Field efficacy of fluralaner (Bravecto® chewable tablets) for preventing Babesia canis infection transmitted by Dermacentor reticulatus ticks to dogs

BACKGROUND

The isoxazoline fluralaner is effective for prevention of Babesia canis transmission from infected Dermacentor reticulatus ticks to dogs for 84 days in a controlled environment. This study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of fluralaner chewable tablets for sustained prevention of B. canis infection of dogs in endemic areas under natural conditions.

METHODS

In Europe, privately owned, clinically healthy pet dogs were enrolled and randomized either to receive fluralaner at 25-56 mg/kg (Bravecto® chewable tablets) on days 0 and 84, or to remain untreated during the D. reticulatus season. Blood samples were collected to evaluate B. canis exposure: on days 0 and 21 (exposure before day 0), during the study and at the end of the tick season (dogs suspected of having become infected after day 0). Efficacy was determined by the percentage reduction in B. canis transmission risk based on the difference in B. canis-positive tests in fluralaner-treated dogs compared with untreated dogs. In addition, ticks collected at monthly intervals throughout the study were identified to species level and females tested for B. canis DNA.

RESULTS

A total of 152 dogs were enrolled in the study, although nine dogs were excluded because they tested positive for B. canis DNA or antibodies within 21 days after enrollment. During the study period, no fluralaner-treated dog became positive for B. canis, resulting in calculated efficacy of 100%. However, babesiosis infection was diagnosed in five untreated control dogs (Fisher's exact test, left-sided, P = 0.0312). Tick analyses revealed that one sample collected in Hungary was infected with B. canis.

CONCLUSION

Oral administration of Bravecto chewable tablets at the recommended dosage to dogs completely prevented B. canis transmission under field conditions in an endemic area for 12 weeks.

BCL-2 Inhibitor ABT-737 Effectively Targets Leukemia-Initiating Cells with Differential Regulation of Relevant Genes Leading to Extended Survival in a NRAS/BCL-2 Mouse Model of High Risk-Myelodysplastic Syndrome

During transformation, myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) are characterized by reducing apoptosis of bone marrow (BM) precursors. Mouse models of high risk (HR)-MDS and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) post-MDS using mutant NRAS and overexpression of human BCL-2, known to be poor prognostic indicators of the human diseases, were created. We have reported the efficacy of the BCL-2 inhibitor, ABT-737, on the AML post-MDS model; here, we report that this BCL-2 inhibitor also significantly extended survival of the HR-MDS mouse model, with reductions of BM blasts and lineage negative/Sca1+/KIT+ (LSK) cells. Secondary transplants showed increased survival in treated compared to untreated mice. Unlike the AML model, BCL-2 expression and RAS activity decreased following treatment and the RAS:BCL-2 complex remained in the plasma membrane. Exon-specific gene expression profiling (GEP) of HR-MDS mice showed 1952 differentially regulated genes upon treatment, including genes important for the regulation of stem cells, differentiation, proliferation, oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial function, and apoptosis; relevant in human disease. Spliceosome genes, found to be abnormal in MDS patients and downregulated in our HR-MDS model, such as Rsrc1 and Wbp4, were upregulated by the treatment, as were genes involved in epigenetic regulation, such as DNMT3A and B, upregulated upon disease progression and downregulated upon treatment.

Integrative analysis of dysregulated microRNAs and mRNAs in multiple recurrent synchronized renal tumors from patients with von Hippel-Lindau disease

Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease is a rare auto-somal dominant syndrome that is the main cause of inherited clear-cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), which generally occurs in the form of multiple recurrent synchronized tumors. Affected patients are carriers of a germline mutation in the VHL tumor suppressor gene. Somatic mutations of this gene are also found in sporadic ccRCC and numerous pan-genomic studies have reported a dysregulation of microRNA (miRNA) expression in these sporadic tumors. In order to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of VHL-associated ccRCC, particularly in the context of multiple tumors, the present study characterized the mRNA and miRNA transcriptome through an integrative analysis compared with sporadic renal tumors. In the present study, two series of ccRCC samples were used. The first set consisted of several samples from different tumors occurring in the same patient, for two independent patients affected with VHL disease. The second set consisted of 12 VHL-associated tumors and 22 sporadic ccRCC tumors compared with a pool of normal renal tissue. For each sample series, an expression analysis of miRNAs and mRNAs was conducted using microarrays. The results indicated that multiple tumors within the kidney of a patient with VHL disease featured a similar pattern of miRNA and gene expression. In addition, the expression levels of miRNA were able to distinguish VHL-associated tumors from sporadic ccRCC, and it was identified that 103 miRNAs and 2,474 genes were differentially expressed in the ccRCC series compared with in normal renal tissue. The majority of dysregulated genes were implicated in 'immunity' and 'metabolism' pathways. Taken together, these results allow a better understanding of the occurrence of ccRCC in patients with VHL disease, by providing insights into dysregulated miRNA and mRNA. In the set of patients with VHL disease, there were few differences in miRNA and mRNA expression, thus indicating a similar molecular evolution of these synchronous tumors and suggesting that the same molecular mechanisms underlie the pathogenesis of these hereditary tumors.

Field efficacy and safety of fluralaner solution for administration in drinking water for the treatment of poultry red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae) infestations in commercial flocks in Europe

Background

Welfare concerns, production losses caused by Dermanyssus gallinae, the poultry red mite (PRM), and widespread mite resistance to environmentally applied acaricides continue to drive an urgent need for new and effective control measures. Fluralaner is a novel systemic acaricide developed to address that need. A series of field studies was initiated to investigate the safety and efficacy of a fluralaner solution (10 mg/ml) administered in drinking water at a dose rate of 0.5 mg/kg on two occasions with a 7-day interval, for treatment of natural PRM infestations in chickens.

Methods

Blinded, negative-controlled studies were completed in Europe across eight layer, two breeder, and two replacement chicken farms. At each farm, two similar flocks were housed in similar PRM-infested units (either rooms within a building, or separate buildings) varying from 550 to 100,000 birds per unit. One unit at each farm was allocated to fluralaner treatment, administered in drinking water on Days 0 and 7. One unit remained untreated. Mite traps were placed throughout each unit on Days -1, 0 or 1, 3, 6, 9, and 13 or 14, then at weekly or two-weekly intervals, retrieved after 24 h and processed for mite counts. Efficacy at each farm was assessed by mean PRM count reductions from traps in treated units compared with those from control units. Production parameters and safety were also monitored.

Results

Efficacy was 95.3 to 99.8% on Day 3 and 97.8 to 100% on Day 9, thereafter remaining above 90% for 56 to 238 days after treatment initiation. Post-treatment improvement in egg-laying rate was greater by 0.9 to 12.6% in the treated group at 9 of the 10 layer or breeder farms. There were no treatment-related adverse events.

Conclusion

Fluralaner administered at 0.5 mg/kg via drinking water twice, 7 days apart, was well tolerated and highly efficacious against the PRM in naturally infested chickens representing a range of production types and management systems. The results indicate that this novel treatment has potential to be the cornerstone of an integrated approach to reducing or eliminating the welfare and productivity costs of this increasingly threatening pest.

Dislocated Tongue Muscle Attachment and Cleft Palate Formation

In Pierre Robin sequence, a retracted tongue due to micrognathia is thought to physically obstruct palatal shelf elevation and thereby cause cleft palate. However, micrognathia is not always associated with palatal clefting. Here, by using the Bmp7-null mouse model presenting with cleft palate and severe micrognathia, we provide the first causative mechanism linking the two. In wild-type embryos, the genioglossus muscle, which mediates tongue protrusion, originates from the rostral process of Meckel's cartilage and later from the mandibular symphysis, with 2 tendons positive for Scleraxis messenger RNA. In E13.5 Bmp7-null embryos, a rostral process failed to form, and a mandibular symphysis was absent at E17.5. Consequently, the genioglossus muscle fibers were diverted toward the lingual surface of Meckel's cartilage and mandibles, where they attached in an aponeurosis that ectopically expressed Scleraxis. The deflection of genioglossus fibers from the anterior-posterior toward the medial-lateral axis alters their direction of contraction and necessarily compromises tongue protrusion. Since this muscle abnormality precedes palatal shelf elevation, it is likely to contribute to clefting. In contrast, embryos with a cranial mesenchyme-specific deletion of Bmp7 (Bmp7:Wnt1-Cre) exhibited some degree of micrognathia but no cleft palate. In these embryos, a rostral process was present, indicating that mesenchyme-derived Bmp7 is dispensable for its formation. Moreover, the genioglossus appeared normal in Bmp7:Wnt1-Cre embryos, further supporting a role of aberrant tongue muscle attachment in palatal clefting. We thus propose that in Pierre Robin sequence, palatal shelf elevation is not impaired simply by physical obstruction by the tongue but by a specific developmental defect that leads to functional changes in tongue movements.

Role of the actin cytoskeleton in tuning cellular responses to external mechanical stress

Mechanical forces are essential for tissue homeostasis. In adherent cells, cell-matrix adhesions connect the extracellular matrix (ECM) with the cytoskeleton and transmit forces in both directions. Integrin receptors and signaling molecules in cell-matrix adhesions transduce mechanical into chemical signals, thereby regulating many cellular processes. This review focuses on how cellular mechanotransduction is tuned by actin-generated cytoskeletal tension that balances external with internal mechanical forces. We point out that the cytoskeleton rapidly responds to external forces by RhoA-dependent actin assembly and contraction. This in turn induces remodeling of cell-matrix adhesions and changes in cell shape and orientation. As a consequence, a cell constantly modulates its response to new bouts of external mechanical stimulation. Changes in actin dynamics are monitored by MAL/MKL-1/MRTF-A, a co-activator of serum response factor. Recent evidence suggests that MAL is also involved in coupling mechanically induced changes in the actin cytoskeleton to gene expression. Compared with other, more rapid and transient signals evoked at the cell surface, this parallel mechanotransduction pathway is more sustained and provides spatial and temporal specificity to the response. We describe examples of genes that are regulated by mechanical stress in a manner depending on actin dynamics, among them the ECM protein, tenascin-C.

Mechanical signals regulating extracellular matrix gene expression in fibroblasts

Mechanical forces are essential for connective tissue homeostasis. The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a key role in the transmission of forces generated by the organism (e.g. muscle contraction) and externally applied (e.g. gravity). The expression of specific ECM proteins such as collagens and tenascin-C, as well as of matrix metalloproteinases, involved in their turnover, is influenced by mechanical stimuli. The precise mechanisms by which mechanical strains are translated into chemical signals and lead to differential gene expression are however not fully understood. Cell-matrix adhesion sites are good candidates for hosting a "mechanosensory switch", as they transmit forces from the ECM to the cytoskeleton and vice versa by physically linking the cytoskeleton to the ECM. Integrins, transmembrane proteins located to these adhesion sites, have been shown to trigger a set of internal signaling cascades after mechanical stimulation. We have shown that the expression level of tenascin-C directly correlates with externally applied mechanical stress, as well as with RhoA/RhoA-dependent kinase-mediated cytoskeletal tension. Presumably other genes are regulated in a similar manner. The changes in ECM composition and mechanical properties derived from mechanical stress are relevant in medical intervention after ligament and tendon injury.

BMP-2 induces the expression of chondrocyte-specific genes in bovine synovium-derived progenitor cells cultured in three-dimensional alginate hydrogel

OBJECTIVE

According to recent reports, the synovial membrane may contain mesenchymal stem cells with the potential to differentiate into chondrocytes under appropriate conditions. In order to assess the usefulness of synovium-derived progenitor cells for the purposes of cartilage tissue engineering, we explored their requirements for the expression of chondrocyte-specific genes after expansion in vitro.

DESIGN

Mesenchymal progenitor cells were isolated from the synovial membranes of bovine shoulder joints and expanded in two-dimensions on plastic surfaces. They were then seeded either as micromass cultures or as single cells within alginate gels, which were cultured in serum-free medium. Under these three-dimensional conditions, chondrogenesis is known to be supported and maintained. Cell cultures were exposed either to bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) or to isoforms of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). The levels of mRNA for Sox9, collagen types I and II and aggrecan were determined by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

When transferred to alginate gel cultures, the fibroblast-like synovial cells assumed a rounded form. BMP-2, but not isoforms of TGF-beta, stimulated, in a dose-dependent manner, the production of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) for Sox9, type II collagen and aggrecan. Under optimal conditions, the expression levels of cartilage-specific genes were comparable to those within cultured articular cartilage chondrocytes. However, in contrast to cultured articular cartilage chondrocytes, synovial cells exposed to BMP-2 continued to express the mRNA for alpha1(I) collagen.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that bovine synovium-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells can be induced to express chondrocyte-specific genes. However, the differentiation process is not complete under the chosen conditions. The stimulation conditions required for full transformation must now be delineated.

Early osteoarthritic changes of human femoral head cartilage subsequent to femoro-acetabular impingement

OBJECTIVE

To use the surgical samples of patients with femoro-acetabular impingement due to a nonspherical head to analyze tissue morphology and early cartilage changes in a mechanical model of hip osteoarthritis (OA).

DESIGN

An aberrant nonspherical shape of the femoral head has been assumed to cause an abutment conflict (impingement mechanism) of the hip with subsequent cartilage lesions of the acetabular rim and surface alterations of the nonspherical portion of the head. In this study, 22 samples of the nonspherical portions of the head have been obtained during hip surgery from young adults (mean 30.4 years, range 19-45 years) with an impingement conflict. The samples were first compared with tissue from the same area obtained from six age-matched deceased persons (control group) with normal hip morphology and second with cartilage from 14 older patients with advanced OA. All samples were characterized histologically and hyaline cartilage was graded according to the Mankin criteria. They were further subjected to examination on a molecular basis by immunohistology for cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP), tenascin-C and a collagenase cleavage product (COL2-3/4C(long)) and by in situ hybridization for collagen type I and collagen type II.

RESULTS

All samples from the patient group revealed hyaline cartilage with degenerative signs. According to the Mankin criteria, the cartilage alterations were significantly different when compared with the control group (p=0.007) but were less distinct when compared with cartilage from patients with advanced OA (p=0.014). Positive staining and distribution pattern for COMP, tenascin-C and COL2-3/4C(long) showed similarities between the samples from the impingement group and osteoarthritic cartilage but they were distinctly different when compared with healthy cartilage. Levels of collagen I and II transcripts were upregulated in 6 and 10, respectively, of the 14 samples with OA and in 9 and 12, respectively, of the 22 samples from the impingement group. None of the samples from the control group showed upregulation of Collagen I and II mRNA.

CONCLUSIONS

The aberrant nonspherical portion of the femoral head in young patients with an impingement conflict consists of hyaline cartilage which shows clear degenerative signs similar to the findings in osteoarthritic cartilage. The tissue alterations are distinctly different when compared with a control group, which substantiates an impingement conflict as an early mechanism for degeneration at the hip joint periphery.

Rapid and reciprocal regulation of tenascin-C and tenascin-Y expression by loading of skeletal muscle

Tenascin-C and tenascin-Y are two structurally related extracellular matrix glycoproteins that in many tissues show a complementary expression pattern. Tenascin-C and the fibril-associated minor collagen XII are expressed in tissues bearing high tensile stress and are located in normal skeletal muscle, predominantly at the myotendinous junction that links muscle fibers to tendon. In contrast, tenascin-Y is strongly expressed in the endomysium surrounding single myofibers, and in the perimysial sheath around fiber bundles. We previously showed that tenascin-C and collagen XII expression in primary fibroblasts is regulated by changes in tensile stress. Here we have tested the hypothesis that the expression of tenascin-C, tenascin-Y and collagen XII in skeletal muscle connective tissue is differentially modulated by mechanical stress in vivo. Chicken anterior latissimus dorsi muscle (ALD) was mechanically stressed by applying a load to the left wing. Within 36 hours of loading, expression of tenascin-C protein was ectopically induced in the endomysium along the surface of single muscle fibers throughout the ALD, whereas tenascin-Y protein expression was barely affected. Expression of tenascin-C protein stayed elevated after 7 days of loading whereas tenascin-Y protein was reduced. Northern blot analysis revealed that tenascin-C mRNA was induced in ALD within 4 hours of loading while tenascin-Y mRNA was reduced within the same period. In situ hybridization indicated that tenascin-C mRNA induction after 4 hours of loading was uniform throughout the ALD muscle in endomysial fibroblasts. In contrast, the level of tenascin-Y mRNA expression in endomysium appeared reduced within 4 hours of loading. Tenascin-C mRNA and protein induction after 4–10 hours of loading did not correlate with signs of macrophage infiltration. Tenascin-C protein decreased again with removal of the load and nearly disappeared after 5 days. Furthermore, loading was also found to induce expression of collagen XII mRNA and protein, but to a markedly lower level, with slower kinetics and only partial reversibility. The results suggest that mechanical loading directly and reciprocally controls the expression of extracellular matrix proteins of the tenascin family in skeletal muscle.

Mechanical modulation of tenascin-C and collagen-XII expression during avian synovial joint formation

The objective of this study was to investigate how temporal and spatial patterns of characteristic extracellular matrix molecules are altered in the absence of normal functional skeletal muscle contractions during avian synovial joint development. By using in situ detection of protein and mRNA expression in developing avian feet and femorotibial joints from a wide range of developmental stages, we demonstrate that the morphological abnormalities that result from embryonic immobilization are associated with altered patterns of tenascin-C and collagen-XII expression within developing joint structures. As the joints fuse in immobilized embryos, the cells of the presumptive articular surface differentiate from flattened fibroblasts to more rounded chondrocytes and collagens XII and I are no longer detected at sites of complete joint fusion. Although the expression of collagen XII persists at normal levels elsewhere within the immobilized joint, tenascin-C expression is diminished within the chondroepiphysis, synovium, and tendons, as well as within the remains of the fibrous articular surface. This effect is most notable for the shortest tenascin variant (Tn190) within the chondroepiphysis and the largest variant (Tn230) within tendons, synovium, and the fibrous surface layer of the joint. This study thus provides in vivo support of previous in vitro work that suggests that tenascin expression is sensitive to external changes in mechanical loading environment. However, these data do not support a similar conclusion for collagen XII during early development.

Regulation of extracellular matrix gene expression by mechanical stress

Extracellular matrix (ECM) is the substrate for cell adhesion, growth, and differentiation, and it provides mechanical support to tissues. It is well known that connective tissue cells adapt their ECM to changes in mechanical load, as seen, e.g. during bone remodeling or wound healing. A feedback mechanism must exist by which cells that sense mechanical stress via their substrate respond by an altered pattern of protein expression, and thus remodel the ECM to meet changing mechanical requirements. What signals are triggered in connective tissue cells by mechanical stress, and how do such stimuli affect the expression of specific ECM proteins? The evidence will be reviewed that integrins, the transmembrane adhesion and signaling receptors which physically link ECM to the cytoskeleton, might be key players in transducing mechanical signals, presumably via MAP kinase and NF-kappaB pathways. At the far end of the response, there is evidence for regulation at the level of gene transcription. For example, the production of tenascin-C and collagen XII, two ECM proteins typical of tendons and ligaments, is high in fibroblasts attached to a stretched collagen matrix, but suppressed in cells on a relaxed matrix. The response to a change in stretch is rapid and reversible, and is reflected on the mRNA level. Both the tenascin-C and the collagen XII gene promoters contain 'stretch-responsive' enhancer regions with similarity to 'shear stress response elements' in other genes. The precise signal pathways converging on these mechano-responsive enhancer elements remain to be elucidated.

Rapid and reversible regulation of collagen XII expression by changes in tensile stress

We studied the expression of the fibril-associated collagen XII by fibroblasts cultured on attached (stretched) or floating (relaxed) collagen I gels. Accumulation of collagen XII in the medium as determined by semiquantitative immunoblotting was 8-16 times higher under stretched compared to relaxed conditions. Northern blot experiments showed that tensile stress controls collagen XII expression at the mRNA level. Tenascin-C mRNA levels were also influenced, whereas relative amounts of fibronectin and matrix metalloproteinase-2 mRNA were barely affected. The response to a change in tensile stress is rapid, since de novo biosynthesis of collagen XII was fully down-regulated 12 h after relaxation of a stretched culture. To demonstrate that the effect is also reversible, we mounted collagen gels with attached cells to movable polyethylene plugs. The cultures were relaxed or stretched at intervals of 24 and 48 h, and media samples were analyzed every 24 h. By ELISA, the amount of collagen XII secreted into the medium was found to increase or decrease in accordance with the tensile stress applied. This is evidence that the mechanical stimulus per se, rather than an indirect secondary effect, was responsible for the observed changes in collagen XII production.

The chick and human collagen alpha1(XII) gene promoter--activity of highly conserved regions around the first exon and in the first intron

A single gene encodes collagen XII, an extracellular matrix protein with three large fibronectin-related subunits connected via a short collagen triple helix. Since collagen XII is a component of a specific subset of collagen fibrils in tissues bearing high tensile stress, we are interested to know how its restricted expression is regulated. To this aim, we have isolated the region around the first exon of both the chick and human collagen alpha1(XII) gene. The upstream sequences of the two genes share common features but are not related. Strong similarity starts about 100 bp 5' of the first exon and ends 100 bp into the first intron. In addition, two large conserved regions (56-63% similarity) were found in the first intron. A single major and two clusters of minor transcription start sites were identified in both the chick and human gene. To test for promoter activity, conserved fragments from the chick gene were cloned into reporter plasmids for transient transfection of fibroblasts. A 70-bp stretch containing a conserved nuclear factor-1 binding sequence just upstream of the first transcription start site was found to work as a basal promoter. An adjacent, but nonoverlapping short segment including the more downstream start sites and a conserved TATTAA sequence exhibited independent promoter activity. GC-rich sequences just 5' and 3' of the minimal promoter fragments were required for full activity. In contrast, inclusion of more upstream sequences (up to 2.4 kb) had no effect. The two conserved regions in the first intron showed no promoter activity on their own but modulated activity when linked to autologous or heterologous promoters. Specifically, one of these intronic regions might contain enhancer element(s) that respond to mechanical stress acting on the fibroblasts. We conclude that the collagen XII gene is driven by a basal promoter with two halves that can act independently; conserved control regions are located around the first exon and in the first intron.

Neural agrin induces ectopic postsynaptic specializations in innervated muscle fibers

Neural agrin, in the absence of a nerve terminal, can induce the activity-resistant expression of acetylcholine receptor (AChR) subunit genes and the clustering of synapse-specific adult-type AChR channels in nonsynaptic regions of adult skeletal muscle fibers. Here we show that, when expression plasmids for neural agrin are injected into the extrasynaptic region of innervated muscle fibers, the following components of the postsynaptic apparatus are aggregated and colocalized with ectopic agrin-induced AChR clusters: laminin-beta2, MuSK, phosphotyrosine-containing proteins, beta-dystroglycan, utrophin, and rapsyn. These components have been implicated to play a role in the differentiation of neuromuscular junctions. Furthermore, ErbB2 and ErbB3, which are thought to be involved in the regulation of neurally induced AChR subunit gene expression, were colocalized with agrin-induced AChR aggregates at ectopic nerve-free sites. The postsynaptic muscle membrane also contained a high concentration of voltage-gated Na+ channels as well as deep, basal lamina-containing invaginations comparable to the secondary synaptic folds of normal endplates. The ability to induce AChR aggregation in vivo was not observed in experiments with a muscle-specific agrin isoform. Thus, a motor neuron-specific agrin isoform is sufficient to induce a full ectopic postsynaptic apparatus in muscle fibers kept electrically active at their original endplate sites.

Agrin binds to the nerve-muscle basal lamina via laminin

Agrin is a heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is required for the formation and maintenance of neuromuscular junctions. During development, agrin is secreted from motor neurons to trigger the local aggregation of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and other proteins in the muscle fiber, which together compose the postsynaptic apparatus. After release from the motor neuron, agrin binds to the developing muscle basal lamina and remains associated with the synaptic portion throughout adulthood. We have recently shown that full-length chick agrin binds to a basement membrane-like preparation called Matrigel. The first 130 amino acids from the NH2 terminus are necessary for the binding, and they are the reason why, on cultured chick myotubes, AChR clusters induced by full-length agrin are small. In the current report we show that an NH2-terminal fragment of agrin containing these 130 amino acids is sufficient to bind to Matrigel and that the binding to this preparation is mediated by laminin-1. The fragment also binds to laminin-2 and -4, the predominant laminin isoforms of the muscle fiber basal lamina. On cultured myotubes, it colocalizes with laminin and is enriched in AChR aggregates. In addition, we show that the effect of full-length agrin on the size of AChR clusters is reversed in the presence of the NH2-terminal agrin fragment. These data strongly suggest that binding of agrin to laminin provides the basis of its localization to synaptic basal lamina and other basement membranes.

Native chick laminin-4 containing the beta 2 chain (s-laminin) promotes motor axon growth

After denervation of muscle, motor axons reinnervate original synaptic sites. A recombinant fragment of the synapse specific laminin beta 2 chain (s-laminin) was reported to inhibit motor axon growth. Consequently, a specific sequence (leucine-arginine-glutamate, LRE) of the laminin beta 2 chain was proposed to act as a stop signal and to mediate specific reinnervation at the neuromuscular junction (Porter, B.E., J. Weis, and J.R. Sanes. 1995. Neuron. 14:549-559). We demonstrate here that native chick laminin-4, which contains the beta 2 chain and is present in the synaptic basement membrane, does not inhibit but rather promotes motor axon growth. In native heterotrimeric laminin, the LRE sequence of the beta 2 chain is found in a triple coiled-coil region that is formed by all three subunits. We show here that the effect of LRE depends on the structural context. Whereas a recombinant randomly coiled LRE peptide indeed inhibited outgrowth by chick motoneurons, a small recombinant triple coiled-coil protein containing this sequence did not.

Tenascin-Y: a protein of novel domain structure is secreted by differentiated fibroblasts of muscle connective tissue

Tenascin-Y was identified in chicken as a novel member of the tenascin (TN) family of ECM proteins. Like TN-C, TN-R, and TN-X, TN-Y is a multidomain protein consisting of heptad repeats, epidermal growth factor-like repeats, fibronectin type III-like (FNIII) domains and a domain homologous to fibrinogen. In contrast to all other known TNs, the series of FNIII domains is interrupted by a novel domain, rich in serines (S) and prolines (P) that occur as repeated S-P-X-motifs, where X stands for any amino acid. Interestingly, the TN-Y-type FNIII domains are 70-100% identical with respect to their DNA sequence. Different TN-Y variants are created by alternative splicing of FNIII domains. Although, based on sequence comparisons TN-Y is most similar to mammalian TN-X, these molecules are not species homologues. TN-Y is predominantly expressed in embryonic and adult chicken heart and skeletal muscle and, to a lower extent, also in several non-muscular tissues. Two major transcripts of approximately 6.5 and 9.5 kb are differentially expressed during heart and skeletal muscle development and are also present in the adult. Anti-TN-Y antibodies recognize a approximately 400-kD double band and a approximately 300-kD form of TN-Y on immunoblots of chicken heart extracts. In situ hybridization and immunofluorescence analysis of aortic smooth muscle, heart, and skeletal muscle revealed that TN-Y is mainly expressed and secreted by cells within muscle-associated connective tissue. Cultured primary muscle fibroblasts released a approximately 220-kD doublet and a approximately 170-kD single TN-Y variant only when cultured in 10% horse serum but not in medium containing 10% fetal calf serum. All TN-Y variants isolated bind to heparin under physiologically relevant conditions that may indicate an important function retained in all tenascins.

Evidence for a distinct water-rich layer surrounding collagen fibrils in articular cartilage extracellular matrix

Bovine articular cartilage was vitrified by high-pressure freezing. On the one hand vitrified samples were cryosectioned and investigated by cryoelectron microscopy in an unstained frozen hydrated state. On the other hand, they were freeze substituted in pure acetone, ethanol, or methanol, respectively, and subsequently embedded in Epon. Ultrathin Epon sections were poststained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate. The resulting ultrastructural representation was different for every protocol. The evaluation of the combined results provides evidence for a distinct water-rich layer surrounding collagen fibrils in articular cartilage extracellular matrix, which has not been recognized before. The possible composition and function of this layer is discussed.

Differential neural crest cell attachment and migration on avian laminin isoforms

A number of laminin isoforms have recently been identified and proposed to exert different functions during embryonic development. In the present study, we describe the purification and partial characterization of several isoforms isolated from chick heart and gizzard, and provide data on the molecular mechanisms underlying the interaction of avian neural crest cells with these molecules in vitro. Laminins extracted from heart and gizzard tissues were separated by gel filtration and purified to homogeneity by sequential lectin and immunoaffinity chromatography by utilizing monoclonal antibodies directed against the avian alpha 2, beta 2 and gamma 1 laminin chains. The sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) banding pattern of the polypeptide complexes obtained and immunoblotting with polyclonal antisera allowed the identification of Laminin-2 (alpha 2 beta 1 gamma 1), Laminin-4 (alpha 2 beta 2 gamma 1), and laminins comprising the beta 1, beta 2 and gamma 1 chains associated with a shorter alpha chain which, in SDS-PAGE, co-migrate with the beta/gamma complex in the 200 kDa region. These latter laminins, which are here arbitrarily denoted Laminin-alpha x (heart tissue) and Laminin-G (gizzard tissue), are somewhat distinct in their apparent molecular weight, are differentially associated with nidogen, and appear as "T"-shaped particles similar to Laminin-6 and Laminin-7 when analyzed by transmission electron microscopy following rotary shadowing. In contrast, the avian Laminin-2 and Laminin-4 isoforms exhibit the characteristic cruciform shape described previously for their mammalian counterparts. Isolated neural crest cells differentially attached and migrated on these laminin isoforms, showing a clear preference for Laminin-G. Similarly to the EHS Laminin-1, neural crest cells recognized all avian isoforms through their alpha 1 beta 1 integrin, shown previously to be the primary laminin-binding receptor on these cells. Neural crest cell interaction with the avian laminins was dependent upon maintenance of the secondary and tertiary structure of the molecules, as shown by the marked reduction in cell attachment and migration upon disruption of the alpha-helical coiled-coil structure of their constituent chains. The results demonstrate that different laminin isoforms may be differentially involved in the regulation of neural crest cell migration and suggest that this regulation operates through interaction of the cells with a structurally conserved cell binding site recognized by the alpha 1 beta 1 integrin.

Regulation of extracellular matrix synthesis by mechanical stress

The extracellular matrix (ECM) provides mechanical support to tissues and is a substrate for cell adhesion and differentiation. Cells bind to ECM via specific cell surface receptors such as integrins. When engaging with ECM ligands, these receptors can activate signal transduction pathways within the cells and may act as mechanochemical transducers. Thus, interaction of cells with ECM can modulate gene expression although the exact mechanisms are not known. Among the genes that are, in part, controlled by cell-ECM interactions are those for certain ECM components themselves. Bone cells, for example, remodel their matrix and reorient bone trabeculae in response to mechanical strain. Recently, we found that fibroblasts attached to a strained collagen matrix produce more of the ECM glycoproteins tenascin and collagen XII than cells in a relaxed matrix. In vivo, these two proteins are specifically expressed in places where mechanical strain is high. We also showed that the chick tenascin gene promoter contains a novel cis-acting, "strain-responsive" element that causes enhanced transcription in cells attached to a strained collagen matrix. Similar enhancer elements might be present in the promoters of other genes induced by mechanical stress. It can be speculated that connective tissue cells sense force vectors in their ECM environment and react to altered mechanical needs by regulating the transcription of specific ECM genes; this process is a prerequisite for matrix remodeling.

Distinct heparin-binding and neurite-promoting properties of laminin isoforms isolated from chick heart

Laminin isolated from chick heart is composed of several heterotrimeric variants of 800 and 700 kDa. Here, we used monoclonal antibodies against chick laminin to purify different laminin isoforms from this mixture. Antibody 8D3 specifically removed laminin containing alpha 2 chain from chick heart laminin preparations, leaving behind 700 kDa variants. Using antibody C4 against the laminin beta 2 chain, alpha 2 chain containing variants were further separated into alpha 2 beta 1 gamma 1 and alpha 2 beta 2 gamma 1 laminin, respectively. Laminins containing alpha 2 chain and recognized by antibody 8D3 are cross-shaped molecules. Their expression during embryogenesis is tightly regulated. In 5-day embryos staining with monoclonal antibody 8D3 is restricted to the dermamyotome. Older embryos (8 days) express alpha 2 chain containing variants at myotendinous junction primordia of skeletal muscle, and only late in development these variants are generally expressed in skeletal and heart muscle basement membranes. The 700 kDa laminin variants contain beta 1, beta 2, and gamma 1 subunits affiliated with an immunologically distinct, shorter alpha × chain and appear to be T-shaped in the electron microscope. Whereas laminins with an alpha 2 subunit bind to heparin, variants with the novel alpha × chain do not. Experiments using cultured sympathetic neurons showed that laminins with alpha × chain are less potent than alpha 2 chain containing variants in promoting neurite outgrowth. In contrast, sympathetic neurons cannot discriminate between alpha 2 beta 1 gamma 1 and alpha 2 beta 2 gamma 1 laminin substrates, respectively, and show identical high rates of neurite formation.

Large and small splice variants of collagen XII: differential expression and ligand binding

Collagen XII has a short collagenous tail and a very large, three-armed NC3 domains consisting primarily of fibronectin type III repeats. Differential splicing within this domain gives rise to a large (320 kD) and a small (220 kD) subunit; the large but not the small can carry glycosaminoglycan. To investigate whether collagen XII variants have distinct expression patterns and functions, we generated antibody and cDNA probes specific for the alternatively spliced domain. We report here that the large variant has a more restricted expression in embryonic tissue than the small. For example, whereas the small variant is widespread in the dermis, the large is limited to the base of feather buds. Distinct proportions of mRNA for the two variants were detected depending on the tissue. Monoclonal antibodies allowed us to separate collagen XII variants, and to show that homo- and heterotrimers exist. Collagen XII variants differ in ligand binding. Small subunits interact weakly with heparin via their COOH-terminal domain. Large subunits have additional, stronger heparin-binding site(s) in their NH2-terminal extra domain. In vivo, both large and small collagen XII are associated with interstitial collagen. Here we show biochemically and ultrastructurally that collagen XII can be incorporated into collagen I fibrils when it is present during, but not after, fibril formation. Removal of the collagenous domain of collagen XII reduces its coprecipitation with collagen I. Our results indicate that collagen XII is specifically associated with fibrillar collagen, and that the large variant has binding sites for extracellular ligands not present in the small variant.

The integrin receptor alpha 8 beta 1 mediates interactions of embryonic chick motor and sensory neurons with tenascin-C

This paper identifies a neuronal receptor for tenascin-C (tenascin/cytotactin), an extracellular matrix protein that has previously been detected in developing sensory and motor neuron pathways and has been shown to regulate cell migration in the developing CNS. Antibodies specific for each subunit of the integrin alpha 8 beta 1 are used to demonstrate that alpha 8 beta 1 mediates neurite outgrowth of embryonic sensory and motor neurons on this extracellular matrix protein. In addition, expression of alpha 8 in K562 cells results in surface expression of alpha 8 beta 1 heterodimers that are shown to promote attachment of this cell line to tenascin. The major domain in tenascin that mediates neurite outgrowth is shown to be localized to fibronectin type III repeats 6-8.

A single heparin binding region within the fibrinogen-like domain is functional in chick tenascin-C

Tenascin-C binds to cell surface and matrix proteoglycans and to heparin. Two heparin binding regions have recently been localized per tenascin-C monomer, one in the C-terminal fibrinogen-like domain and the other in fibronectin type III repeats 3-5. Here we show that a single region in each subunit is necessary and sufficient for heparin binding by whole tenascin-C at physiological ionic strength. First, native tenascin-C was bound to heparin-agarose and digested with Pronase. A 29-kDa fragment retained on the heparin column was recognized by a monoclonal antibody against the fibrinogen-like domain. In contrast, small fragments labeled by an antibody against fibronectin type III repeats 2-5 were released. Second, mild tryptic digestion of tenascin-C yielded two related fragments of 180 and 170 kDa. The latter missed part of the fibrinogen domain and had lost affinity for heparin, in contrast to the former. Finally, chick tenascin-C constructs were recombinantly expressed in human cells. Whereas the complete protein and a mutant lacking fibronectin type III repeats 1-5 bound to heparin-agarose, recombinant tenascin-C missing the C-terminal fibrinogen-like globe did not. Thus, whole chick tenascin-C contains one essential heparin binding region per subunit, located in the fibrinogen-like domain within 10 kDa from the C terminus.

Tenascin-C expression by fibroblasts is elevated in stressed collagen gels

Chick embryo fibroblasts cultured on a collagen matrix exert tractional forces leading to the contraction of unrestrained, floating collagen gels and to the development of tension in attached, restrained gels. On a restrained, attached collagen gel the fibroblasts synthesize large quantities of tenascin-C, whereas in a floating, contracting gel tenascin-C synthesis is decreased. This regulation of tenascin-C synthesis can be observed by the secretion of metabolically labeled tenascin-C into the conditioned medium, as well as by the deposition of tenascin-C into the collagen matrix as judged by immunofluorescence. Regulation appears to occur at the transcriptional level, because when cells on attached or floating collagen gels are transfected with promoter constructs of the tenascin-C gene, luciferase expression driven by the tenascin-C promoter parallels the effects measured for endogenous tenascin-C synthesis, whereas luciferase expression under the control of the SV40 promoter does not depend on the state of the collagen gel. The promoter region responsible for tenascin-C induction on attached collagen gels is distinct from the region important for the induction of tenascin-C by serum, and may define a novel kind of response element. By joining this tenascin-C sequence to the SV40 promoter of a reporter plasmid, its activity can be transferred to the heterologous promoter. We propose that the tenascin-C promoter is directly or indirectly activated in fibroblasts generating and experiencing mechanical stress within a restrained collagen matrix. This may be an important aspect of the regulation of tenascin-C expression during embryogenesis as well as during wound healing and other regenerative and morphogenetic processes.

A new nomenclature for the laminins

The authors have adopted a new nomenclature for the laminins. They are numbered with arabic numerals in the order discovered. The previous A, B1 and B2 chains, and their isoforms, are alpha, beta and gamma, respectively, followed by an arabic numeral to identify the isoform. For example, the first laminin identified from the Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm tumor is laminin-1 with the chain composition alpha 1 beta 1 gamma 1. The genes for these chains are LAMA1, LAMB1 and LAMC1, respectively.

Tissue-specific expression of the fibril-associated collagens XII and XIV

Interstitial collagen fibrils form the supporting scaffold of all connective tissues. The synthesis of this framework is subject to a precise spatial and temporal regulation in order to meet the mechanical needs of every tissue type. A subgroup of non-fibrillar collagens termed FACIT seems to play a role in this regulation by providing specific molecular bridges between fibrils and other matrix components. Collagens XII and XIV represent such FACIT molecules and occur preferentially in tissues containing banded type I collagen fibrils. We have used the techniques of indirect immunofluorescence and in situ hybridization to investigate the expression patterns of the two molecules during chicken embryonic development. We detected specific differences in these patterns, which may be related to the respective functions of the two proteins within the connective tissues. Collagen XIV was expressed at very few sites in the 6-day-old embryo, but occurred in virtually every collagen I-containing tissue (skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, gizzard, tendon, periosteum, nerve) by the end of embryonic development. In contrast, collagen XII was fairly abundant in the 6-day-old embryo but was, at later stages, restricted to only a few dense connective tissue structures (bone, tendon, gizzard). Thus, our results suggest that collagen XII and collagen XIV serve different functions during embryonic development although their structures are highly similar.

Dual function of tenascin: simultaneous promotion of neurite growth and inhibition of glial migration

The extracellular matrix molecule tenascin is expressed within the developing peripheral nervous system, first by migrating neural crest cells and later by satellite (Schwann precursor) cells at the growing tips of peripheral nerves. Here we found that the neurite promoting activity of tenascin for sensory neurons is developmentally regulated: very young sensory ganglia of stage 23 (4 days old) embryos grew neurites on tenascin as fast as on laminin and fibronectin. The growth response of older (day 7 and 9) ganglia on laminin and fibronectin was similar to that of 4-day-old ganglia, while on tenascin neurite growth occurred only after a lag phase and at a slower rate. Neurite growth on tenascin was inhibited by antibodies to beta 1 integrin and by heparin. While tenascin promotes neurite outgrowth of peripheral neurons, we found that it does not allow satellite cell migration when it is present on the substratum, and it inhibits migration of satellite cells on fibronectin when added in soluble form. In contrast, soluble tenascin did not significantly alter the rate of neurite growth on tenascin, fibronectin or laminin substrata, although neurites were straighter and less attached. When isolated satellite cells were added to neurites grown on tenascin, they preferentially adhered to and elongated along neurite surfaces. Using patterned substrata of tenascin versus fibronectin or laminin confirmed that tenascin borders allow neurites to pass but act as barriers to migrating satellite cells. We postulate that tenascin or related molecules with dual functions in cell adhesion are important for peripheral nerve morphogenesis. Tenascin allows axonal growth, but may restrict random satellite cell migration into the fibronectin-rich mesenchyme, thereby inducing the compaction of nerve fascicles.

Tenascin: a modulator of cell growth

The large, multidomain extracellular matrix protein tenascin displays a markedly restricted tissue distribution during embryogenesis and remains present only in a few adult tissues. The protein is reexpressed, however, during wound healing and in the stroma of malignant tumours. While a variety of studies have dealt with the important role of tenascin in the development of neural and non-neural tissues, there is growing evidence that tenascin expression may be associated with proliferation of cells lining these tissues. The presence of repeating domains in tenascin similar to those in epidermal growth factor prompted us to investigate the ability of tenascin to modulate the growth of different cell types. Tenascin was actually found to be mitogenic for several cell types. This mitogenic activity, however, appears to be associated with a region in the fibronectin type III domains. The mitogenic mechanism is clearly distinct from pathways used by peptide growth factors such as epidermal growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor, which activate the intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity of their cell-surface receptors. However, we show that this large extracellular matrix molecule is efficiently internalised and may be processed by responding cells.

A major oligomeric fibroblast proteoglycan identified as a novel large form of type-XII collagen

Cultured chick embryo skin fibroblasts release a major component with a native molecular mass of about 1 MDa, which resolves into three polypeptide bands of about 300, 350 and 600 kDa upon reduction. We report here the purification of this oligomeric protein and show, by means of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, that its three polypeptide constituents are closely related. The 600-kDa polypeptide is likely to be a dimer of two smaller subunits which are cross-linked by non-reducible bonds. By electron microscopy, isolated oligomeric molecules exhibit a novel cruciform structure with a large central globular domain. One arm has the shape of a thin rod about 70 nm in length. The three other arms are thicker, longer (90 nm) and flexible, and carry a prominent double globule at their distal ends. Collagenase treatment of the oligomeric fibroblast protein yields two resistant fragments of about 270 kDa and 320 kDa. The intact 350-kDa and 600-kDa (but not the 300-kDa) polypeptides are chondroitinase sensitive and labeled by metabolic incorporation of [35S]sulfate; collagenase treatment does not remove any [35S] sulfate. Hence, the intact fibroblast protein has glycosaminoglycan chains attached to its non-collagenous domain. Three amino acid sequences obtained from chymotryptic fragments of the fibroblast protein correspond to sequences predicted for chick type-XII collagen from its full-length cDNA [Yamagata, M., Yamada, K. M., Yamada, S. S., Shinomura, T., Tanaka, H., Nishida, Y., Obara, M. & Kimata, K. (1991) J. Cell Biol. 115, 209-221]. However, the novel fibroblast protein described here differs significantly from previously isolated forms of type-XII collagen: its subunits are larger by one third, and it is a proteoglycan.

Chick laminin: isolation by monoclonal antibodies and differential distribution of variants in the embryo

In order to study the expression and function of laminin variants during chick embryonic development, we have generated monoclonal antibodies against chick heart laminin. One monoclonal antibody (mAb), called 9/F-10, could be used to purify chick laminin to homogeneity. By rotary shadowing, cross-shaped and T-shaped laminin particles as well as aggregates of two laminin molecules crosslinked via their short arms could be observed in this preparation. Purified chick laminin was very potent in mediating neurite growth by chick embryonic neurons. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of reduced chick heart laminin revealed a complex pattern of polypeptides which are immunologically related to several mammalian laminin chains. The two mAbs, 9/F-10 and 3/E-8, recognize two different types of chick laminin subunits. By immunofluorescence, antibody 3/E-8 labels basement membranes, aortic smooth muscle, and mesenchyme of 6-day-old chick embryos. In contrast, staining by mAb 9/F-10 is confined to basement membranes. Therefore, the two antibodies seem to distinguish between two different chick laminin isoforms.

Tenascin variants: differential binding to fibronectin and distinct distribution in cell cultures and tissues

In the chicken, three tenascin variants have been characterized that are generated by alternative splicing of 3 of its 11 fibronectin type III repeats. Using monoclonal antibodies that react with common regions versus extra repeats of tenascin, we could distinguish and separate tenascin variants and investigate their interaction with fibronectin using multiple experimental procedures. Interestingly, in all assays used the smallest tenascin variant bound more strongly to fibronectin than the larger ones. These biochemical data were paralleled by the observation that in chick embryo fibroblast cultures only the smallest form of tenascin could be detected in the fibronectin-rich extracellular matrix network laid down by the cells. Furthermore, each tissue present in adult chicken gizzard contained a distinct set of tenascin variants. Those tissues particularly rich in extracellular matrix, such as the tendon, contained the smallest tenascin only. Intermediate-sized tenascin was present in smooth muscle, whereas the largest form was exclusively detectable underneath the epithelial lining of the villi. Thus it appears that cell type-specific forms of tenascin exist that are appropriate for the functional requirements of the respective extracellular matrices.

Isolation of chick tenascin variants and fragments. A C-terminal heparin-binding fragment produced by cleavage of the extra domain from the largest subunit splicing variant

The extracellular-matrix glycoprotein, tenascin, consists of disulfide-linked subunits of 190, 200 and 230 kDa (the three splicing variants reported in chicken) and usually exists as a six-armed structure under the electron microscope. We used monoclonal antibodies to isolate and characterize different splicing variants and proteolytic fragments obtained from the native protein. Purified monomeric tenascin has a native molecular mass of 216 kDa and is structured as single arms. Tenascin fragments obtained by pepsin digestion bind to monoclonal antibody (mAb) TnM1 which is directed against epidermal-growth-factor-like repeats in the N-terminal half of all subunits. These fragments represent the thin proximal part of the tenascin arms and they are still partially linked to dimers and trimers via disulfide bridges. Using mAb Tn68, that reacts with a fibronectin-type-III repeat towards the C-terminus, a tenascin fragment, generated by treatment with pronase, can be isolated. Ultrastructurally, this fragment looks like the thicker distal part of the tenascin arms. Only the 230-kDa variant of tenascin gives rise to this distal fragment after cleavage within the alternatively spliced fibronectin-type-III repeats. Native tenascin and all fragments containing the distal part of its arms bind to heparin-agarose, whereas the proximal fragments do not. Oligomeric and monomeric tenascin inhibit fibronectin-mediated fibroblast spreading with comparable efficiency when added to the culture medium, while the proximal fragment has no effect. The distal fragment as well as reduced and alkylated tenascin are active in this assay, but only at higher molar concentrations when compared to the native protein.

Epithelial synthesis of tenascin at tips of growing bronchi and graded accumulation in basement membrane and mesenchyme

The extracellular matrix protein, tenascin, has been proposed as mediator in epithelial-mesenchymal interactions because of its characteristic distribution during embryogenesis. Here we compared the accumulation of tenascin and laminin in the early chicken lung bud. Laminin is deposited in the basement membrane, starting at the tips and increasing along the shafts of growing primary and secondary bronchi. In contrast, tenascin accumulation is highest in basement membranes and mesenchyme at sites where new bronchial branches are formed. By in situ hybridization, tenascin mRNA was found to be produced exclusively by the epithelium at sites of active growth of bronchial tubes.

Nerve-dependent and -independent tenascin expression in the developing chick limb bud

The extracellular matrix protein, tenascin, appears in a restricted pattern during organ morphogenesis. Tenascin accumulates along developing peripheral nerves as they leave the spinal cord and enter the limb mesenchyme (Wehrle and Chiquet, Development 110, 401–415, 1990). Here we found that most but not all tenascin deposited along growing nerves is of glial origin. By in situ hybridization with a tenascin cDNA probe, we determined the site of tenascin mRNA accumulation both in normal and nerve-free limbs. In normal wing buds, tenascin mRNA was first detected within the developing limb nerves. Vinculin-positive glial precursor cells, which comigrate with the axons, are the likely source of this tenascin message. In nerveless wing grafts, tenascin was first expressed in tendon primordia in the absence, and thus independently, from innervation. In contrast to normal limbs, grafted wing buds neither contained vinculin-positive glial precursor cells, nor expressed tenascin in regions proximal to tendon primordia. In normal wing buds, tenascin deposited by tendon primordia transiently parallels and surrounds certain developing nerves. After the major nerve pattern is established, tenascin mRNA disappears from nerves in the upper limb, but is expressed in perichondrium and tendons. We propose that glial tenascin facilitates the penetration of axons into the limb bud and is important for nerve fasciculation. In some places, early tendon primordia might help to guide the migration of axons and glial precursor cells towards their target.

Purification and partial characterization of Xenopus laevis tenascin from the XTC cell line

We report here the purification of tenascin, an extracellular matrix molecule involved in the control of morphogenesis, from the conditioned medium of the Xenopus XTC cell line. Tenascin was purified by affinity chromatography on a column of the monoclonal antibody mAb TnM1; the molecule eluted from this column has a relative molecular mass of 210 kDa after reduction. Electrophoretic analysis under non-reducing conditions shows that the purified components are oligomeric disulfide-linked complexes which barely enter a 4% polyacrylamide gel. Upon rotary shadowing these molecules appear to possess a central globular domain to which pairs or triplets of arms are attached. Polyclonal antibodies have been raised against purified Xenopus tenascin. They recognise specifically the antigen on Western blots of XTC conditioned medium and adult brain, by immunofluorescence, these antibodies reveal large amounts of tenascin in the secretory vesicles as well as in the extracellular matrix of XTC cells. In the Xenopus tadpole, they stain the developing cartilage, the basal lamina of skin epidermis, myotendinous ligaments and restricted regions of the central nervous system.

Tenascin is accumulated along developing peripheral nerves and allows neurite outgrowth in vitro

The extracellular matrix protein, tenascin, appears in a restricted pattern during organ morphogenesis. Here we studied the expression of tenascin along developing peripheral nerves in chick embryos and tested its activity as a substrate for cultured neurons. Motor axons grow out through the tenascin-rich, anterior part of the sclerotome. Shortly after, tenascin surrounds axon fascicles of ventral roots. At the limb levels, outgrowing axons accumulate in the tenascin-containing girdle region forming a plexus. In the limb, tenascin first appears in bracket-like structures that surround the precartilage cell condensations of the femur and humerus, respectively. These regions coincide with the channels along which axons first grow in from the girdle plexus to form the limb nerves. Later, the major tenascin staining is associated with the cartilage and tendon primordia, and not with the limb nerves. We used tenascin as a substrate for cultured neural explants and single cells in order to test for its function in neurite outgrowth. Dissociated embryonic neurons of various types attached to mixed polylysine/tenascin substrates and sprouted rapidly after a lag of several hours. Outgrowth was inhibited and neurites were detached by anti-tenascin antibodies. On substrates coated with tenascin alone, neurite outgrowth was achieved from 3 day spinal cord explants. Whereas growth cones were well spread and rapidly moving, the neurites were poorly attached, straight and rarely branched. We speculate that in vivo tenascin allows axonal outgrowth, but inhibits branching and supports fasciculation of newly formed axons.

Exogenous tenascin inhibits mesodermal cell migration during amphibian gastrulation

We have used amphibian gastrulation as a model system to study the action of the extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoprotein tenascin on mesodermal cell migration. Tenascin function was assayed in vitro during spreading of isolated cells from the dorsal marginal zone (DMZ) and during cell migration from DMZ explants. Plastic coated with bovine fibronectin or gastrula ECM was used as a substratum. In both cases, tenascin added to the medium inhibited spreading and migration of mesodermal cells. In addition, a substratum coated with a mixture of fibronectin and tenascin was found to prevent mesodermal cell migration. Tenascin was also microinjected into the blastocoel cavity of living embryos at the late blastula stage. This led to a complete arrest of gastrulation in more than 80% of the cases. Scanning electron microscopy of fractures from arrested gastrulae showed that mesodermal cell migration was blocked. Similar injection experiments carried out at the middle gastrula stage demonstrated that tenascin is able to inhibit cell migration after cells have already contacted the ECM. Mesodermal cell migration in the presence of tenascin could be restored in vitro and in vivo by the monoclonal antibody mAb Tn68 which is known to mask a cell binding site of the molecule. Finally, tenascin microinjected into the blastocoel of blastula or gastrula stage embryos bound within 15 min to the ECM fibrils at all the stages studied. Our results show that exogenous tenascin can be incorporated into embryonic ECM and interferes in vivo with the interactions of cells with a fibronectin-rich matrix.

Identification of molecules in leech extracellular matrix that promote neurite outgrowth

The molecular composition of the substrate is of critical importance for neurite extension by isolated identified leech nerve cells in culture. One substrate upon which rapid growth occurs in defined medium is a cell-free extract of extracellular matrix (ECM) that surrounds the leech central nervous system (CNS). Here we report the co-purification of neurite-promoting activity with a laminin-like molecule. High molecular mass proteins from leech ECM purified by gel filtration exhibited increased specific activity for promoting neurite outgrowth. The most active fractions contained three major polypeptide bands of ca. 340, 250 and 220 kDa. Electron microscopy of rotary-shadowed samples showed three macromolecules, one of which had a cross-shaped structure similar to vertebrate laminin. A second six-armed molecule resembled vertebrate tenascin and a third rod-like molecule resembled vertebrate collagen type IV. The most active fractions contained a protein of ca. 1 MDa on non-reducing gels with disulphide-linked subunits of ca. 220 and 340 kDa, with cross-shaped laminin-like molecules. We conclude that a laminin-like molecule represents a major neurite promoting component present in leech ECM. The experiments represent a first step in determining the location of leech laminin within the CNS and assessing its role in neurite outgrowth during development and regeneration.

Expression of tenascin in response to neural induction in amphibian embryos

The expression of tenascin, a constituent of extracellular matrix (ECM), was studied during the embryonic development of the amphibian Pleurodeles waltl. An antiserum to chick fibroblast tenascin was shown to cross-react with the homologous molecule of the amphibian. Immunostaining of embryo sections with anti-tenascin antiserum revealed that tenascin appears just after the completion of neurulation. At the tailbud stage, tenascin is present in the ECM located at sites of directed cell migration (neural crest cell migration pathways, extension of the pronephretic duct) and mesenchyme condensation (endocardium, aortic arches). The accumulation of tenascin immunoreactivity in the embryonic ECM is correlated with the synthesis of the 220×103Mr polypeptide of the molecule. To provide data on the patterning of tenascin, ectoderm and dorsal blastoporal lip isolated at early gastrula stage were cultured for a period of 3 days. Epidermal vesicles differentiating from isolated ectoderm completely lack tenascin. Conversely, axial mesoderm derivatives present in cultured dorsal blastoporal lip were found to produce tenascin. Neural induction of ectoderm isolated at early gastrula stage was performed in vitro with the dorsal blastoporal lip or concanavalin A. The induced neural tissue was found to accumulate tenascin. Spemann experiments confirmed in vivo that tenascin is expressed by ectodermal cells as a response to neural induction.

Attachment to an endogenous laminin-like protein initiates sprouting by leech neurons

Leech neurons in culture sprout rapidly when attached to extracts from connective tissue surrounding the nervous system. Laminin-like molecules that promote sprouting have now been isolated from this extracellular matrix. Two mAbs have been prepared that react on immunoblots with a approximately equal to 220- and a approximately equal to 340-kD polypeptide, respectively. These antibodies have been used to purify molecules with cross-shaped structures in the electron microscope. The molecules, of approximately equal to 10(3) kD on nonreducing SDS gels, have subunits of approximately equal to 340, 220, and 160-180 kD. Attachment to the laminin-like molecules was sufficient to initiate sprouting by single isolated leech neurons in defined medium. This demonstrates directly a function for a laminin-related invertebrate protein. The mAbs directed against the approximately equal to 220-kD chains of the laminin-like leech molecule labeled basement membrane extracellular matrix in leech ganglia and nerves. A polyclonal antiserum against the approximately equal to 220-kD polypeptide inhibited neurite outgrowth. Vertebrate laminin did not mediate the sprouting of leech neurons; similarly, the leech molecule was an inert substrate for vertebrate neurons. Although some traits of structure, function, and distribution are conserved between vertebrate laminin and the invertebrate molecule, our results suggest that the functional domains differ.

Tenascin interferes with fibronectin action

Primary chick embryo fibroblasts attach to a tenascin substrate, but remain rounded and do not spread out. The proportion between tenascin and fibronectin in mixtures used to coat the substrate determines the shape of the cells. Tenascin inhibits integrin-mediated chick fibroblast attachment to fibronectin, laminin, and the GRGDS peptide. Rat fibroblast attachment to fibronectin, but not to laminin, is inhibited by tenascin. A monoclonal antibody against tenascin, as well as its Fab fragments, is able to neutralize the inhibitory activity on cell attachment and is therefore assumed to mask the cell-binding site of tenascin. On electron micrographs showing this monoclonal antibody bound to tenascin, its epitope can be localized to the terminal knob at the distal ends of the tenascin arms.

Neurite outgrowth and synapse formation by identified leech neurones in culture

After injury, neurones in the central nervous system (CNS) of the leech regenerate with a high degree of specificity. The aim of our experiments has been to study the sequential steps involved in neurite growth and synapse formation using isolated identified neurones in culture. An important requirement for sprouting of leech neurones is the substrate. Neurites grow only slowly and sparsely on polylysine or vertebrate laminin. The extracellular matrix of leech ganglion capsules contains a protease-sensitive factor which can be extracted with urea. With this material as substrate, growth proceeds rapidly in defined medium. Another neurite-promoting substrate is provided by the plant lectin concanavalin A (Con A). The activity of Con A, but not of the capsule matrix factor, is blocked by the Con A-specific hapten methyl alpha-D-mannoside. The morphology and branching pattern of the neurites in culture depend on the specific substrate and on the type of neurone. During stimulation, less Ca2+ uptake occurs into growth cones than in cell bodies. The mechanism of neurite growth seems not to depend on activity-mediated Ca2+ influx or on interactions between neuronal cell surfaces. However, even without profuse outgrowth, electrical and chemical synapses develop between neighbouring neurones. The type of synapse depends predictably on the types of neurones within the cell pair. Since the development of a synapse can be followed with time in culture, the sequential events can each be studied separately for this multi-step process.

A major, six-armed glycoprotein from embryonic cartilage

Here we describe the isolation and identification of a major cartilage glycoprotein which is co-extracted along with typical hyaline cartilage components such as collagen types II and IX from chicken embryo sternum. In polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis it migrates as a high molecular mass protein (greater than 10(6) daltons) which on reduction gives rise to a prominent doublet at 205/195 kd and minor bands at 220 and 170 kd. The intact molecule sediments as a 13S component in rate zonal centrifugation, indicative of a highly extended conformation in solution. In these properties it closely resembles myotendinous antigen, a glycoprotein recently detected in a number of embryonic tissues, including cartilage. This identity was confirmed by immunoblotting using a monoclonal antibody (M1) specific for myotendinous antigen. Electron micrographs of the rotary shadowed molecule revealed an unusual six-armed structure, indistinguishable in form and dimensions from hexabrachion, a recently discovered contaminant of cellular fibronectin preparations. These structures could be decorated with the M1-antibody, demonstrating that hexabrachion is myotendinous antigen. This extended, potentially multivalent molecule could provide an ideal substrate to connect widely spaced components in a highly hydrated tissue such as cartilage.

Attachment of Con A or extracellular matrix initiates rapid sprouting by cultured leech neurons

The outgrowth of neurites by single identified leech neurons in culture is markedly influenced by the substrate. Extensive sprouting occurs within a few hours on the plant lectin Con A. In contrast, the same neurons grow far more slowly or not at all when plated on vertebrate extracellular matrix proteins, other lectins, or poly(L-lysine). Sprouting on Con A, unlike that on poly(L-lysine), is inhibited by the Con A-specific hapten sugar methyl alpha-D-mannoside. Another substrate, promoting even more extensive sprouting of leech neurons, is cell-free extracellular matrix obtained from leech ganglion capsules. Urea extracts of extracellular matrix retain full neurite-promoting activity when dialyzed and used to coat culture dishes. Soluble growth factors are not required, since sprouting occurs in medium without macromolecules. These results show that sprouting depends not simply on attachment to the substrate but, critically, on its molecular composition; moreover, the pattern of outgrowth is characteristic and distinguishable for each type of neuron.