Individual and Contextual Correlates of Latent Bystander Profiles toward Racist Hate Speech: A Multilevel Person-centered Approach

Prior research into bystander responses to hate speech has utilized variable-centered analyses - such approaches risk simplifying the complex nature of bystander behaviors. Hence, the present study used a person-centered analysis to investigate latent hate speech bystander profiles. In addition, individual and classroom-level correlates associated with the various profiles were studied. The sample included 3225 students in grades 7-9 (51.7% self-identified as female; 37.2% with immigrant background) from 215 classrooms in Germany and Switzerland. The latent profile analysis revealed that four distinct profiles could be distinguished: Passive Bystanders (34.2%), Defenders (47.3%), Revengers (9.8%), and Contributors (8.6%). Multilevel logistic regression models showed common and distinct correlates. For example, students who believed that certain social groups are superior were more likely to be Revengers and Contributors than Passive Bystanders, students who felt more connected with teachers were more likely to be Defenders, and students who were more open to diversity were less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. Students were less likely Defenders and more likely Revengers and Contributors than Passive Bystanders in classrooms with high rates of hate speech perpetration. Further, in classrooms with high hate speech intervention, students were more likely to be Defenders and less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. In classrooms with stronger cohesion, students were more likely to be Defenders and less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. In conclusion, the findings add to our understanding of bystander profiles concerning racist hate speech and the relevance of individual and classroom-level factors in explaining various profiles of bystander behavior.

Longitudinal Associations between Different Types of Sexting, Adolescent Mental Health, and Sexual Risk Behaviors: Moderating Effects of Gender, Ethnicity, Disability Status, and Sexual Minority Status

The present study investigated the moderating effect of adolescent demographic variables in the longitudinal associations among different types of sexting, mental health (i.e., depression, self-harm, subjective health complaints), and sexual risk behaviors. There were 1113 adolescents (ages 14-17 years; Mage = 16.36; SDage = .81; 50% female) from six high schools located in the United States included in this study. Adolescents completed questionnaires on their sexting behaviors, mental health, and sexual risk behaviors during the ninth grade; in tenth grade, they completed questionnaires on mental health and sexual risk behaviors. Non-consensual sexting and pressured sexting were both related positively to each of the mental health variables and sexual risk behaviors. The relationship between non-consensual sexting and depressive symptoms was stronger for girls, ethnic minorities, those adolescents with disabilities, and sexual minorities. Similar patterns were found for pressured sexting, non-suicidal self-harm, and subjective health complaints. The relationships between pressured sexting and sexual risk behaviors were stronger for girls, ethnic minorities, those adolescents with disabilities, and those who identified as sexual minorities. Research focused on the relationships among different types of sexting, mental health, and sexual risk behaviors is important as such research facilitates the development of evidence-based recommendations for sexting harm prevention and sexual education programs.

Problematic Use of the Internet and Well-Being among Youth from a Global Perspective: A Mediated-Moderated Model of Socio-Emotional Factors

Problematic Use of the Internet (PUI) is characterized as the inability to control one's internet use or as an excessive use of the internet that may result in social, psychological, and emotional difficulties (Fernandes et al., 2019). It is regarded nowadays as an increasingly worrisome public heath issue, especially among youth. This study explored the contexts in which youth PUI occurs and its associations with socio-emotional functioning that may lead to a decrease in one's sense of well-being. We conducted this exploration among 783 middle school students from the US (425 students; 54.27%) and Israel (358 students; 45.73%). The overall age of both samples ranged between 12 and 16 (M = 13.94, SD = 1.59). In the Israeli sample, 49.1% of the students were girls and 50.9% were boys, whereas in the US sample, 48.8% were girls and 51.2% were boys. The study examined the role of depressive mood, loneliness, resilience, self-control, and school engagement in mediating the relationship between PUI and well-being, and how country of origin might moderate these relationships. Results indicate PUI was related to lower well-being only for the US sample. Yet, for both samples, higher loneliness was related to lower well-being, and higher school engagement was related to higher well-being. A moderated mediation analysis revealed the socio-emotional variables were all mediators in these associations, but differently for each country sample. The study results are discussed according to key factors required for developing intervention programs for coping with youth PUI behaviors.

Adolescent Cyberbullies' Attributions: Longitudinal Linkages to Cyberbullying Perpetration

The aim of the present study was to examine cyberbullies' attributions pertaining to their perpetration of cyberbullying, and how such attributions relate to their cyberbullying behaviors six months later. Participants were 216 adolescents (M = 13.46, SD = 0.62 years; 55% female) from the suburbs of a large Midwestern city in the United States. They were interviewed face-to-face in the fall of 2018 concerning why they acted in negative ways toward peers online or through text messages. They also answered questionnaires regarding how often they perpetrated face-to-face bullying and cyberbullying during the fall of 2018 and spring of 2019. The attributions of revenge, convenience, anger, and anonymity each predicted cyberbullying at the second time point while controlling for face-to-face bullying perpetration. Results from this study provide important information to the literature regarding cyberbullies' attributions for perpetrating cyberbullying, and how such attributions predict future cyberbullying perpetration. These findings are important for the development of antibullying programs that might aim to change adolescents' attributions for cyberbullying perpetration to reduce continued engagement in these behaviors.

Cyberbullying Involvement and Depression among Elementary School, Middle School, High School, and University Students: The Role of Social Support and Gender

One aim of this study was to investigate differences in cyberbullying involvement (i.e., victimization, bystanding, perpetration) across four age groups, including 234 elementary school students (4th and 5th grades; 51% female), 363 middle school students (6th through 8th grades; 53% female), 341 high school students (9th through 12th grade; 51% female), and 371 university students (all four years; 60% female). Another aim was to examine the age group differences in the associations between cyberbullying involvement and depression, as well as the moderating effect of social support from parents and friends. Participants completed questionnaires on cyberbullying involvement, depression, and social support from parents and friends. Findings revealed that middle school students were more often involved in cyberbullying as victims, bystanders, and perpetrators, followed by high school and university students, and elementary school students. High school and university students did not differ on their cyberbullying involvement. Gender moderated these relationships for elementary school students, with boys more often involved in cyberbullying perpetration and victimization than girls. In addition, female university students witnessed cyberbullying more so than males. Social support from parents buffered against the negative effects of cyberbullying involvement on depression across all age groups. Results were similar for social support from friends, but only for middle school and high school students. Gender did not influence the associations among age groups, cyberbullying involvement, and depression. The results have implications for designing prevention and intervention programs and ensuring that such programs consider age.

Coping with Public and Private Face-to-Face and Cyber Victimization among Adolescents in Six Countries: Roles of Severity and Country

This study investigated the role of medium (face-to-face, cyber) and publicity (public, private) in adolescents' perceptions of severity and coping strategies (i.e., avoidant, ignoring, helplessness, social support seeking, retaliation) for victimization, while accounting for gender and cultural values. There were 3432 adolescents (ages 11-15, 49% girls) in this study; they were from China, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, India, Japan, and the United States. Adolescents completed questionnaires on individualism and collectivism, and ratings of coping strategies and severity for public face-to-face victimization, private face-to-face victimization, public cyber victimization, and private cyber victimization. Findings revealed similarities in adolescents' coping strategies based on perceptions of severity, publicity, and medium for some coping strategies (i.e., social support seeking, retaliation) but differential associations for other coping strategies (i.e., avoidance, helplessness, ignoring). The results of this study are important for prevention and intervention efforts because they underscore the importance of teaching effective coping strategies to adolescents, and to consider how perceptions of severity, publicity, and medium might influence the implementation of these coping strategies.

Playing by the Rules? An Investigation of the Relationship Between Social Norms and Adolescents' Hate Speech Perpetration in Schools

Hate speech is often discussed and investigated as an online phenomenon, while hate speech among adolescents in the real world (e.g., in schools) has rarely been researched. Consequently, not much is known about potential interpersonal correlates and theoretical frameworks that might help us better understand why adolescents engage in hate speech in offline environments. To add to the literature, this study investigates hate speech perpetration among young people by utilizing the Social Cognitive Theory; more specifically, the association between witnessing and perpetrating hate speech in schools, and whether this relation is weakened or strengthened by anti-hate speech injunctive norms and deviant peer pressure. The sample consists of 1719 young people (45.1% boys, 53.6% girls, 1.3% gender diverse) between 11 and 18 years old (M_age = 13.96; SD = .98) from 22 schools in Switzerland. Self-report questionnaires were administered to measure hate speech involvement and adolescents' perception of social norms (i.e., anti-hate speech injunctive norms and deviant peer pressure). Multilevel regression analyses revealed that witnessing and perpetrating hate speech were positively associated. Moreover, injunctive anti-hate speech norms were negatively related and deviant peer pressure positively related to hate speech perpetration. Finally, increasing levels of injunctive anti-hate speech norms weakened the relation between witnessing and perpetrating hate speech, whereas higher levels of deviant peer pressure strengthened this association. The findings demonstrate that the Social Cognitive Theory is a useful framework for understanding hate speech perpetration in schools. The results also highlight the importance of taking into account social norms and interpersonal relationships (e.g., within the class) when designing anti-hate speech prevention programs and not focusing solely on intrapersonal factors.

Use of a serious game simulation to build early childhood staff capacity for reducing unintentional childhood injuries

INTRODUCTION

Unintentional home injuries are common and costly, with over 1.6 million occurring among U.S. children ages 0-4 in 2018. Home visitors and other early childhood professionals can provide valuable prevention education and intervention to reduce unintentional injury risk for children. This proof-of-concept study aimed to test the feasibility of the first phase of Home Safety Hero, a software-based serious game simulation that trains users in identification of home safety risks, as a capacity building tool for early childhood professionals.

METHODS

The game simulation's potential for knowledge promotion and engagement in a sample of home visitors was explored based on play of the first phase. Repeated measures ANOVAs were used to assess learning via reaction time, and engagement was measured via the User Engagement Scale (UES).

RESULTS

Reaction time (i.e., average time to identify hazards) improved from the first to last levels in both single and mixed category levels in this trial. Participant indicated agreement with four subscales of engagement measured by the UES, and neutral to agree on a fifth subscale, focused attention.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that this game simulation can meet the unique training needs of early childhood professionals while promoting home safety knowledge that can improve prevention work with families. Participant feedback was largely positive, and results suggest that the game simulation is engaging and contributes to knowledge.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The Home Safety Hero serious game simulation is a flexible training option that appeared to be feasible for reducing time to hazard identification among home visitors in this proof-of-concept study. The design of the game simulation has utility in meeting the specialized training needs of early childhood professionals and potential to build their capacity to provide direct intervention around home safety, reducing risk for unintentional injury among children.

Online Hate Speech Victimization and Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents: The Protective Role of Resilience

Online hate speech has become a widespread problem in the daily life of adolescents. Despite growing societal and academic interest in this online risk, not much is known about the relationship between online hate speech victimization (OHSV) and adolescents' mental well-being. In addition, potential factors influencing the magnitude of this relationship remain unclear. To address these gaps in the literature, this study investigated the relationship between OHSV and depressive symptoms and the buffering effects of resilience in this relationship. The sample consists of 1,632 adolescents (49.1% girls) between 12 and 18 years old (M_age = 13.83, SD_age = 1.23), recruited from nine schools across Spain. Self-report questionnaires were administered to assess OHSV, depressive symptoms, and resilience. Regression analyses revealed that OHSV was positively linked to depressive symptoms. In addition, victims of online hate speech were less likely to report depressive symptoms when they reported average or high levels of resilience (i.e., social competence, personal competence, structured style, social resources, and family cohesion) compared with those with low levels of resilience. Our findings highlight the need for the development of intervention programs and the relevance of focusing on internal and external developmental assets to mitigate negative outcomes for victims of online hate speech.

Racial Discrimination to Bullying Behavior among White and Black Adolescents in the USA: From Parents' Perspectives

The present study proposes and tests pathways by which racial discrimination might be positively related to bullying victimization among Black and White adolescents. Data were derived from the 2016 National Survey of Children’s Health, a national survey that provides data on children’s physical and mental health and their families. Data were collected from households with one or more children between June 2016 to February 2017. A letter was sent to randomly selected households, who were invited to participate in the survey. The caregivers consisted of 66.9% females and 33.1% males for the White sample, whose mean age was 47.51 (SD = 7.26), and 76.8% females and 23.2% males for the Black sample, whose mean age was 47.61 (SD = 9.71). In terms of the adolescents, 49.0% were females among the White sample, whose mean age was 14.73 (SD = 1.69). For Black adolescents, 47.9% were females and the mean age was 14.67(SD = 1.66). Measures for the study included bullying perpetration, racial discrimination, academic disengagement, and socio-demographic variables of the parent and child. Analyses included descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and structural path analyses. For adolescents in both racial groups, racial discrimination appears to be positively associated with depression, which was positively associated with bullying perpetration. For White adolescents, racial discrimination was positively associated with academic disengagement, which was also positively associated with bullying perpetration. For Black adolescents, although racial discrimination was not significantly associated with academic disengagement, academic disengagement was positively associated with bullying perpetration.

The Online Hate Speech Cycle of Violence: Moderating Effects of Moral Disengagement and Empathy in the Victim-to-Perpetrator Relationship

Adolescents around the globe are increasingly exposed to online hate speech (OHS). And yet little is known about the varying roles of involvement and the determinants of adolescents' hate speech perpetration. Building on previous research, this study aims to test the cycle of violence hypothesis for OHS and to analyze whether moral disengagement (MD) and empathy moderate the victim-to-perpetrator relationship. The sample consists of 3,560 seventh to ninth graders (52.1 percent girls), recruited from 40 schools across Germany and Switzerland. Self-report questionnaires were administered to assess OHS involvement, MD, and empathy. Multilevel analyses revealed that victims of OHS were more likely to report OHS perpetration. In addition, victims of OHS were more likely to report OHS perpetration when they reported higher levels of MD than those with lower levels of MD. Finally, victims of OHS were less likely to report OHS perpetration when they reported higher levels of empathy than those with lower levels of empathy. The findings extend the cycle of violence hypothesis to OHS and highlight the need to address MD and empathy in hate speech prevention. Implications for future research will be discussed.

Exploring Risks Associated With Bullying Perpetration Among Hispanic/Latino Adolescents: Are They Similar for Foreign-Born and U.S.-Born?

Previous research indicates that racial and ethnic minority adolescents show an increased risk for bullying involvement. However, research on racial and ethnic differences in bullying has mainly focused on the differences between Whites and African American adolescents in the United States. Research on the bullying perpetration of foreign-born students is scarce. To fill this gap in the literature, this study utilizes the immigrant paradox to compare the prevalence rates and correlates of bullying perpetration between foreign-born and U.S.-born Hispanic/Latino adolescents. Data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children, 2009 to 2010 cohort study in the United States were used. The sample included 1,451 Hispanic/Latino adolescents from which 287 were foreign-born ( Mage = 13.32, SD = 1.68; 55% girls) and 1,164 were U.S.-born ( Mage = 13.05, SD = 1.68; 51.4% girls). Self-report questionnaires were administered to measure bullying involvement, substance abuse, befriending deviant peers, physical fight, demographic variables, and family characteristics. Findings showed that foreign-born adolescents did not differ from U.S.-born Hispanic/Latino adolescents (9.8% vs. 9.9%) regarding bullying perpetration. In addition, logistic regression analyses revealed that only bullying victimization was a common correlate for bullying perpetration across both groups. For foreign-born Hispanic/Latino adolescents, only befriending deviant peers was significantly associated with bullying perpetration. For the U.S.-born group, alcohol use and physical fights increased the odds of bullying perpetration. Implications for future research (e.g., the significance of the intersection of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic class) and practice (e.g., the need to foster positive school environments) will be discussed.

Distance learning in higher education during COVID-19: The role of basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation for persistence and procrastination-a multi-country study

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, higher educational institutions worldwide switched to emergency distance learning in early 2020. The less structured environment of distance learning forced students to regulate their learning and motivation more independently. According to self-determination theory (SDT), satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and social relatedness affects intrinsic motivation, which in turn relates to more active or passive learning behavior. As the social context plays a major role for basic need satisfaction, distance learning may impair basic need satisfaction and thus intrinsic motivation and learning behavior. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between basic need satisfaction and procrastination and persistence in the context of emergency distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in a cross-sectional study. We also investigated the mediating role of intrinsic motivation in this relationship. Furthermore, to test the universal importance of SDT for intrinsic motivation and learning behavior under these circumstances in different countries, we collected data in Europe, Asia and North America. A total of N = 15,462 participants from Albania, Austria, China, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Kosovo, Lithuania, Poland, Malta, North Macedonia, Romania, Sweden, and the US answered questions regarding perceived competence, autonomy, social relatedness, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, persistence, and sociodemographic background. Our results support SDT's claim of universality regarding the relation between basic psychological need fulfilment, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence. However, whereas perceived competence had the highest direct effect on procrastination and persistence, social relatedness was mainly influential via intrinsic motivation.

Self-isolation during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and adolescents' health outcomes: The moderating effect of perceived teacher support

With the nationwide closures of educational institutions in the United States due to the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), many schools transitioned from face-to-face instruction to eLearning formats at the beginning of the pandemic, while many students and their families self-isolated at home. The literature has revealed that self-isolation has a negative effect on adolescents' psychological outcomes, and high social support buffers against these outcomes. The purpose of the present research was to examine the moderating effect of perceived teacher support in the relationships between self-isolation during the beginning of the pandemic and negative health outcomes. Teacher support, self-isolation during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, and health outcomes (i.e., suicidal ideation, nonsuicidal self-harm, subjective health complaints, depression) were measured in mid-April 2020 and health outcomes were measured again in late-May 2020. Participants were 467 7th and 8th graders (51% female; M_age = 13.47; ages range from 12 to 15 years old) from the suburbs of a large Midwestern city in the United States. The findings revealed that greater perceived teacher support buffered against the negative outcomes associated with self-isolation during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and lower perceived teacher support strengthened these relationships. The results might inform policy development regarding strategies to improve health outcomes for adolescents during the COVID-19 crisis and future pandemics. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Moderation of Technology Use in the Association Between Self-Isolation During COVID-19 Pandemic and Adolescents' Romantic Relationship Quality

The purpose of this study was to examine the moderating effects of technology use for relationship maintenance on the longitudinal associations among self-isolation during the coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) pandemic and romantic relationship quality among adolescents. Participants were 239 (120 female; M age = 16.69, standard deviation [SD] = 0.61; 60 percent Caucasian) 11th and 12th graders from three midwestern high schools. To qualify for this study, adolescents had to be in the same romantic relationship for the duration of the study, ∼7 months (M length of relationship = 10.03 months). Data were collected in October of 2019 (Time 1) and again 7 months later in May of 2020 (Time 2). Adolescents completed a romantic relationship questionnaire at Time 1 and again at Time 2, along with questionnaires on frequency of self-isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic and use of technology for romantic relationship maintenance. Findings revealed that increases in self-isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic related positively to the use of technology for romantic relationship maintenance and negatively to Time 2 romantic relationship quality. High use of technology for romantic relationship maintenance buffered against the negative effects of self-isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescents' romantic relationship quality 7 months later, whereas low use strengthened the negative relationship between self-isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic and romantic relationship quality. These findings suggest the importance of considering the implications of societal crisis or pandemics on adolescents' close relationships, particularly their romantic relationships.

Adolescent well-being and learning in times of COVID-19-A multi-country study of basic psychological need satisfaction, learning behavior, and the mediating roles of positive emotion and intrinsic motivation

The sudden switch to distance education to contain the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has fundamentally altered adolescents' lives around the globe. The present research aims to identify psychological characteristics that relate to adolescents' well-being in terms of positive emotion and intrinsic learning motivation, and key characteristics of their learning behavior in a situation of unplanned, involuntary distance education. Following Self-Determination Theory, experienced competence, autonomy, and relatedness were assumed to relate to active learning behavior (i.e., engagement and persistence), and negatively relate to passive learning behavior (i.e., procrastination), mediated via positive emotion and intrinsic learning motivation. Data were collected via online questionnaires in altogether eight countries from Europe, Asia, and North America (N = 25,305) and comparable results across countries were expected. Experienced competence was consistently found to relate to positive emotion and intrinsic learning motivation, and, in turn, active learning behavior in terms of engagement and persistence. The study results further highlight the role of perceived relatedness for positive emotion. The high proportions of explained variance speak in favor of taking these central results into account when designing distance education in times of COVID-19.

How Are Consensual, Non-Consensual, and Pressured Sexting Linked to Depression and Self-Harm? The Moderating Effects of Demographic Variables

Sexting among adolescents has triggered controversial debates among scholars and the general public. However, questions regarding the associations between different types of sexting, namely consensual, non-consensual, and pressured sexting, depressive symptoms, and non-suicidal self-harm remain. In addition, little attention has been given to whether demographic variables (i.e., gender, ethnicity, disability, sexual minority) might influence these associations. To fill these gaps in the literature, the present study was conducted. Participants were 2506 adolescents (ages 13-16 years old; M_age = 15.17; SD_age = 0.89) from eight high schools located in the suburbs of a large Midwestern city in the United States. Adolescents self-identified as female (50%), Caucasian (57%), approximately 15% reported that they had a disability they received school accommodation for, and 18% self-identified as a sexual minority. They completed self-report questionnaires on their sexting behaviors, depressive symptoms, and non-suicidal self-harm. Findings revealed that non-consensual and pressured sexting were positively related to depressive symptoms and non-suicidal self-harm, whereas consensual sexting was unrelated to these outcomes. Boys engaged in more non-consensual sexting compared with girls, girls were more pressured to send sexts compared with boys, and sexual minority adolescents reported greater consensual sexting compared with non-sexual minority adolescents. Moderating effects revealed that girls, non-minority adolescents, and non-sexual minority adolescents experienced greater depressive symptoms and non-suicidal self-harm when they experienced pressured sexting. These findings underscore the importance of considering various types of sexting and adolescents' demographic variables when examining the negative outcomes of sexting. Disentangling the relationships among different types of sexting, depressive symptoms, and self-harm aids in the development of evidence-based recommendations for sexting harm prevention and sexual education programs.

Adolescents' Popularity-Motivated Aggression and Prosocial Behaviors: The Roles of Callous-Unemotional Traits and Social Status Insecurity

As competition over peer status becomes intense during adolescence, some adolescents develop insecure feelings regarding their social standing among their peers (i.e., social status insecurity). These adolescents sometimes use aggression to defend or promote their status. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships among social status insecurity, callous-unemotional (CU) traits, and popularity-motivated aggression and prosocial behaviors among adolescents, while controlling for gender. Another purpose was to examine the potential moderating role of CU traits in these relationships. Participants were 1,047 (49.2% girls; M_age = 12.44 years; age range from 11 to 14 years) in the 7th or 8th grades from a large Midwestern city. They completed questionnaires on social status insecurity, CU traits, and popularity-motivated relational aggression, physical aggression, cyberaggression, and prosocial behaviors. A structural regression model was conducted, with gender as a covariate. The model had adequate fit. Social status insecurity was associated positively with callousness, unemotional, and popularity-motivated aggression and related negatively to popularity-motivated prosocial behaviors. High social status insecurity was related to greater popularity-motivated aggression when adolescents had high callousness traits. The findings have implications for understanding the individual characteristics associated with social status insecurity.

Cross-National Associations Among Cyberbullying Victimization, Self-Esteem, and Internet Addiction: Direct and Indirect Effects of Alexithymia

The relationship among cyberbullying victimization, lower self-esteem, and internet addiction has been well-established. Yet, little research exists that explains the nature of these associations, and no previous work has considered the inability to identify or describe one’s emotions, namely, alexithymia, as a potential mediator of these links. The present study sought to investigate the indirect effects of cyberbullying victimization on self-esteem and internet addiction, mediated by alexithymia. The sample consisted of 1,442 participants between 12 and 17 years (M_age = 14.17, SD = 1.38, 51.5% male) from Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States. Results showed a direct relationship between cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem and an indirect association mediated by alexithymia in the Dutch sample. However, in the German and U.S. samples, only an indirect relationship via alexithymia, but not a direct effect of cyberbullying victimization on self-esteem, was found. Consistent across the three country samples, cyberbullying victimization and internet addiction were directly and also indirectly associated via alexithymia. In sum, findings indicate that alexithymia might help better understand which detrimental effects cyberbullying victimization has on adolescent psychological health. Thus, cyberbullying prevention programs should consider implementing elements that educate adolescents on the ability to identify and describe their own emotions.

The Role of Technologies, Behaviors, Gender, and Gender Stereotype Traits in Adolescents' Cyber Aggression

The present study focused on the impact of gender and gender stereotype traits (i.e., masculinity, femininity) on cyber aggression perpetration utilizing different technologies (i.e., social-networking sites, gaming consoles, mobile phones) and behaviors (i.e., cyber relational aggression, cyber verbal aggression, hacking). Participants included 233 eighth graders (108 female; M_age = 13.26, SD = 0.36) from two middle schools in the Midwestern United States. Adolescents completed questionnaires on their endorsement of masculinity and femininity traits as well as how often they engaged in cyber aggression perpetration (i.e., cyber relational aggression, cyber verbal aggression, hacking) through mobile phones, social-networking sites, and gaming consoles. Findings indicated that boys and girls with more feminine traits engaged in more cyber relational aggression through social-networking sites and mobile phones, while boys and girls who endorsed more masculine traits perpetrated this behavior and cyber verbal aggression more often through online gaming. In addition, these boys and girls engaged in more hacking through all technologies when compared with girls and boys who reported more feminine traits. Results of this study indicate the importance of delineating gender stereotype traits, behaviors, and technologies when examining cyber aggression perpetration.

Adolescents' Psychological Consequences and Cyber Victimization: The Moderation of School-Belongingness and Ethnicity

Cyber victimization research reveals various personal and contextual correlations and negative consequences associated with this experience. Despite increasing attention on cyber victimization, few studies have examined such experiences among ethnic minority adolescents. The purpose of the present study was to examine the moderating effect of ethnicity in the longitudinal associations among cyber victimization, school-belongingness, and psychological consequences (i.e., depression, loneliness, anxiety). These associations were investigated among 416 Latinx and white adolescents (46% female; M age = 13.89, SD = 0.41) from one middle school in the United States. They answered questionnaires on cyber victimization, school belongingness, depression, loneliness, and anxiety in the 7th grade (Time 1). One year later, in the 8th grade (Time 2), they completed questionnaires on depression, loneliness, and anxiety. Low levels of school-belongingness strengthened the positive relationships between cyber victimization and Time 2 depression and anxiety, especially among Latinx adolescents. The positive association between cyber victimization and Time 2 loneliness was strengthened for low levels of school-belongingness for all adolescents. These findings may indicate that cyber victimization threatens adolescents’ school-belongingness, which has implications for their emotional adjustment. Such findings underscore the importance of considering diverse populations when examining cyber victimization.

Understanding the overlap between cyberbullying and cyberhate perpetration: Moderating effects of toxic online disinhibition

BACKGROUND

Problem behaviour theory postulates that different forms of norm violations cluster and can be explained by similar antecedents. One such cluster may include cyberbullying and cyberhate perpetration. A potential explanatory mechanism includes toxic online disinhibition, characterised by anonymity, an inability to empathise and to recognise and interpret social cues. The current study to develop a better understanding of the relationship between cyberhate and cyberbullying to inform effective intervention and prevention efforts.

AIMS

To test the link between cyberbullying and cyberhate and whether this relationship was moderated by toxic online disinhibition.

METHODS

Self-report questionnaires on cyberbullying, cyberhate, and toxic online disinhibition were completed by 1,480 adolescents between 12 and 17 years old (M = 14.21 years; SD = 1.68).

RESULTS

Increases in cyberbullying perpetration and toxic online disinhibition were positively related to cyberhate perpetration. Furthermore, cyberbullies reported more cyberhate perpetration when they reported higher levels of toxic online disinhibition and less frequent cyberhate perpetration when they reported lower levels of toxic online disinhibition.

CONCLUSION

The current study provides evidence of a possible link between cyberbullying and cyberhate perpetration, moderated by toxic online disinhibition. This suggests that, to be effective, prevention and intervention programmes should (i) consider the co-occurrence of varying forms of cyberaggression and (ii) consider potential effects of the online environment on aggressive online behaviour among young people.

Does social support moderate the relationship between racial discrimination and aggression among Latinx adolescents? A longitudinal study

INTRODUCTION

This study examined the relationship between racial discrimination by peers and aggression (i.e., self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression) across one year through the moderation of social support from parents, friends, and teachers.

METHODS

Participants were 606 Latinx adolescents from the United States (60% girls; M = 14.36, SD = 0.46). They completed self-report questionnaires on their perceived racial discrimination by peers, and self-reported and peer-nominated relational and physical aggression.

RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS

Racial discrimination by peers was negatively associated with social support from parents, friends, and teachers, as well as positively related to all forms of Time 2 (1 year) self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers were negatively related to all forms of Time 2 aggressive behaviors. Increases in social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the positive association between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression, while lower levels of social support strengthened this association. There were no significant moderating effects of social support from parents, social support, and close friends found for Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. These findings indicate that high social support from parents, friends, and teachers impacts Latinx adolescents reduces the impact of racial discrimination by peers on adolescents' relational aggression.

The Moderation of Online Disinhibition and Sex on the Relationship Between Online Hate Victimization and Perpetration

Online hatred based on attributes, such as origin, race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation, has become a rising public concern across the world. Past research on aggressive behavior suggests strong associations between victimization and perpetration and that toxic online disinhibition and sex might influence this relationship. However, no study investigated both the relationship between online hate victimization and perpetration and the potential moderation effects of toxic online disinhibition on this relationship. To this end, the present study was conducted. The sample consists of 1,480 7th to 10th graders from Germany. Results revealed positive associations between online hate victimization and perpetration. Furthermore, the results support the idea that toxic online disinhibition and sex, by way of moderator effects, affect the relationship between online hate victimization and perpetration. Victims of online hate reported more online hate perpetration when they reported higher levels of online disinhibition and less frequent online hate perpetration when they reported lower levels of toxic online disinhibition. Additionally, the relationship between online hate victimization and perpetration was significantly greater among boys than among girls. Taken together, our results extend previous findings to online hate involvement among adolescents and substantiate the importance to conduct more research on online hate. In addition, our findings highlight the need for prevention and intervention programs that help adolescents deal with the emerging issue of online hate.

Does Peer Rejection Moderate the Associations among Cyberbullying Victimization, Depression, and Anxiety among Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder?

While the consequences of cyberbullying victimization have received some attention in the literature, to date, little is known about the multiple types of strains in adolescents' lives, such as whether cyberbullying victimization and peer rejection increase their vulnerability to depression and anxiety. Even though some research found that adolescents with disabilities show higher risk for cyberbullying victimization, most research has focused on typically developing adolescents. Thus, the present study focused on examining the moderating effect of peer rejection in the relationships between cyberbullying victimization, depression, and anxiety among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. There were 128 participants (89% male; ages ranging from 11⁻16 years old) with autism spectrum disorder in the sixth, seventh, or eighth grade at 16 middle schools in the United States. Participants completed questionnaires on cyberbullying victimization, peer rejection, depression, and anxiety. Results revealed that cyberbullying victimization was associated positively with peer rejection, anxiety, and depression among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Further, peer rejection was linked positively with depression and anxiety. Peer rejection moderated the positive relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression, but not anxiety. Implications for prevention programs and future research are discussed.

Bullying and alexithymia: Are there differences between traditional, cyber, combined bullies, and nonbullies in reading their own emotions?

BACKGROUND

Few studies have examined alexithymia, the inability to identify or describe one's emotions, as a possible correlate of bullying.

AIMS

To investigate whether there are differences among 12-18 year-olds in capacity for identifying and/or describing own emotions between traditional bullies, cyber bullies, combined bullies, and nonbullies.

METHODS

Data from self-report questionnaires completed by 897 female and 652 male 12-18 year-olds (mean 14.5 years, standard deviation 1.68) from Germany and Thailand were analysed using analysis of covariance.

RESULTS

Young people who reported never having bullied others scored lower on the alexithymia scale than traditional, cyber, or combined bullies. There were no differences between traditional and cyber bullies on this measure, but those who operated in both ways had significantly higher alexithymia scores compared with those who bullied in just one modality.

CONCLUSION

Alexithymia is thus likely to be an important factor to consider in prevention and treatment of bullying. We recommend that prevention programmes include elements to help identify and describe one's own emotions, providing additional support, and "training" if alexithymia is identified. When young people use cyber techniques and traditional bullying methods, it seems likely that they will have greatest need in this respect.

Associations between Bystanders and Perpetrators of Online Hate: The Moderating Role of Toxic Online Disinhibition

Hatred directed at members of groups due to their origin, race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation is not new, but it has taken on a new dimension in the online world. To date, very little is known about online hate among adolescents. It is also unknown how online disinhibition might influence the association between being bystanders and being perpetrators of online hate. Thus, the present study focused on examining the associations among being bystanders of online hate, being perpetrators of online hate, and the moderating role of toxic online disinhibition in the relationship between being bystanders and perpetrators of online hate. In total, 1480 students aged between 12 and 17 years old were included in this study. Results revealed positive associations between being online hate bystanders and perpetrators, regardless of whether adolescents had or had not been victims of online hate themselves. The results also showed an association between toxic online disinhibition and online hate perpetration. Further, toxic online disinhibition moderated the relationship between being bystanders of online hate and being perpetrators of online hate. Implications for prevention programs and future research are discussed.

Children's Experiences and Awareness about Impact of Digital Media on Health

Previous research has focused on the associations between technology use and children's health, using mainly quantitative designs. This qualitative study describes technology's impact on physical and mental health from children's perspectives. The differences between children's experiences and awareness of the health-related consequences associated with digital media use were examined. Focus groups and interviews were conducted with children between the ages of 9 and 16 in nine European countries (N = 368). Results of this study indicate that children's experiences of health-related technology impacts are different from their awareness of these impacts. Children's direct experiences with media were less extreme in contrast to their awareness of health problems, which typically involved extreme examples of possible consequences, such as killing people, kidnapping, blindness, and developing learning or psychological disorders. The results are discussed in the context of the "media panic" and "third person effect" theories.

Face-to-face and Cyber Victimization among Adolescents in Six Countries: The Interaction between Attributions and Coping Strategies

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of publicity (private, public) and medium (face-to-face, cyber) on the associations between attributions (i.e., self-blame, aggressor-blame) and coping strategies (i.e., social support, retaliation, ignoring, helplessness) for hypothetical victimization scenarios among 3,442 adolescents (age range 11-15 years; 49% girls) from China, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, India, Japan, and the United States. When Indian and Czech adolescents made more of the aggressor-blame attribution, they used retaliation more for public face-to-face victimization when compared to private face-to-face victimization and public and private cyber victimization. In addition, helplessness was used more for public face-to-face victimization when Chinese adolescents utilized more of the aggressor-blame attribution and the self-blame attribution. Similar patterns were found for Cypriot adolescents, the self-blame attribution, and ignoring. The results have implications for the development of prevention and intervention programs that take into account the various contexts of peer victimization.

Cyber Victimization and Depression among Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Buffering Effects of Parental Mediation and Social Support

The purpose of the present study was to examine the buffering effect of parental mediation of technology use and social support from parents on the association between cyber victimization and depression, assessed over one year. Participants were 113 7th through 9th graders from the Midwestern United States (age ranged from 12 to 17 years old; 86% were male) who were diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. They completed questionnaires on their perceptions of parental mediation of technology use, perceived social support from parents, and self-reported face-to-face and cyber victimization and depression at Wave 1. One year later, at Wave 2, they completed a questionnaire on their depression. Results indicated that the associations between cyber victimization and depression were more negative at higher levels of perceived parental technology mediation and social support, while these associations were more negative at lower levels of these variables, after controlling for face-to-face victimization and Wave 1 depression.

Longitudinal Relations among Cyber, Physical, and Relational Bullying and Victimization: Comparing Majority and Minority Ethnic Youth

Findings from myriad studies have shown that cyberbullying perpetration is significantly positively correlated with relational and physical bullying perpetration in youth. Furthermore, similar trends have been found for victimization type. Despite the wealth of research testing the predictors of both cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, few studies have tested whether belonging to an ethnic minority moderates these effects. The current study sampled 828 youth in the United States. All participants completed measures of cyber, relational, and physical bullying perpetration and victimization two times during the school year. We classified youth into majority (Caucasian) and minority (non-Caucasian) groups based on the ethnicity makeup of the sample. Results showed that majority participants reported less physical bullying, more physical victimization at Time 1, more cyberbullying perpetration at Time 1, more frequency cyberbullying victimization at both data collection times, and higher relational victimization at Time 1. Subsequent longitudinal grouped path model results showed that participant group status (majority vs. minority ethnicity) moderated the relation between Time 1 physical bullying and Time 2 cyberbullying perpetration, the relationship between Time 1 cybervictimization and Time 2 cyberbullying, and the relationship between Time 1 relational victimization and cyber victimization We believe these results highlight the importance of testing ethnicity as a potential moderator in the literature examining predictors of both cyber bullying perpetration and victimization.

Differences in Severity and Emotions for Public and Private Face-to-Face and Cyber Victimization Across Six Countries

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of medium (face-to-face, cyber) and publicity (public, private) in perceptions of severity and emotional responses to victimization among adolescents from China, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, India, Japan, and the United States, while controlling for gender, individualism, and collectivism. There were 3,432 adolescents (age range = 11-15 years, 49% girls) included in this study. They read four hypothetical victimization scenarios, which were manipulated based on the medium and publicity, including public face-to-face victimization, private face-to-face victimization, public cyber victimization, and private cyber victimization. After reading the scenarios, adolescents rated the severity of each scenario and their feelings of anger, sadness, and embarrassment following victimization. Overall, higher severity related to each of the emotional responses. Furthermore, greater perceptions of severity increased adolescents’ feelings of anger, sadness, and embarrassment more often for public victimization and face-to-face victimization than for private victimization and cyber victimization. Some variations were found in these associations based on country of origin. The findings from this study indicate that perceived severity and emotional responses are different in various victimization contexts. Therefore, it is important to consider various victimization contexts.

Cyberstalking Victimization, Depression, and Academic Performance: The Role of Perceived Social Support from Parents

Little attention has been given to adolescents' experience of cyberstalking and how such experiences relate to their depression and academic performance. It is less clear how other variables, such as perceived social support, might impact these associations. Addressing these gaps in the literature, this study investigated the potential moderating effect of perceived social support from parents on the association between cyberstalking victimization and depression and academic performance, each assessed 1 year later, from 11th to 12th grade. Participants were 413 adolescents (ages 17-19 years old; 54 percent female; M = 17.39 years, SD = 0.53) in the 12th grade from a Midwestern city in the United States. They completed questionnaires on their self-reported face-to-face and cyberstalking victimization, depression, and perceived social support from parents. Adolescents' academic performance was also assessed using their school records. During the 12th grade, depression and academic performance were examined again. The findings indicated that the association between cyberstalking victimization and Time 2 depression was much more positive at lower levels of perceived social support, while such an association was more negative at higher levels of perceived social support. Opposite patterns were found for Time 2 academic performance. The results indicate the need for additional research focused on cyberstalking about adolescents.

Adolescents' Perceptions of Popularity-Motivated Behaviors, Characteristics, and Relationships in Cyberspace and Cyber Aggression: The Role of Gender

Research is increasingly revealing that adolescents utilize electronic technologies to promote and/or maintain their social standing among their peer group. Little is known about whether adolescents' perceptions of popularity-motivated behaviors, characteristics, and relationships in cyberspace are associated with popularity-motivated cyber relational aggression. It is also unclear how gender might impact these associations, especially considering that adolescent girls and boys differ in regard to the type of behaviors, characteristics, and relationships they believe contribute to popularity. To this end, this study examined the potential moderating effect of gender on the association between adolescents' perceptions of popularity-motivated behaviors, characteristics, and relationships in cyberspace and their engagement in popularity-motivated cyber relational aggression over 1 year, from seventh to eighth grade. There were 217 eighth graders (51 percent female; M age = 12.13) from three middle schools in a large Midwestern city in the United States included in this research. They completed questionnaires on their popularity-motivated behaviors, characteristics, and relationships in cyberspace and their perpetration of popularity-motivated cyber relational aggression during the seventh grade. One year later, they completed the perpetration of popularity-motivated cyber relational aggression questionnaire. The results revealed that the association between popularity-motivated behaviors, characteristics, and relationships in cyberspace and the perpetration of popularity-motivated cyber relational aggression was stronger for girls, while such an association was not found for boys. These findings indicate the importance of considering cyberspace as an environment in which adolescents can enhance their social standing among peers from their school.