galpha(i1) protein. A specific constitutive BRET signal can be measured between nonactivated PAR1 and the Galpha(i1) protein expressed at a physiological level. This signal is insensitive to pertussis toxin (PTX) and probably reflects the preassembly of these two proteins. The BRET signal rapidly increases upon receptor activation in a PTX-sensitive manner. The BRET signal then returns to the basal level after few minutes. The desensitization of the BRET signal is concomitant with beta-arrestin-1 recruitment to the receptor, consistent with the known rapid desensitization of PARs. The agonist-induced BRET increase was dependent on the insertion site of fluorophores in proteins. Taken together, our results show that BRET between GPCRs and Galpha proteins can be used to monitor the receptor activation in real time and in living cells. Our data also revealed that PAR1 can be part of a preassembled complex with Galpha(i1) protein, resulting either from a direct interaction between these partners or from their colocalization in specific microdomains, and that receptor activation probably results in rearrangements within such complexes.

Amino-pyrrolidine tricarboxylic acids give new insight into group III metabotropic glutamate receptor activation mechanism

Like most class C G-protein-coupled receptors, metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors possess a large extracellular domain where orthosteric ligands bind. Crystal structures revealed that this domain, called Venus FlyTrap (VFT), adopts a closed or open conformation upon agonist or antagonist binding, respectively. We have described amino-pyrrolidine tricarboxylic acids (APTCs), including (2S,4S)-4-amino-1-[(E)-3-carboxyacryloyl]pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (FP0429), as new selective group III mGlu agonists. Whereas FP0429 is an almost full mGlu4 agonist, it is a weak and partial agonist of the closely related mGlu8 subtype. To get more insight into the activation mechanism of mGlu receptors, we aimed to elucidate why FP0429 behaves differently at these two highly homologous receptors by focusing on two residues within the binding site that differ between mGlu4 and mGlu8. Site-directed mutagenesis of Ser157 and Gly158 of mGlu4 into their mGlu8 homologs (Ala) turned FP0429 into a weak partial agonist. Conversely, introduction of Ser and Gly residues into mGlu8 increased FP0429 efficacy. Docking of FP0429 in mGlu4 VFT 3D model helped us characterize the role of each residue. Indeed, mGlu4 Ser157 seems to have an important role in FP0429 binding, whereas Gly158 may allow a deeper positioning of this agonist in the cavity of lobe I, thereby ensuring optimal interactions with lobe II residues in the fully closed state of the VFT. In contrast, the presence of a methyl group in mGlu8 (Ala instead of Gly) weakens the interactions with the lobe II residues. This probably results in a less stable or a partially closed form of the mGlu8 VFT, leading to partial receptor activation.

Among the twenty classical L-amino acids, only glutamate directly activates metabotropic glutamate receptors

Under pathophysiological conditions, cellular amino acids can be profusely released from cells into the cerebral interstitial space. Because several class-C G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) display a broad natural ligand spectrum, being sensitive to more than one endogenous ligand, we wondered whether the related metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors could be modulated by various types of L-amino acids, allowing them to sense large increase in extracellular amino acid concentration. Here, the agonist, antagonist and allosteric effects of the twenty classical L-amino acids were evaluated on the eight mGlu receptor subtypes. We show that, in addition to glutamate (Glu), cysteine, aspartate and asparagine also lead to the activation of mGlu3, 4 and 5. Interestingly, our data demonstrate that the effect of these three amino acids did not result from a direct activation of the receptors, but from an indirect action involving Glu-transporters/exchangers. These data first demonstrate that mGlu receptors, unlike other class-C GPCRs, display an extremely high selectivity towards one ligand. Moreover, our results also show that Glu transport systems allow mGlu receptors to sense large increase in the extracellular concentration of some amino acids. Such a system will certainly lead to a large increase in some mGlu receptor activity under pathological conditions, such as seizure, ischemia or other brain injuries.

Allosteric functioning of dimeric class C G-protein-coupled receptors

Whereas most membrane receptors are oligomeric entities, G-protein-coupled receptors have long been thought to function as monomers. Within the last 15 years, accumulating data have indicated that G-protein-coupled receptors can form dimers or even higher ordered oligomers, but the general functional significance of this phenomena is not yet clear. Among the large G-protein-coupled receptor family, class C receptors represent a well-recognized example of constitutive dimers, both subunits being linked, in most cases, by a disulfide bridge. In this review article, we show that class C G-protein-coupled receptors are multidomain proteins and highlight the importance of their dimerization for activation. We illustrate several consequences of this in terms of specific functional properties and drug development.

Asymmetric functioning of dimeric metabotropic glutamate receptors disclosed by positive allosteric modulators

The recent discovery of positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) for G-protein-coupled receptors open new possibilities to control a number of physiological and pathological processes. Understanding the mechanism of action of such compounds will provide new information on the activation process of these important receptors. Within the last 10 years, a number of studies indicate that G-protein-coupled receptors can form dimers, but the functional significance of this phenomenon remains elusive. Here we used the metabotropic glutamate receptors as a model, because these receptors, for which PAMs have been identified, are constitutive dimers. We used the quality control system of the GABA(B) receptor to generate metabotropic glutamate receptor dimers in which a single subunit binds a PAM. We show that one PAM/dimer is sufficient to enhance receptor activity. Such a potentiation can still be observed if the subunit unable to bind the PAM is also made unable to activate G-proteins. However, the PAM acts as a non-competitive antagonist when it binds in the subunit that cannot activate G-proteins. These data are consistent with a single heptahelical domain reaching the active state per dimer during receptor activation.

Activation mechanism of the heterodimeric GABA(B) receptor

The GABA(B) receptor was the first heteromeric G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) identified. Indeed, both GABA(B1) and GABA(B2) subunits appear necessary to get a functional GABA(B) receptor. Soon after the cloning of both subunits, it was demonstrated that GABA(B2) was required for GABA(B1) to reach the cell surface. However, even a mutated GABA(B1) able to reach the cell surface is not functional alone despite its ability to bind GABA(B) ligands. This clearly demonstrated that GABA(B2) is not only required for the correct trafficking of GABA(B1) but also for the correct functioning of the receptor. In the present review article, we will summarize our actual knowledge of the specific role of each subunit in ligand recognition, intramolecular transduction, G-protein activation and allosteric modulation. We will show that the GABA(B) receptor is an heterodimer (not an hetero-oligomer), that agonists bind in GABA(B1), whereas GABA(B2) controls agonist affinity and is responsible for G-protein coupling. Finally, we will show that the recently identified positive allosteric modulator CGP7930 acts as a direct activator of the heptahelical domain of GABA(B2), being therefore the first GABA(B2) ligand identified so far.

Evidence for a single heptahelical domain being turned on upon activation of a dimeric GPCR

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been shown to form dimers, but the relevance of this phenomenon in G-protein activation is not known. Among the large GPCR family, metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are constitutive dimers. Here we examined whether both heptahelical domains (HDs) are turned on upon full receptor activation. To that aim, we measured G-protein coupling efficacy of dimeric mGlu receptors in which one subunit bears specific mutations. We show that a mutation in the third intracellular loop (i3 loop) known to prevent G-protein activation in a single subunit decreases coupling efficacy. However, when a single HD is blocked in its inactive state using an inverse agonist, 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine (MPEP), no decrease in receptor activity is observed. Interestingly, in a receptor dimer in which the subunit that binds MPEP is mutated in its i3 loop, MPEP enhances agonist-induced activity, reflecting a 'better' activation of the adjacent HD. These data are consistent with a model in which a single HD is turned on upon activation of such homodimeric receptors and raise important issues in deciphering the functional role of GPCR dimer formation for G-protein activation.

The activation mechanism of class-C G-protein coupled receptors

Class-C G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent a distant group among the large family of GPCRs. This class includes the receptors for the main neurotransmitters, glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and the receptors for Ca(2+), some taste and pheromone molecules, as well as some orphan receptors. Like any other GPCRs, class-C receptors possess a heptahelical domain (HD) involved in heterotrimeric G-protein activation, but most of them also have a large extracellular domain (ECD) responsible for agonist recognition and binding. In addition, it is now well accepted that these receptors are dimers, either homo or heterodimers. This complex architecture raises a number of important questions. Here we will discuss our view of how agonist binding within the large ECD triggers the necessary change of conformation, or stabilize a specific conformation, of the heptahelical domain leading to G-protein activation. How ligands acting within the heptahelical domain can change the properties of these complex macromolecules.

Molecular mechanisms of GABAB receptor activation: new insights from the mechanism of action of CGP7930, a positive allosteric modulator

The GABAB (γ-aminobutyric acid-B) receptor is composed of two subunits, GABAB1 and GABAB2. Both subunits share structural homology with other class-III G-protein-coupled receptors. They contain two main domains, a heptahelical domain typical of all G-protein-coupled receptors and a large ECD (extracellular domain). It has not been demonstrated whether the association of these two subunits is always required for function. However, GABAB2 plays a major role in coupling with G-proteins, and GABAB1 has been shown to bind GABA. To date, only ligands interacting with GABAB1-ECD have been identified. In the present study, we explored the mechanism of action of CGP7930, a compound described as a positive allosteric regulator of the GABAB receptor. We have shown that it can weakly activate the wild-type GABAB receptor, but also the GABAB2 expressed alone, thus being the first described agonist of GABAB2. CGP7930 retains its weak agonist activity on a GABAB2 subunit deleted of its ECD. Thus the heptahelical domain of GABAB2 behaves similar to a rhodopsin-like receptor. These results open new strategies for studying the mechanism of activation of GABAB receptor and examine any possible role of GABAB2.

The heptahelical domain of GABA(B2) is activated directly by CGP7930, a positive allosteric modulator of the GABA(B) receptor

The gamma-aminobutyric acid, type B (GABA(B)) receptor is well recognized as being composed of two subunits, GABA(B1) and GABA(B2). Both subunits share structural homology with other class-III G-protein-coupled receptors. They are composed of two main domains: a heptahelical domain (HD) typical of all G-protein-coupled receptors and a large extracellular domain (ECD). Although GABA(B1) binds GABA, GABA(B2) is required for GABA(B1) to reach the cell surface. However, it is still not demonstrated whether the association of these two subunits is always required for function in the brain. Indeed, GABA(B2) plays a major role in the coupling of the heteromer to G-proteins, such that it is possible that GABA(B2) can transmit a signal in the absence of GABA(B1). Today only ligands interacting with GABA(B1) ECD have been identified. Thus, the compounds acting exclusively on the GABA(B2) subunit will be helpful in analyzing the specific role of this subunit in the brain. Here, we explored the mechanism of action of CGP7930, a compound described as a positive allosteric regulator of the GABA(B) receptor. We showed that it activates the wild type GABA(B) receptor but with a low efficacy. The GABA(B2) HD is necessary for this effect, although one cannot exclude that CGP7930 could also bind to GABA(B1). Of interest, CGP7930 could activate GABA(B2) expressed alone and is the first described agonist of GABA(B2). Finally, we show that CGP7930 retains its agonist activity on a GABA(B2) subunit deleted of its ECD. This demonstrates that the HD of GABA(B2) behaves similar to a rhodopsin-like receptor, because it can reach the cell surface alone, can couple to G-protein, and be activated by agonists. These data open new strategies for studying the mechanism of activation of GABA(B) receptor and examine any possible role of homomeric GABA(B2) receptors.

Closed state of both binding domains of homodimeric mGlu receptors is required for full activity

Membrane receptors, key components in signal transduction, often function as dimers. These include some G protein-coupled receptors such as metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors that have large extracellular domains (ECDs) where agonists bind. How agonist binding in dimeric ECDs activates the effector domains remains largely unknown. The structure of the dimeric ECDs of mGlu(1) solved in the presence of agonist revealed two specific conformations in which either one or both protomers are in an agonist-stabilized closed form. Here we examined whether both conformations correspond to an active form of the full-length receptor. Using a system that allows the formation of dimers made of a wild-type and a mutant subunit, we show that the closure of one ECD per dimer is sufficient to activate the receptor, but the closure of both ECDs is required for full activity.

Heptahelical domain of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 behaves like rhodopsin-like receptors

Although agonists bind directly in the heptahelical domain (HD) of most class-I rhodopsin-like G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), class-III agonists bind in the extracellular domain of their receptors. Indeed, the latter possess a large extracellular domain composed of a cysteine-rich domain and a Venus flytrap module. Both the low sequence homology and the structural organization of class-III GPCRs raised the question of whether or not the HD of these receptors functions the same way as rhodopsin-like GPCRs. Here, we show that the HD of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu(5)) displays the same agonist-independent constitutive activity as the wild-type receptor. Moreover, we show that the noncompetitive antagonist MPEP [2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine hydrochloride] and the positive allosteric modulator DFB (3,3'-difluorobenzaldazine) act as inverse agonist and full agonist, respectively, on the mGlu(5) HD in the absence of the extracellular domain. This finding illustrates that, like rhodopsin-like receptors, the HD of mGluRs can constitutively couple to G proteins and be negatively and positively regulated by ligands. These data show that the HD of mGluRs behave like any other class-I GPCRs in terms of G protein coupling and regulation by various types of ligands.

The second intracellular loop of metabotropic glutamate receptors recognizes C termini of G-protein alpha-subunits

Heptahelical receptor coupling selectivity to G-proteins is controlled by a large contact area that involves several portions of the receptor and each subunit of the G-protein. In the G-protein alpha subunit, the C-terminal 5 residues, the N terminus, and the alpha N-beta 1 and alpha 4-alpha 5 loops play important roles. On the receptor side, both the second and third (i2 and i3) intracellular loops as well as the C-terminal tail probably contact these different regions of the G-protein. It is now accepted that the C terminus of the alpha subunit binds in a cavity formed by the i2 and i3 loops. Among the various G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), class III receptors that include metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors greatly differ from the rhodopsin-like GPCRs, but the contact zone between these receptors and the G-protein is less understood. The C terminus of the alpha subunit has been shown to play a pivotal role in the selective recognition of class III GPCRs. Indeed, the mGlu2 and mGlu4 and -8 receptors can discriminate between alpha subunits that differ at the level of their C-terminal end only (such as Gqo and Gqz). Here, we examine the role of the i2 loop of mGluRs in the selective recognition of this region of the alpha subunit. To that aim, we analyzed the coupling properties of mGlu2 and mGlu4 or -8 receptors and chimeras containing the i2 loop of the converse receptor to G-protein alpha subunits that only differ by their C termini (Gqo,Gqz, and their point mutants). Our data demonstrate that the central portion of the i2 loop is responsible for the selective recognition of the C-terminal end of the alpha subunit, especially the residue on position -4. These data are consistent with the proposal that the C-terminal end of the G-protein alpha subunit interacts with residues in a cavity formed by the i2 and i3 loops in class III GPCRs, as reported for class I GPCRs.

Evolution, structure, and activation mechanism of family 3/C G-protein-coupled receptors

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent one of the largest gene families in the animal genome. These receptors can be classified into several groups based on the sequence similarity of their common heptahelical domain. The family 3 (or C) GPCRs are receptors for the main neurotransmitters glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid, for Ca(2+), for sweet and amino acid taste compounds, and for some pheromone molecules, as well as for odorants in fish. Although none of these family 3 receptors have been found in plants, members have been identified in ancient organisms, such as slime molds (Dictyostelium) and sponges. Like any other GPCRs, family 3 receptors possess a transmembrane heptahelical domain responsible for G-protein activation. However, most of these identified receptors also possess a large extracellular domain that is responsible for ligand recognition, is structurally similar to bacterial periplasmic proteins involved in the transport of small molecules, and is called a Venus Flytrap module. The recent resolution of the structure of this binding domain in one of these receptors, the metabotropic glutamate 1 receptor, together with the recent demonstration that these receptors are dimers, revealed a unique mechanism of activation for these GPCRs. Such data open new possibilities in the development of drugs aimed at modulating these receptors, and raise a number of interesting questions on the activation mechanism of the other GPCRs.

A model for the functioning of family 3 GPCRs

Family 3 G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the metabotropic glutamate (mglu) receptors, GABA(B) receptors, Ca(2+)-sensing receptors and some taste and putative pheromone receptors. All are composed of two domains, an extracellular ligand-binding domain and a transmembrane heptahelical domain that activates G proteins. Here we propose a model for the function of family 3 GPCRs that takes into account their structure. This model fits with specific pharmacological features of some family 3 GPCRs, such as modulation by positive and negative allosteric regulators. The model also reveals differences between GABA(B) receptors and Group I mglu receptors: in the former there is "tight" functional coupling between the two domains of the receptor whereas the "loose" coupling in the latter gives these receptors specific features not shared by many other GPCRs.

A single subunit (GB2) is required for G-protein activation by the heterodimeric GABA(B) receptor

Although G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been shown to assemble into functional homo or heteromers, the role of each protomer in G-protein activation is not known. Among the GPCRs, the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type B receptor (GABA(B)R) is the only one known so far that needs two subunits, GB1 and GB2, to function. The GB1 subunit contains the GABA binding site but is unable to activate G-proteins alone. In contrast the GB2 subunit, which does not bind GABA, has an heptahelical domain able to activate G-proteins when assembled into homodimers (Galvez, T., Duthey, B., Kniazeff, J., Blahos, J., Rovelli, G., Bettler, B., Prézeau, L., and Pin, J.-P. (2001) EMBO J. 20, 2152-2159). In the present study, we have examined the role of each subunit within the GB1-GB2 heteromer, in G-protein coupling. To that end, point mutations in the highly conserved third intracellular loop known to prevent G-protein activation of the related Ca-sensing or metabotropic glutamate receptors were introduced into GB1 and GB2. One mutation, L686P introduced in GB2 prevents the formation of a functional receptor, even though the heteromer reaches the cell surface, and even though the mutated subunit still associates with GB1 and increases GABA affinity on GB1. This was observed either in HEK293 cells where the activation of the G-protein was assessed by measurement of inositol phosphate accumulation, or in cultured neurons where the inhibition of the Ca(2+) channel current was measured. In contrast, the same mutation when introduced into GB1 does not modify the G-protein coupling properties of the heteromeric GABA(B) receptor either in HEK293 cells or in neurons. Accordingly, whereas in all GPCRs the same protein is responsible for both agonist binding and G-protein activation, these two functions are assumed by two distinct subunits in the GABA(B) heteromer: one subunit, GB1, binds the agonists whereas the other, GB2, activates the G-protein. This illustrates the importance of a single subunit for G-protein activation within a dimeric receptor.

Agonist-independent activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors by the intracellular protein Homer

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transduce signals from extracellular transmitters to the inside of the cell by activating G proteins. Mutation and overexpression of these receptors have revealed that they can reach their active state even in the absence of agonist, as a result of a natural shift in the equilibrium between their inactive and active conformations. Such agonist-independent (constitutive) activity has been observed for the glutamate GPCRs (the metabotropic glutamate receptors mGluR1a and mGluR5) when they are overexpressed in heterologous cells. Here we show that in neurons, the constitutive activity of these receptors is controlled by Homer proteins, which bind directly to the receptors' carboxy-terminal intracellular domains. Disruption of this interaction by mutagenesis or antisense strategies, or expression of endogenous Homer1a (H1a), induces constitutive activity in mGluR1a or mGluR5. Our results show that these glutamate GPCRs can be directly activated by intracellular proteins as well as by agonists.

Allosteric interactions between GB1 and GB2 subunits are required for optimal GABA(B) receptor function

Recent studies on G-protein-coupled receptors revealed that they can dimerize. However, the role of each subunit in the activation process remains unclear. The gamma-amino-n-butyric acid type B (GABA(B)) receptor is comprised of two subunits: GB1 and GB2. Both consist of an extracellular domain (ECD) and a heptahelical domain composed of seven transmembrane alpha-helices, loops and the C-terminus (HD). Whereas GB1 ECD plays a critical role in ligand binding, GB2 is required not only to target GB1 subunit to the cell surface but also for receptor activation. Here, by analysing chimeric GB subunits, we show that only GB2 HD contains the determinants required for G-protein signalling. However, the HD of GB1 improves coupling efficacy. Conversely, although GB1 ECD is sufficient to bind GABA(B) ligands, the ECD of GB2 increases the agonist affinity on GB1, and is necessary for agonist activation of the receptor. These data indicate that multiple allosteric interactions between the two subunits are required for wild-type functioning of the GABA(B) receptor and highlight further the importance of the dimerization process in GPCR activation.