Mobile autopsy teams in the investigation of war crimes in Kosovo 1999

On request of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the Danish-Swedish forensic teams worked in Kosovo during the summer and the fall of 1999. The teams worked mainly as "mobile teams" at sites with few graves. Only two larger sites were examined. Most of the bodies were buried separately. A few "multiple burial" graves were examined, but no mass graves were encountered. The main purpose of the autopsies was to establish the cause and manner of death. Identification was of less importance, but a majority of the bodies had been identified prior to the autopsy. A total of 308 bodies, mainly males, were examined. The age varied greatly with a mean age of 47 years. The most common cause of death was gun shot wounds and the most common manner of death was homicide.

Hydrophobic thickness of fluid planar monooleylglycerol membranes maximally thinned by inversed micellisation

A procedure of making membranes of amphiphilic materials at the bottom of a U-shaped flexible plastic tube within an aqueous medium is described. The membranes were made sufficiently large in order for the annulus area to be neglected. Consequently the hydrophobic thickness of the membrane could be measured by a capacitance technique assuming the relative permittivity of the hydrophobic part of the bilayer. Introduction of an AC microvolt technique allowed manufacture of stable thick membranes by quenching the electroconstriction observed when DC electrical potentials in the millivolt range are used. By continuously monitoring the hydrophobic thickness and by use of the AC microvolt technique the membrane-thinning process by chemical means could be studied in isolation because the electroconstriction was quenched. The maximally thinned hydrophobic thickness of a monooleylglycerol membrane measured at 38 degrees C was found to be 25+/-1.2 A. Criteria and argumentation for maximal thinning of the membrane are put forward. A distinction between genuine and modified cholesterol was demonstrated to be possible by the described method.

The destabilizing effect of body armour on military rifle bullets

Soft body armour is designed to give protection against fragments and some low velocity bullets but is not designed to stop high velocity rifle bullets. Reports have claimed that soft body armour might disturb the stability of bullets that penetrate it, and that this might increase the size of the lesions. The reason for such an effect might be early yaw of the bullet, so we studied the behaviour of bullets which had passed through soft body armour. A 7.62 x 39 mm AK-47 rifle was fired from a permanent stand using full metal jacketed lead core bullets at a range of 30 m. Soft body armour composed for 14 and 28 layers of aramid fibres (Kevlar) was placed at 90 degrees and 60 degrees to the line of fire. Yaw was measured by the shadowgraph technique and a TERMA Doppler radar. A total of ten shots without body armour, and ten shots with each of the two types of body armour at the two angles were used. The results of the shadowgraph and Doppler radar measurements showed a proportional correlation between the two methods of determining the bullet yaw. The semiquantitative approach of the Doppler radar measurement was in agreement with the more concise measurement using the photographic technique. Velocity loss and loss of spin rate from penetrating 14 or 28 ply Kevlar was negligible. We observed induced instability after penetration of 14 and particularly 28 ply Kevlar, dependence of yaw with respect to the number of layers of Kevlar as well as to the angle of the body armour with respect to the line of fire.

DNA typing of cellular material on perforating bullets

DNA typing of cellular debris from perforating bullets was investigated following shooting experiments. A total of 14 perforating gunshots were fired into 9 calves. PCR typing of tissue fragments was done using bovine-specific primers flanking a 247 bp segment within the bovine lactoglobulin gene. Positive amplification results were obtained for all 9 hollow point (HP) and all 5 full metal jacket (FMJ) bullets. In contrast to HP bullets the smooth surfaces of the FMJ bullets did not have visible biological material, which resulted in weaker bands in the DNA analysis compared to HP bullets. Tissue seemed to accumulate at the base of the projectiles. Due to the lack of a suitable marker in bovines, only a species identification was carried out on the DNA from tissue on the bullets. The small amount of DNA extract (up to 5%) required for specification is promising for the successful application of a set of short tandem repeat (STR) systems for individualization in humans. By individualizing tissue on perforating bullets, the bullet and the victim it passed through can be linked. This can assist the investigation of gunshot deaths, especially when several persons are involved in a gun fight.

New technology in wound ballistics: the Doppler radar

The feasibility of using Doppler radar to obtain more accurate measurements of velocity and yaw angle of bullets was investigated. Anesthetized pigs were shot at a range of 9-10 meters, and velocity measurements were obtained using Doppler radar and photocells. The data from the two types of equipment was compared. Excellent correspondence was found between the measurements of entry velocities of low, medium, and high velocity bullets, i.e., an average deviation of less than 1% (range 0-2%). Measurements of exit velocities of low and medium velocity bullets corresponded just as well, but measurements of exit velocities of high velocity bullets was complicated in both methods by signal cluttering caused by fragments of tissue released from the exit wound and by the deflection of the bullet. A Doppler radar was used to follow the movements of the bullet, to determine the velocity, and, if possible, to determine when the bullet stabilizes and the exact yaw angles continuously. We were able to design a system in which even small caliber bullets could be followed for 15-20 meters. It was possible to detect yaw even with these small calibers, and the radar was not disturbed by additional equipment. Using Doppler radar to measure velocity offers important benefits--simple set up, minimal risk of damage to equipment by stray bullets, and very good accuracy. The results of measuring yaw angles of bullets are promising, as far as determining the point of stability is concerned, but further work is necessary to be able to measure the angle of yaw exactly.

Training in wound ballistics: operation exercise at the Defence Medical Training Centre

The Defence Medical Training Centre has for a number of years been conducting exercises to give Danish National Service (conscript) surgeons and dentists the opportunity to observe and treat gunshot wounds. The exercises are intended to complement the theoretical training given at the Centre, which has been granted permission by the Ministry of Justice to use experimental animals in the training program. The animals used are shot in the abdomen and both thighs and are kept anesthetized during the exercise but, if possible, breathe spontaneously. Assisted ventilation is available at all times. The weapons used are military weapons: a low velocity 9-mm semiautomatic pistol, SIG P210, a medium velocity rifle, US M1 Carbine, and a high velocity rifle, the AK-74. The ammunition used is conventional, full metal jacketed bullets. Having been shot, the animals are given first aid by the participants who play the roles of ordinary soldiers. The animals are then taken to the regimental aid post, where they are attended by a surgeon for the first time. Intravenous tubes, chest tubes, hemostats, etc. are applied, whereupon the animals are transported by military ambulance to the field hospital. There the abdominal wounds are examined by laparotomy and relevant intraabdominal procedures are performed. The leg wounds are treated by debridement along the lines advocated by the Emergency War Surgery-NATO Handbook. This exercise allows the Defence Medical training Centre to teach wound ballistics in a realistic setting. It is hoped that the pupils will never need the skills acquired at the exercise, but, next to going to war or to some of the more violent parts of the world, Operation Exercise is the best preparation for the demands placed on a medical officer.

Terminal ballistics of 7.62 mm NATO bullets: experiments in ordnance gelatin

Military rifle bullets are assumed to tumble 180 degrees in the target and end up facing backwards, but intact. It has been claimed, however, that a German version of the 7.62 mm x 51 (7.62 mm NATO) bullet may fragment at ranges up to 100 m. A lack of strength in the jacket, causing it to break at the cannelure when hitting the target at high impact velocity, has been held responsible for this behaviour. The Danish Armed Forces use a 7.62 mm x 51 bullet, produced by Ammunitionsarsenalet (AMA), which is similar in design. Since the legality of this and similar bullets may be questioned in view of the Hague Declaration of 1899, we decided to supplement an investigation of actual fatal cases with an investigation using ordnance gelatin. In order to compare various makes of bullets on an equal basis, they were fired into ordnance gelatin at various ranges and, consequently with various impact velocities. Bullets manufactured by the US Government, Bofors (Sweden), Raufoss (Norway) and AMA were used. The AMA bullet M/75 used previously was found to fragment at ranges up to approx. 100 m, corresponding to impact velocities of approx. 715 m/sec, while all the other 3 types of bullets were intact at ranges down to 2.5 m, corresponding to impact velocities of approx. 810 m/sec. The final prototype of an AMA bullet to answer this criticism proved capable of withstanding fragmentation as well as the foreign makes previously tested. It will enter series production in late 1995.

The crash of the Partnair Convair 340/580 in the Skagerrak: traumatological aspects

In September 1989 an aircraft carrying 55 people crashed into the sea north of Denmark. There was no warning of the crash. The medico-legal investigation of the accident concentrated on finding clues to the cause of the accident, and identifying the victims, all of whom perished. These were found in two groups--31 were immediately recovered from the surface of the sea and 19 were collected from the sea or shore during the following months. The injuries in the two groups differed, indicating that the aircraft broke up in mid-air. One group probably fell into the sea after a free fall, while the other probably remained in the wreckage until hitting the surface. The victims' injuries showed no evidence of fire or explosion. The technical investigators concluded that the aircraft broke up due to a structural failure in the tail.

The crash of the Partnair Convair 340/580 in the Skagerrak: identification of the deceased

In 1989, a Norwegian Convair aircraft crashed into the sea near the northwest coast of Jutland. Apparently, the aircraft had disintegrated in midair. On board were 50 passengers and a crew of 5. There were no survivors. Immediately after the crash 31 bodies were found. During the next 10 days, 11 bodies were recovered from the seabed and within the next 6 months, a further 8 bodies were found. Five bodies were never recovered. All the bodies found were positively identified based on personal effects combined with medical and dental findings. Different models for cooperation between the Primary ID-group, who were responsible for the final identification, and the ID-teams, who performed the examination of the bodies, were tested. It was concluded that the fastest and most reliable results were obtained when the ID-teams responsible for the examination of the bodies also took part in the reconciliation sessions.

The initial yaw of some commonly encountered military rifle bullets

The yaw angle in flight of high velocity bullets has been discussed for a number of years, due to its contribution to the tumbling of the bullet in the target. Since few unclassified reports of contemporary bullets are available, we investigated the yaw angles of the bullets used in the M16A2, G3, AK-47 and AK-74 rifles by the shadowgraph technique. Our results show that bullets from military rifles tend to stabilize at less than 3 degrees within 25 m, and this angle has been thought to be insignificant in the production of gunshot wounds. Bullets from some modern small calibre high velocity rifles such as the M16A2 and the AK-74 can have quite large yaw angles in their initial flight. The results, which confirm the opinion of contemporary writers, should settle the controversy in this area of wound ballistics.

Doppler radar velocity measurements for wound ballistics experiments

Bullet velocity is a basic parameter in wound ballistics studies. It is usually measured electronically by means of a variety of solid or photoelectric barriers connected to equipment measuring the time elapsing between impulses, enabling the velocity to be calculated. With the advent of Doppler radar velocity measurement of large calibre artillery shells, the use of this equipment for wound ballistics experiments was investigated. Anaesthetized pigs were shot at a range of 9-10 metres and the velocities measured by Doppler radar and photocells were compared. A very good correspondence between the measured entry and exit velocities in low and medium velocity bullets was found, i.e. an average deviation of less than 1% (range 0-2%) between the two types of equipment. In high velocity bullets measurement of entry velocities was just as good, but in both methods measurement of the exit velocity was complicated by the cluttering of signals by fragments of tissue released from the exit wound and the deflection of the bullet, Doppler radar offers important benefits - simple set up, minimal risk of damage of equipment by stray bullets and very good accuracy - and may replace photocells and similar equipment in studies involving low and medium velocity bullets. Measurement of the exit velocity of high velocity bullets is unsatisfactory in both methods, and it is necessary to improve the Doppler radar method in order to measure that as well.

Terminal ballistics of the 7.62 mm NATO bullet. Autopsy findings

The 7.62 mm x 51 military rifle bullet (7.62 mm NATO) as manufactured in Denmark, and in some other countries as well, has been claimed to fragment when fired at ranges encountered in forensic practice. All autopsied cases of death due to this bullet in Denmark since 1975 were investigated by studying autopsy reports and the bullets retrieved by the police. With one exception, all bullets that were found in, or known to have passed through the body, had fragmented. This behaviour is assumed to be due to a lack of strength in the jacket causing it to break at the cannelure when hitting the target at high velocity. The fragments will increase the already sizeable lesions and may leave the body through several separate exit wounds, presenting problems both for the surgeon treating survivors and for the forensic scientists when defining the direction of the shot. The legality of this and similar bullets in view of the Hague Declaration of 1899 may be questioned, and we feel that the bullet should be redesigned. A programme to this end has been initiated by the Danish state owned ammunition factory.

Cytology in ballistics. An experimental investigation of tissue fragments on full metal jacketed bullets using routine cytological techniques

Particulate matter on bullets may be used to decide which target they have passed through, and tissue fragments are the obvious candidates for study. In order to determine if recognizable tissue fragments could be found on full metal jacketed bullets, 44 such bullets were fired against anesthetized pigs and 36 were recovered. On 4 bullets fragments of tissue could be identified by routine cytological techniques. The procedure should be attempted in selected cases where it is imperative to know if a bullet has passed through tissue.

The peritoneal elastic lamina

The structure and extent of the submesothelial elastic tissue of the peritoneum, tentatively termed the peritoneal elastic lamina (lamina elastica peritonei, LEP), was studied in autopsy and biopsy material by light microscopy. The investigation confirms the presence of a well-defined network of elastic fibres just beneath the basement membrane of the visceral and parietal peritoneum in man. The LEP is claimed to be analogous to similar elastic tissue in other serosal cavities, the pleura and the pericardium, as previously described. The LEP may be useful for normal anatomical as well as pathoanatomical investigations.

[Refusal of autopsy in hospitals. Development in the municipal hospital of Arhus after the enforcement of the new legislation]

The frequency of refusal for autopsy by relatives of the deceased was investigated in Arhus Municipal Hospital before and after revision of the Danish legislation concerning these matters. The frequency of refusals increased from 28.9% to 49.8%. Energetic efforts by clinicians and pathologists are required to reverse this trend.

Hemodialysis-related induction of beta 2-microglobulin synthesis and release by mononuclear phagocytes

We have investigated beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2M) synthesis and release by blood leukocytes and isolated mononuclear phagocytes. Since beta 2M was discovered to form amyloid fibrils in patients undergoing long term, chronic hemodialysis and monomeric beta 2M levels in plasma of these patients are highly elevated, and since hemodialysis-related factors that increase beta 2M production are unknown, we evaluated beta 2M production by mononuclear phagocytes under a variety of conditions. We utilized a novel enzyme-lined immunoabsorbant assay to quantitate beta 2M release. Adherence of macrophages onto polystyrene or Cuprophan membranes does not induce beta 2M synthesis or release. In contrast, interaction of macrophages with lipopolysaccharide, gamma-interferon, tumor necrosis factor, or interleukin 1 induces synthesis or release. In contrast, interaction of macrophages with lipopolysaccharide, gamma-interferon, tumor necrosis factor, or interleukin 1 induces synthesis and release of beta 2M, indicating that beta 2M synthesis is increased during macrophage activation. Exposing leukocytes or macrophages to changes in osmotic or oncotic pressure induces a rapid release of beta 2M and interleukin 1 into the cellular medium. These results suggest that during hemodialysis, beta 2M production is more likely to result from endotoxin contamination, or osmotic and oncotic changes, rather than direct interaction of mononuclear phagocytes with cellulosic membranes.

Direct method for detecting small quantities of hepatitis B virus DNA in serum and plasma using the polymerase chain reaction

Serum components inhibit DNA polymerase, thereby obviating direct detection of serum viral DNA sequences by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This has necessitated extraction of nucleic acid from sera before performing PCR and has resulted in loss of sensitivity. By adsorbing virus to a solid surface (microcentrifuge tubes or antibody coated microparticles) followed by proteinase K digestion, as little as three viruses per 200 microliters serum may be directly detected by PCR without nucleic acid extraction. The sensitivity is dependent on the surface area of the adsorptive surface and is increased by having antibodies on the adsorptive surface. The nucleic acid sequence of the amplified DNA fragments may be directly determined by the dideoxy method. Of 24 plasma samples from HBsAg+ volunteer blood donors, HBV DNA was detected in 7 by dot blot assay, 7 by liquid hybridization, and 9 by PCR. PCR detected DNA in every sample that was positive by another assay. Analysis of serial samples of two patients with acute self-limited hepatitis B found detectable HBsAg and pre-S2 antigenemia before HBV DNA by the PCR method. These results suggest that surface antigenemia may precede viremia during acute hepatitis.

Hemodialysis-related induction of beta-2-microglobulin and interleukin-1 synthesis and release by mononuclear phagocytes

We have investigated beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2M) synthesis and release by blood leukocytes and isolated mononuclear phagocytes. Recent interest in beta 2M has developed since the discovery that this protein forms amyloid fibrils in patients undergoing long-term, chronic hemodialysis and that these patients have greatly elevated levels of monomeric beta 2M in their circulation. Since hemodialysis-related factors that increase beta 2M production are unknown, we evaluated beta 2M production by freshly prepared leukocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages under a variety of conditions. We utilized a novel enzyme-linked immunoabsorbant assay to quantitate beta 2M concentrations, and monitored interleukin-1 and beta 2M synthesis by immunoprecipitation. Incubation of leukocytes with Cuprophan or Hemophan does not increase beta 2M release. Adherence of macrophages onto polystyrene or Cuprophan membranes induces neither interleukin-1 nor beta 2M synthesis or release. In contrast, interaction of macrophages with lipopolysaccharide, gamma-interferon, tumor necrosis factor, or interleukin-1 induces synthesis and release of beta 2 M, indicating that beta 2 M synthesis is increased during macrophage activation. Exposing leukocytes or macrophages to changes in osmotic or oncotic pressure induces a rapid release of beta 2M and interleukin-1 into the cellular medium. These results suggest that during hemodialysis, beta 2M production is more likely to result from endotoxin contamination, or osmotic and oncotic changes, rather than direct interaction of mononuclear phagocytes with Cuprophan membranes.

The effect of the THV bullet in animal tissue

The Très Haute Vitesse (THV) bullet was introduced to meet the requirements of law enforcement officers, as an alternative to larger calibre fully jacketed bullets, since expanding or exploding bullets are not relevant in Europe. To examine the effect of the THV bullet in tissue, especially the size of the lesion and the degree of overpenetration, 11 recently killed pigs were shot with the weapons used by the Danish Police Force and a 9-mm pistol for reference. The ammunition was THV in the calibres 7.65 mm, 0.38, and 9 mm, using conventional fully jacketed bullets for comparison. The lesions were considerably larger when the THV bullet was used, the entry wound in particular, being roughly twice the diameter in the case of the THV bullet as compared to the fully jacketed bullet of similar calibre. Only one 7.65-mm THV bullet overpenetrated the target when fired against the thorax or abdomen of the pigs and then with only minimal residual energy. All fully jacketed 7.65-mm bullets, all 0.38 bullets, with the exception of one THV bullet, and all 9-mm bullets overpenetrated the target. The 7.65-mm THV bullet produced a lesion which in its extent resembled that of the fully jacketed 9-mm bullet, and should be a suitable alternative for the Danish Police Force.

Beta-2-microglobulin synthesis is increased during activation of human monocytes

We have investigated the regulation of beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2-M) synthesis by monocytes. Recent interest in beta 2-M has developed since the discovery that this protein forms amyloid fibrils in patients undergoing long-term, chronic hemodialysis. The beta 2-M amyloidosis is linked to the greatly elevated levels of monomeric beta 2-M in their circulation. Since factors that govern beta 2-M release from plasma membranes are not known, we endeavored to evaluate beta 2-M release during monocyte activation. Utilizing a human monocyte-like cell line, U937, we studied the effect of bacterial toxin stimulation on levels of membrane, cell surface, and supernatant beta 2-M. We now present a novel method to purify beta 2-M, a solid-phase radioimmunoassay to measure soluble beta 2-M, and an ELISA to measure membrane beta 2-M. Using these methods we found that the levels of beta 2-M in the cell membrane or on the cell surface did not change during monocyte activation. However, activation did induce a significant increase in the concentration of beta 2-M in monocyte supernatants, indicating that beta 2-M synthesis by monocytes is increased during monocyte activation. These results suggest that monocyte activation by hemodialysis membranes may be a contributing factor to the observed increase in circulating beta 2-M levels.

Glucocorticoids inhibit transcriptional and post-transcriptional expression of interleukin 1 in U937 cells

We investigated effects of corticosteroids on interleukin 1 (IL-1) production in monocyte-like tumor cell line, U937. Release of IL-1 activity by bacterial toxin-stimulated cells was completely blocked by 10 nM dexamethasone (Dex). We examined the question whether corticosteroids suppress IL-1 production by blocking transcription of IL-1 mRNA, or by blocking IL-1 synthesis at a post-transcriptional step. Northern blot hybridization analysis indicated that Dex, 10 nM, completely blocked accumulation of IL-1 beta-encoding mRNA in U937 cells. Dex-mediated inhibition of IL-1 release appeared to be glucocorticoid receptor-mediated and was abrogated by progesterone. In addition, Dex at high concentrations could inhibit post-transcriptional synthesis of IL-1 by prestimulated U937 cells. Although Dex, 500 nM, did not change IL-1 mRNA levels in prestimulated cells, it completely blocked IL-1 release and induced a transient increase in cellular cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) levels. Dex-mediated inhibition of IL-1 release in prestimulated cells is likely to occur via increased levels of cAMP, which have been shown to block post-transcriptional IL-1 synthesis. Our results indicate that glucocorticoids suppress IL-1 synthesis by two distinct mechanisms, blocking transcription of IL-1 mRNA during monocyte activation, and blocking post-transcriptional IL-1 synthesis via cAMP.

Glucocorticoids inhibit transcriptional and post-transcriptional expression of interleukin 1 in U937 cells

We investigated effects of corticosteroids on interleukin 1 (IL-1) production in monocyte-like tumor cell line, U937. Release of IL-1 activity by bacterial toxin-stimulated cells was completely blocked by 10 nM dexamethasone (Dex). We examined the question whether corticosteroids suppress IL-1 production by blocking transcription of IL-1 mRNA, or by blocking IL-1 synthesis at a post-transcriptional step. Northern blot hybridization analysis indicated that Dex, 10 nM, completely blocked accumulation of IL-1 beta-encoding mRNA in U937 cells. Dex-mediated inhibition of IL-1 release appeared to be glucocorticoid receptor-mediated and was abrogated by progesterone. In addition, Dex at high concentrations could inhibit post-transcriptional synthesis of IL-1 by prestimulated U937 cells. Although Dex, 500 nM, did not change IL-1 mRNA levels in prestimulated cells, it completely blocked IL-1 release and induced a transient increase in cellular cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) levels. Dex-mediated inhibition of IL-1 release in prestimulated cells is likely to occur via increased levels of cAMP, which have been shown to block post-transcriptional IL-1 synthesis. Our results indicate that glucocorticoids suppress IL-1 synthesis by two distinct mechanisms, blocking transcription of IL-1 mRNA during monocyte activation, and blocking post-transcriptional IL-1 synthesis via cAMP.

Cystosarcoma phylloides with lobular and ductal carcinoma in situ

Malignant change of the epithelium in cystosarcoma phylloides is a rare occurrence, the most frequent occurrence being infiltrating carcinoma of various types and lobular carcinoma in situ, while ductal carcinoma in situ is much more rare. We describe a case of lobular and ductal carcinoma in situ in the same case of cystosarcoma phylloides.

Analysis of the DR beta chains from two DRw6 cell lines (WT46 and WT52): recombination in vivo may have generated new haplotypes

The HLA-DRw6 haplotype of the class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens exhibits unusual complexity and cannot be uniquely typed serologically. The DR beta chains expressed by consanguineous homozygous DRw6 typing cells WT46 and WT52 were biochemically analyzed using three monoclonal antibodies (mAb) that recognize denatured DR beta chains. The results of isoelectric focusing and N-terminal sequencing demonstrate that each DRw6 B-cell line expresses two DR beta chains. Evidence of an exchange of mAb epitopes involving the two DR beta chains of one of these cell lines was obtained and may be explained by a recombinational mechanism involving reciprocal exchange of genetic segments of the DR beta chains, one of which may encode the putative DRw6 chain and the other the chain carrying the MT2 allotypic determinant. Since a recombinational hot spot has been shown to occur uniquely in the mouse MHC within the E beta gene, the occurrence of a recombination within the human homolog, DR(MT2) beta, could reflect some specific feature of this MHC region. Comparison of the DR beta chains of the WT46 and WT52 cell lines with those of a third DRw6 cell line, LB, suggests that two alleles of MT2 occur.

Prostaglandins posttranscriptionally inhibit monocyte expression of interleukin 1 activity by increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate

The effect of prostaglandins and cyclic 3',5'-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) on expression of human interleukin 1 (IL 1) activity was investigated in the promonocytic tumor cell line U937 and peripheral blood monocytes. After in vitro stimulation by bacteriotoxins, monocytes express IL 1 activity, as measured by the thymocyte costimulation assay. Although high doses of bacteriotoxins impaired expression of IL 1, this effect was reversed by indomethacin. When stimulated monocytes were cultured with exogenous prostaglandins, including PGE2 and PGI2, expression of IL 1 was reversibly inhibited. Interaction of U937 cells with PGE2 resulted in a transient increase in cellular cAMP concentration during the first hour of exposure. Other agents that cause an increase in levels of cellular cAMP, including theophylline, isobutylmethylxanthine, dibutyryl cAMP, or cholera toxin, also reversibly reduced expression of IL 1 by stimulated monocytes. The effect of these agents on levels of IL 1 mRNA was analyzed. TSS-stimulated increase in levels of IL 1-encoding mRNA was studied both by DNA-RNA hybridization analysis performed with an IL 1-beta cDNA probe and by injecting U937 polyadenylated mRNA into frog oocytes and then measuring expression of IL 1 activity in the oocyte supernatant. Agents that increased levels of cellular cAMP did not alter levels of IL 1 mRNA accumulation or global protein synthesis in TSS-stimulated U937 cells. IL 1 stimulates synthesis of prostaglandins that reach high levels during immune and inflammatory reactions. Our data suggest that prostaglandins participate in an autoregulatory pathway that posttranscriptionally reduces expression of IL 1 activity.

Prostaglandins posttranscriptionally inhibit monocyte expression of interleukin 1 activity by increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate

The effect of prostaglandins and cyclic 3',5'-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) on expression of human interleukin 1 (IL 1) activity was investigated in the promonocytic tumor cell line U937 and peripheral blood monocytes. After in vitro stimulation by bacteriotoxins, monocytes express IL 1 activity, as measured by the thymocyte costimulation assay. Although high doses of bacteriotoxins impaired expression of IL 1, this effect was reversed by indomethacin. When stimulated monocytes were cultured with exogenous prostaglandins, including PGE2 and PGI2, expression of IL 1 was reversibly inhibited. Interaction of U937 cells with PGE2 resulted in a transient increase in cellular cAMP concentration during the first hour of exposure. Other agents that cause an increase in levels of cellular cAMP, including theophylline, isobutylmethylxanthine, dibutyryl cAMP, or cholera toxin, also reversibly reduced expression of IL 1 by stimulated monocytes. The effect of these agents on levels of IL 1 mRNA was analyzed. TSS-stimulated increase in levels of IL 1-encoding mRNA was studied both by DNA-RNA hybridization analysis performed with an IL 1-beta cDNA probe and by injecting U937 polyadenylated mRNA into frog oocytes and then measuring expression of IL 1 activity in the oocyte supernatant. Agents that increased levels of cellular cAMP did not alter levels of IL 1 mRNA accumulation or global protein synthesis in TSS-stimulated U937 cells. IL 1 stimulates synthesis of prostaglandins that reach high levels during immune and inflammatory reactions. Our data suggest that prostaglandins participate in an autoregulatory pathway that posttranscriptionally reduces expression of IL 1 activity.

Immunochemically purified DR antigens in liposomes stimulate xenogeneic cytolytic T cells in secondary in vitro cultures

A monoclonal antibody directed against the human class II major histocompatibility antigen DR was generated. Use of this antibody, LB3.1, allowed isolation of large amounts of highly purified DR by immunoaffinity chromatography. The DR was reconstituted into liposomes and shown to stimulate secondary xenogeneic cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTL) specific for targets expressing DR antigens. DR digested with neuraminidase was equally as effective as native DR at stimulating CTL, while denatured DR and other purified membrane proteins were much less effective. The DR liposome-induced CTL lysed only target cells expressing class II antigens. Cytolysis of targets bearing class II antigens was blocked by DR-specific antisera.

Purification and characterization of a unique human interleukin 1 from the tumor cell line U937

Interleukin 1 (IL 1) produced by a human tumor cell line was purified to homogeneity by a three-step chromatographic method and was tested in various assays for multiple biologic properties. The purified IL 1 stimulated the proliferative response of the D10.G4.1 cell line, a mouse IL 1 indicator T cell; caused the release of prostaglandin E2 and prostacyclin from cultured human foreskin fibroblasts and from primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells; and elicited characteristic endogenous pyrogen fever in rabbits. To stimulate IL 1 production, the histiocytic lymphoma cell line U937 was incubated with the exotoxin from toxic shock strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Supernatants from stimulated U937 cells were concentrated, and were applied to a reverse-phase HPLC column. IL 1 activity was eluted from the column at high acetonitrile concentration. Subsequent chromatography over hydroxyapatite yielded a single IL 1 species with a pI of 5.5. IL 1 was then purified to homogeneity by gel exclusion HPLC migrating as a 14 kDa species. The molecular size was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and was visualized as a single molecule by silver staining; biologic activity was recovered from the same region of the gel. Limited N-terminal sequence analysis suggested some homology to the pI 7 form of the human blood monocyte IL 1. The pI 5.5 IL 1 produced by U937 cells was only partially neutralized with anti-human monocyte IL 1 antibody, suggesting that U937-derived IL 1 is structurally related to one of the molecularly cloned IL 1 species. IL 1 from stimulated U937 cells possesses the functional characteristics of monocyte IL 1 but may represent a structurally unique IL 1 species, as determined by sequence analysis, size, and antibody reactivity.

Purification and characterization of a unique human interleukin 1 from the tumor cell line U937

Interleukin 1 (IL 1) produced by a human tumor cell line was purified to homogeneity by a three-step chromatographic method and was tested in various assays for multiple biologic properties. The purified IL 1 stimulated the proliferative response of the D10.G4.1 cell line, a mouse IL 1 indicator T cell; caused the release of prostaglandin E2 and prostacyclin from cultured human foreskin fibroblasts and from primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells; and elicited characteristic endogenous pyrogen fever in rabbits. To stimulate IL 1 production, the histiocytic lymphoma cell line U937 was incubated with the exotoxin from toxic shock strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Supernatants from stimulated U937 cells were concentrated, and were applied to a reverse-phase HPLC column. IL 1 activity was eluted from the column at high acetonitrile concentration. Subsequent chromatography over hydroxyapatite yielded a single IL 1 species with a pI of 5.5. IL 1 was then purified to homogeneity by gel exclusion HPLC migrating as a 14 kDa species. The molecular size was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and was visualized as a single molecule by silver staining; biologic activity was recovered from the same region of the gel. Limited N-terminal sequence analysis suggested some homology to the pI 7 form of the human blood monocyte IL 1. The pI 5.5 IL 1 produced by U937 cells was only partially neutralized with anti-human monocyte IL 1 antibody, suggesting that U937-derived IL 1 is structurally related to one of the molecularly cloned IL 1 species. IL 1 from stimulated U937 cells possesses the functional characteristics of monocyte IL 1 but may represent a structurally unique IL 1 species, as determined by sequence analysis, size, and antibody reactivity.

A monoclonal antibody that recognizes the alpha chain of HLA-DR antigens

A monoclonal antibody, HC2.1, has been generated that specifically reacts with both the denatured and the in vitro translated alpha chain of the DR antigen. Although HC2.1 antibody reacted with the alpha chain of protein immunoprecipitated by two DR-specific monoclonal antibodies, L227 and LB3.1, it did not react with the alpha chain of the DQ1 antigen immunoprecipitated by the monoclonal antibody, Genox 3.53. The isoelectric focusing pattern of the alpha chain precipitated by HC2.1 antibody was invariant across a range of DR specificities within a panel of lymphoblastoid cells. The alpha chain of DR antigen from a B cell line was purified by HC2.1-Sepharose immunoaffinity chromatography and limited amino acid sequence analysis was carried out with Staphylococcus aureus SV8 protease fragments purified by high-pressure liquid chromatography. The sequence analysis confirmed that the antigen reactive with HD2.1 antibody is encoded by the DR alpha chain gene.

Absorption kinetics and steady-state plasma concentrations of theophylline following therapeutic doses of two sustained-release preparations

Ten healthy volunteers received two sustained-release preparations as a single and multiple dose regimen in an open crossover study. Plasma theophylline concentrations were measured by an enzyme immunoassay. The limited fluctuation of the theophylline levels at steady state, with twice daily administration, clearly demonstrated the marked sustained release properties of both preparations. Results indicate similar properties for the two preparations. Significant correlations between the single dose period and steady state were found for Cmax and AUC (r = 0.76 and 0.87, respectively) with one formulation, whereas this was not the case for the other (r = 0.27 and 0.49). The daily dose necessary to keep the plasma concentration within the therapeutic range of 55-110 mumole/liter varied from 7.9 to 22.9 mg/kg. Only mild side effects were recorded, but they were not correlated to the plasma theophylline concentration.

cDNA clones for the heavy chain of HLA-DR antigens obtained after immunopurification of polysomes by monoclonal antibody

A monoclonal antibody (HC 2.1) directed against the separated heavy chain of HLA-DR has been prepared. By binding HC 2.1 to polysomes from human B lymphoblastoid cells followed by the use of a protein A-Sepharose column as an immunoadsorbent, we have purified the mRNA coding for the HLA-DR heavy chain nearly to homogeneity. The immunopurified mRNA has been used to prepare labeled cDNA with which to probe cDNA libraries. Double-stranded cDNA was also made from the immunopurified mRNA and cloned directly into pBR322. Two clones, one from each of the above procedures, positively selected DR heavy chain message as assayed by cell-free translation and immunoprecipitation. One clone, pDRH-2 [500 base pairs plus 75 base pairs of poly(A)] contains the entire 3' untranslated region as well as coding information for the carboxy-terminal hydrophilic intracellular domain and part of the hydrophobic transmembrane region. Results of carboxypeptidase digestion of the heavy chains from detergent-solubilized (p34) and papain-treated (p33) HLA-DR antigen were consistent with the predicted protein sequence. Specific immunopurification of polysomes by defined monoclonal antibodies followed by direct cloning of cDNA to the highly purified mRNA is a powerful method for obtaining identified cDNA clones.

Plasma concentrations of the cyclic nucleotides, adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate and guanosine 3'.5'-monophosphate, in healthy adults treated with theophylline

Plasma concentrations of cyclic adenosine monophosphate and cyclic guanosine monophosphate were measured in 10 health adults before, during and after periods of theophylline administration. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate concentrations did not change significantly, but cyclic guanosine monophosphate concentrations decreased by 29% on average when theophylline was administered. The change in cyclic guanosine monophosphate was not correlated to the plasma concentration of theophylline in the range studied.