Co-occurrence of dual lineages within Simulium (Gomphostilbia) atratum De Meijere in the Indonesian Archipelago along Wallace's Line

Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences were utilized to infer the population genetic structure of Simulium (Gomphostilbia) atratum De Meijere, an endemic simulid species to Indonesia. Both median-joining haplotype network and maximum-likelihood tree revealed two genetic lineages (A and B) within the species, with an overlap distribution in Lombok, which is situated along Wallace's line. Genetic differentiation and gene flow with varying frequencies (FST = 0.02-0.967; Nm = 0.01-10.58) were observed between populations of S. (G.) atratum, of which population pairs of different lineages showed high genetic differentiation. Notably, the high genetic distance of up to 5.92 % observed within S. (G.) atratum in Lombok was attributed to the existence of two genetically distinct lineages. The co-occurrence of distinct lineages in Lombok indicated that Wallace's line did not act as faunistic border for S. (G.) atratum in the present study. Moreover, both lineages also exhibited unimodal distributions and negative values of neutrality tests, suggesting a pattern of population expansion. The expansion and divergence time estimation suggested that the two lineages of S. (G.) atratum diverged and expanded during the Pleistocene era in Indonesia.

Molecular detection and identification of Plasmodium spp. isolated from captive-bred cynomolgus monkeys in Bogor, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Asian macaques are natural hosts of several Plasmodium species. Some monkey malaria parasites may infect humans and cause zoonotic infections. This study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of monkey malaria parasites in Bogor, Indonesia, based on molecular detection and identification, particularly in cynomolgus monkeys, which have a wide geographic distribution and share extensive habitats with humans. These data are needed to evaluate the status of simian malaria among macaques in Bogor and to study the potential risks to human health. These updated data will provide sufficient information for implementing malaria control strategies in the future and for developing a potential malaria vaccine using monkeys as an animal model.

Materials and Methods

Blood samples of 274 cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were collected and identified using microscopy. DNA was extracted from positive blood samples and analyzed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) target gene using consensus primers for Plasmodium species. The PCR-positive samples were then nucleotide-sequenced using commercial sequencing services, analyzed using the BioEdit program, and aligned using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool from the National Center for Biotechnology Information. Phylogenetic trees were constructed using MEGA 11.0 and the neighbor-joining (NJ) method to determine the kinship of Plasmodium. Bootstrapping was performed using 500 replicates to assess the robustness of tree topologies.

Results

Thirty-eight of the 274 microscopically positive samples for Plasmodium spp. were also positive using PCR, resulting in a 1640 bp amplicon. Further, analysis using nucleotide sequencing confirmed that these positive samples were Plasmodium inui with more than 99% nucleotide identity compared to GenBank sequences. Phylogenetic tree analysis of the SSU rRNA partial gene showed that all our isolates clustered and were closely related to a P. inui strain isolated from cynomolgus macaques in South China in 2011.

Conclusion

P. inui is the predominant malaria parasite in cynomolgus monkeys from Bogor.

DNA barcoding of black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Indonesia

BACKGROUND

DNA barcoding is a valuable taxonomic tool for rapid and accurate species identification and cryptic species discovery in black flies. Indonesia has 143 nominal species of black flies, but information on their biological aspects, including vectorial capacity and biting habits, remains underreported, in part because of identification problems. The current study represents the first comprehensive DNA barcoding of Indonesian black flies using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequences.

METHODS

Genomic DNA of Indonesian black fly samples were extracted and sequenced, producing 86 COI sequences in total. Two hundred four COI sequences, including 118 GenBank sequences, were analysed. Maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) trees were constructed and species delimitation analyses, including ASAP, GMYC and single PTP, were performed to determine whether the species of Indonesian black flies could be delineated. Intra- and interspecific genetic distances were also calculated and the efficacy of COI sequences for species identification was tested.

RESULTS

The DNA barcodes successfully distinguished most morphologically distinct species (> 80% of sampled taxa). Nonetheless, high maximum intraspecific distances (3.32-13.94%) in 11 species suggested cryptic diversity. Notably, populations of the common taxa Simulium (Gomphostilbia) cheongi, S. (Gomphostilbia) sheilae, S. (Nevermannia) feuerborni and S. (Simulium) tani in the islands of Indonesia were genetically distinct from those on the Southeast Asian mainland (Malaysia and Thailand). Integrated morphological, cytogenetic and nuclear DNA studies are warranted to clarify the taxonomic status of these more complex taxa.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed that COI barcoding is a promising taxonomic tool for Indonesian black flies. The DNA barcodes will aid in correct identification and genetic study of Indonesian black flies, which will be helpful in the control and management of potential vector species.

Risk Assessment on the Release of Wolbachia-Infected Aedes aegypti in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Wolbachia-infected Aedes aegypti is the latest technology that was developed to eliminate dengue fever. The Ministry of Research and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia (Kemenristekdikti) established an expert group to identify future potential risks that may occur over a period of 30 years associated with the release of Wolbachia-infected Ae. aegypti. The risk assessment consisted of identifying different hazards that may have impacts on humans and the environment. From the consensus among the experts, there were 56 hazards identified and categorized into 4 components, namely, ecological matters, efficacy in mosquito management, economic and sociocultural issues, and public health standards. There were 19 hazards in the ecological group. The overall likelihood in the ecology of the mosquito is very low (0.05), with moderate consequence (0.74), which resulted in negligible risk. For the efficacy in mosquito management group, there were 12 hazards that resulted in very low likelihood (0.11) with high consequence (0.85). The overall risk for mosquito management efficacy was very low (0.09). There were 14 hazards identified in the public health standard with very low likelihood (0.07), moderate consequence (0.50) and negligible risk (0.04). Lastly, 13 hazards were identified in the economic and sociocultural group with low likelihood (0.01) but of moderate consequence (0.5), which resulted in a very low risk (0.09). The risk severity level of the four components leading to the endpoint risk of "cause more harm" due to releasing Wolbachia-infected Ae. aegypti is negligible (0.01).

Diversity of mosquito species and potential arbovirus transmission in long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) breeding facilities

Background and Aim: Mosquito-borne viral infections are diseases that reduce human and animal health levels. Their transmission involves wildlife animals as reservoirs and amplifying hosts, including long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), and potentially transmits to humans and vice versa. This study aimed to determine the species diversity, richness, and biting activity of mosquitoes in a long-tailed macaque breeding area facility and discover the presence of Flavivirus and Alphavirus as the two main arboviruses reported to infect macaques. Materials and Methods: Human landing catch, light trap, and sweep net methods were used for mosquito collection around long-tailed macaques cages at parallel times for 12 h (18:00–06:00) for 12 nights. Mosquito species were identified to the species level based on the morphological identification key for Indonesian mosquitoes. Mosquito diversity was analyzed by several diversity indices. Mosquitoes caught using the human landing catch method were pooled based on mosquito species for viral ribonucleic acid extraction. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detected the non-structural protein 5 of the Flavivirus region and the non-structural protein 4 of the Alphavirus region. This study used the man-hour density and man-biting rate formulas for mosquito density. Results: Ten mosquito species were collected, namely, Aedes albopictus, Anopheles aconitus, Anopheles minimus, Anopheles vagus, Armigeres foliatus, Armigeres subalbatus, Culex gelidus, Culex hutchinsoni, Culex tritaeniorhynchus, and Culex quinquefasciatus. The number of mosquitoes caught using the light trap method had the highest abundance. In contrast, the number of mosquito species caught using the sweep net method had lower diversity than the other two methods. Seven mosquito species were obtained using the human landing catch method. The mosquito species with the highest density was Cx. quinquefasciatus within the observed densest period from 20:00 to 21:00. Negative results were obtained from RT-PCR testing on five species detected using universal Flavivirus and Alphavirus primers. Conclusion: The occurrence of mosquitoes in long-tailed macaque breeding facilities can be a source of transmission of zoonotic vector-borne diseases between animals and humans and vice versa.

Anopheline Diversity in Indonesia: An Evaluation of Animal-Baited Sampling Techniques

Indonesia has rich Anopheline (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquito species living in various types of ecosystems. The study was conducted to profile and compare Anopheles diversity, equitability, and dominance in various ecosystems using different animal-based sampling techniques. The present study analyzed a subset of data collected from a nation-wide vector and animal reservoirs survey in 2016. Analyses were restricted to three ecosystem types (forest, nonforest, and coastal areas) in Java and Sumatera Islands. A total of 5,477 Anopheles were collected by using animal-baited (n = 1,909) and animal-baited trap nets (n = 1,978), consisting of 23 Anopheline species. Overall, Anopheles vagus was the most abundant species, followed by An. subpictus and An. barbirostris. Among the three ecosystems, the forest had a higher diversity index (H' = 1.98), but each ecosystem has its specific predominant species. Compared with the animal-baited method, the Anopheles abundance collected by animal-baited trap nets was two-fold higher. Ecosystem, elevation, and sampling methods were associated with the abundance of female Anopheles (P-value < 0.001). Our findings revealed that Anopheles were found in a different ecosystem, indicating the potential of malaria transmission. This suggests that improved malaria vector surveillance is essential in all types of ecosystem. Furthermore, the study suggested that animal-baited trap nets could be used as the standard method of outdoor resting sampling in Indonesia in addition to the traditional human landing collection approach.

Distribution Serovar and Risk Factors on the Incidence of Canine leptospirosis After Flood in Jakarta, Indonesia

Leptospirosis is a zoonosis, which has become a serious problem, especially in areas with high rainfall. Massive leptospirosis occurs after heavy rains or floods. This study aims to analyze the types and distribution of leptospira bacteria serovars and risk factors for leptospirosis in post-flood dogs. The research was conducted from January to March 2020 at the Ragunan Animal Hospital and independent clinics in Jakarta, Bekasi, Depok and South Tangerang. This study used a cross-sectional study of serum samples from 24 dogs suspected of leptospirosis. Diagnostic techniques are based on questionnaires and clinical symptom evaluation, physical examination and biochemical analysis, serum and hematology, and the Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT) test. The sample criteria were dogs with leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, azotemia with Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) and high keratin. The sample then tested the MAT. Measurement of risk factors in the form of variable questionnaires with laboratory test results using the Chi-square test. Leptospira serovars were identified as bataviae (9 samples), icterohaemorrhagiae (6 samples), tarassovi (4 samples) and javanica (2 samples). The distribution of leptopsira serovars in the study area is quite diverse. Risk factors that increase the incidence of leptospirosis in dogs are the maintenance system (OR 17.50), history of contact with rats (OR 9.625), flood-affected areas (OR 3.50) and drinking water sources (OR 1.643). Floods can be a medium for transmitting leptospira bacteria to dogs. Risk factors such as rearing systems, poor sanitation and a history of contact with rats can increase the incidence of leptospirosis in dogs in areas with high rain intensity. The role of dog owners is needed in preventing the incidence of leptospirosis in dogs.

Distribution and The Habitat Characteristics of Anopheles vagus (Diptera: Culicidae) Larvae at Paddy Fields in The Vicinity of Dramaga IPB University Campus Dramaga Bogor West Java

Dramaga sub-district is an area that has rice fields close to buffalo stalls and a population of wild Macaca fascicularis as natural hosts for several species of Plasmodium. This causes the Dramaga sub-district to become a potential vector habitat for malaria, including Anopheles vagus. This study aims to analyze distribution of An. vagus larval stage in 4 villages (Cikarawang, Babakan, Margajaya, and Ciherang) in Dramaga subdistrict which have paddy field areas. Larvae were collected using a dipper, and each collection sites of the larvae habitat were marked using Global Positioning System. The physical characteristics of the water habitat measured were temperature, pH, total dissolved solids and the electrical conductivity of the water. Pearson's correlation test was used to analyze the relationship between the number of larvae An. vagus with each of the parameters water physical characteristics. The results of this study obtained 309 An. vagus larvae from the 27 collection points. Larvae of An. vagus was found in 3 villages (i.e. Cikarawang, Babakan and Ciherang), but was not found in Margajaya village. The habitat characteristics of An. vagus in paddy fields showed a water temperature of 26.6-31.7oC, pH 6.40-8.10, the total dissolved solid 36-285 ppm, and the electrical conductivity 72-262 μm/cm. The Pearsons correlation test results did not show a significant difference between the number of An. vagus larvae and each parameter (r= -0.26, 0.13, -0.15 and -0.16, respectively). The presence of An. vagus in this area could be considered in malaria vector control programs.

Distribution of Japanese Encephalitis Virus, Japan and Southeast Asia, 2016-2018

During 2016–2018, we conducted surveillance for Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in mosquitoes and pigs in Japan, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that our isolates (genotypes Ia, Ib, III, IV) were related to JEV isolates obtained from the same regions many years ago. Indigenous JEV strains persist in Asia.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF DENGUE HEMORRHAGIC FEVER CASES IN TERNATE CITY, NORTH MOLUCCAS

Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) is an endemic disease and it’s still a health problem in Ternate City. DHF is reported to occur every year and spread throughout the Districts in the Ternate Island region. Studies with epidemiological approaches according to people, places, and times that describe the incidence of DHF within a period of 10 years need to be known as an evaluation in the control program. The variables examined in this study were gender, age, number of deaths, the incidence of DHF in the subdistrict, and endemicity status. The results showed that male families suffered more DHF than female with 507 male sufferers while 411 female sufferers. The majority of DHF in the age group of 5-14 years with 507 people. The number of deaths resulting from dengue fever cases in 10 years was 31 people. The highest DHF incidence rate was in South Ternate sub-district with 379 cases and the lowest was in Ternate Island sub-district with 15 cases. Endemicity status in 2019 is endemic nine villages, sporadic 45 and seven potential villages. The conclusion of this study is the incidence of dengue hemorrhagic fever is more in men, with the age group of 5-14 years. DHF occurs throughout the year in all districts within the Ternate City area.

Molecular detection of pathogens in ticks and fleas collected from companion dogs and cats in East and Southeast Asia

Background

Ticks and fleas are considered amongst the most important arthropod vectors of medical and veterinary concern due to their ability to transmit pathogens to a range of animal species including dogs, cats and humans. By sharing a common environment with humans, companion animal-associated parasitic arthropods may potentially transmit zoonotic vector-borne pathogens (VBPs). This study aimed to molecularly detect pathogens from ticks and fleas from companion dogs and cats in East and Southeast Asia.

Methods

A total of 392 ticks and 248 fleas were collected from 401 infested animals (i.e. 271 dogs and 130 cats) from China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines and Vietnam, and molecularly screened for the presence of pathogens. Ticks were tested for Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. while fleas were screened for the presence of Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp.

Result

Of the 392 ticks tested, 37 (9.4%) scored positive for at least one pathogen with Hepatozoon canis being the most prevalent (5.4%), followed by Ehrlichia canis (1.8%), Babesia vogeli (1%), Anaplasma platys (0.8%) and Rickettsia spp. (1%) [including Rickettsia sp. (0.5%), Rickettsia asembonensis (0.3%) and Rickettsia felis (0.3%)]. Out of 248 fleas tested, 106 (42.7%) were harboring at least one pathogen with R. felis being the most common (19.4%), followed by Bartonella spp. (16.5%), Rickettsia asembonensis (10.9%) and “Candidatus Rickettsia senegalensis” (0.4%). Furthermore, 35 Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks were subjected to phylogenetic analysis, of which 34 ticks belonged to the tropical and only one belonged to the temperate lineage (Rh. sanguineus (sensu stricto)).

Conclusion

Our data reveals the circulation of different VBPs in ticks and fleas of dogs and cats from Asia, including zoonotic agents, which may represent a potential risk to animal and human health.

Mosquito-borne viruses, insect-specific flaviviruses (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus), Banna virus (family Reoviridae, genus Seadornavirus), Bogor virus (unassigned member of family Permutotetraviridae), and alphamesoniviruses 2 and 3 (family Mesoniviridae, genus Alphamesonivirus) isolated from Indonesian mosquitoes

Mosquitoes transmit many kinds of arboviruses (arthropod-borne viruses), and numerous arboviral diseases have become serious problems in Indonesia. In this study, we conducted surveillance of mosquito-borne viruses at several sites in Indonesia during 2016-2018 for risk assessment of arbovirus infection and analysis of virus biodiversity in mosquito populations. We collected 10,015 mosquitoes comprising at least 11 species from 4 genera. Major collected mosquito species were Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes albopictus, Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Aedes aegypti, and Armigeres subalbatus. The collected mosquitoes were divided into 285 pools and used for virus isolation using two mammalian cell lines, Vero and BHK-21, and one mosquito cell line, C6/36. Seventy-two pools showed clear cytopathic effects only in C6/36 cells. Using RT-PCR and next-generation sequencing approaches, these isolates were identified as insect flaviviruses (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus), Banna virus (family Reoviridae, genus Seadornavirus), new permutotetravirus (designed as Bogor virus) (family Permutotetraviridae, genus Alphapermutotetravirus), and alphamesoniviruses 2 and 3 (family Mesoniviridae, genus Alphamesonivirus). We believed that this large surveillance of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne viruses provides basic information for the prevention and control of emerging and re-emerging arboviral diseases.

Pola Kedatangan Serangga pada Jasad Hewan Sebagai Indikator dalam Kegiatan Forensik (INSECT ARRIVAL PATTERN ON CARRION AS AN INDICATOR OF FORENSIC ACTIVITIES)

Decomposition stage of carrion will attract various species of insects to come. Some species of insect will attract on carrion in the early stage of decomposition, but some of them in the late stage of death. The purpose of this research were to observe and analyze the distinctive features of insect succession on carrion that could predict the time of death. Two carrions were placed in indoor and outdoor. Insect collection and observation was done three times a day i.e, morning, afternoon and evening. Adult flying insects were collected by sweeping net, whereareas immature insect with manual. The result showed that decomposition of the carrion  indoor were  faster than the corrion outdoor. In  outdoor there were found orders of Diptera  (i.e Muscidae, Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae,Tachinidae), Coleoptera (Chrysomelidae, Staphylinidae, Scarabeidae, Silphidae), Hymenoptera (Formicidae),  Hemiptera, Blataria and Orthoptera (Grillidae). However, in indoors there were found the order of Diptera (Muscidae, Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, Tachinidae), Coleoptera (Chrysomelidae, Staphylinidae, Scarabeidae, Silphidae), Hymenoptera (Formicidae), Hemiptera, Aranea, and Lepidoptera. Decomposition stage of carrion indoor faster than outdoor. In the early stage to the decay stage, insects that came on carrion outdoor and indoor were Diptera (Calliphoridae, Tachinidae, Muscidae, and Sarcophagidae. On the post decay and skeletonization stage the insect that come were Coleoptera (Staphylinidae, Chrysomelidae, Scarabeidae, and Silphidae ). Hymenoptera (Formicidae) came from early stage to skeletal stage.

Diversity and ecology of black flies in tea plantation area of Puncak Bogor, Indonesia

Black flies fauna in Indonesia has been studied extensively, however their ecology is still remaining unexplored. The study was carried out by collecting the larvae and pupae black flies in tea plantation area, Puncak Bogor. The collection sites were the streams located in 3 differents type of altitude, i.e. (1) the natural forest area (1200 m above the sea level) (P1); (2) the tea plantation area (900-1200 m asl) (P2); and (3) the housing area of the official tea plantation (900 m asl) (P3). The collection of black flies were done beweekly from July 2012 to April 2013. The result showed that 12 species of black flies were recorded which belong to one genus, Simulium s.l. and three subgenera (Nevermannia, Gomphostilbia and Simulium s.str). In P1, the area with high elevation (natural forest), it was found the most number of black flies species (11 species). In the streams around and in the tea plantation area (P2), it was found 7 species, and in P3, the official housing area, it was recorded 8 species. The analysis satistically showed that P1 was dominated by larvae and pupae of S. (S.) argyrocinctum, P2 by larvae and pupae of S. (N.) feuerborni, and P3 by S. (S.) argyrocinctum and S. (N.) feuerborni. The distribution of these species was different according to the elevation of the areas.

Transmisi Strain Wuchereria bancrofti Periodik Nokturnal oleh Culex quinquefasciatus di Kota Pekalongan

Wuchereria bancrofti dikenal sebagai penyebab filariasis limfatik di Kota Pekalongan. Kegiatan ini dilakukan untuk mencari upaya dalam pengendalian penularan filariasis limfatik yang lebih efektif dan efisien. Tujuan penelitian untuk mendiskripsikan perilaku mikrofilaria Wuchereria bancrofti yang ditularkan oleh Culex quinquefasciatus. Uji periodisitas dilakukan pada enam orang relawan yang positif mengandung mikrofilaria hasil survei darah. Pengambilan darah dilakukan setiap dua jam sekali selama 24 jam (12 kali pengamatan). Uji periodisitas cacing filaria menggunakan formula Aikat dan Das . Hasil survei darah menunjukkan dari 500 sampel darah sebanyak 17 orang positif mikrofilaria (mf rate = 3,4%). Sebagian besar mikrofilaria muncul antara pukul 22.6'36" sampai 03.56'24" yang menggambarkan periodisitas mikrofilaria Wuchereria bancrofti yang nokturnal. Kasus filariasis limfatik memiliki gelombang yang harmonik atau sirkardian dengan indeks periodisitas lebih dari 100%. Hasil penelitian ini akan sangat membantu dalam mengevaluasi dan memantau program pengobatan massal yang sedang berjalan untuk eliminasi filarisis limfatik di Kota Pekalongan.

Ragam Jenis dan Aktivitas Mengisap Darah Lalat Stomoxys spp di Peternakan Sapi Perah di Kabupaten Bogor

Keberadaan Stomoxys spp (lalat kandang) pada peternakan sapi perah memiliki dampak negatif seperti penurunan produktivitas susu dan bobot badan, dan sebagai vektor penularan patogen penyakit. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui keanekaragaman jenis dan aktivitas mengisap darah lalat kandang. Lalat dikoleksi dengan menggunakan vavoa trap yang ditempatkan di luar peternakan sapi perah dan juga dilakukan pengamatan aktivitas mengisap darah lalat pada tubuh sapi selama 12 jam (06.00-18.00). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada empat spesies dari genus Stomoxys, yaitu, Stomoxys calcitrans (90.5%), S. sitiens (5,05%), S. indicus (3,57%), dan S. bengalensis (0,88%). Aktivitas mengisap darah lalat Stomoxys spp sangat berfluktuasi di setiap jam pengamatan, mulai pukul 06.00-07.00 WIB, kemudian meningkat pada setiap jam, dan puncak aktivitas mengisap darah pada pukul 15.00-16.00 WIB. Hasil uji korelasi Pearson antara curah hujan dan aktivitas mengisap darah Stomoxys spp menunjukkan korelasi yang tinggi, tetapi tidak signifikan (R-0,922 dan nilai p=0,253>0,05) karena waktu penelitian tidak lama.

The biodiversity of black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Indonesia

Indonesia is one of the megadiversity country in the world endowed with rich and unique biodiversity insects such as blackflies species (Diptera: Simuliidae). Blackflies are found almost anywhere with running water suitable as habitat for the immature stages. This family is one of the most important groups of blood-sucking insects. This study collates the records of Simulium (Diptera: Simuliidae) in previous publications related fauna of Indonesia. Based on the results of this study, there were 124 species of blackflies in Indonesian Archipelago. All species are assigned to the genus Simulium Latreille s.l., and are placed into five subgenera, i.e. Gomphostilbia Enderlein, Morops Enderlein, Nevermannia Enderlein, Simulium Latreille s.str. and Wallacellum Takaoka. Further classification into 27 species groups within the subgenera were also made. Checklists of Indonesian Simuliidae are provided including data on the distribution of each species.

Contrasting evolutionary patterns between two haplogroups of Haematobia exigua (Diptera: Muscidae) from the mainland and islands of Southeast Asia

Uncovering the hidden diversity and evolutionary history of arthropods of medico-veterinary importance could have significant implications for vector-borne disease control and epidemiological intervention. The buffalo fly Haematobia exigua is an obligate bloodsucking ectoparasite of livestock. As an initial step towards understanding its population structures and biogeographic patterns, we characterized partial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and cytochrome b (Cytb) sequences of H. exigua from three distinct geographic regions in Southeast Asia. We detected two distinct mitochondrial haplogroups of H. exigua in our surveyed geographic regions. Haplogroup I is widespread in the Southeast Asian mainland whereas haplogroup II is generally restricted to the type population Java Island. Both haplogroups were detected co-occurring on Borneo Island. Additionally, both haplogroups have undergone contrasting evolutionary histories, with haplogroup I exhibited a high level of mitochondrial diversity indicating a population expansion during the Pleistocene era dating back to 98,000 years ago. However, haplogroup II presented a low level of mitochondrial diversity which argues against the hypothesis of recent demographic expansion.

Kejadian Demam Berdarah Dengue di Kota Sukabumi Berdasarkan Kondisi Iklim

Demam berdarah dengue (BDB) adalah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh virus dari famili Flaviridae yang ditularkan oleh serangga (arthropod borne virus = arbovirus) melalui perantara utama nyamuk Aedes aegypti. Tujuan penelitian adalah untuk mengetahui hubungan antara faktor iklim dengan kejadian DBD di Kota Sukabumi. Data iklim merupakan data sekunder yang diperoleh dari Badan Klimatologi Meteorologi dan Geofisika wilayah II Dramaga. Sedangkan data kasus DBD diperoleh dari Dinas Kesehatan Kota Sukabumi. Data dianalisa menggunakan analisis correlation pearson product moment dan regresi linear sederhana. Hasil penelitian tentang faktor iklim menunjukkan bahwa ada hubungan antara suhu udara dengan kasus DBD di kota Sukabumi di tahun 2010-2015, tetapi tidak ada hubungan yang signifikan antara faktor iklim (curah hujan, dan kelembaban) dengan tingkat kejadian DBD karena data tidak dikumpulkan untuk jangka waktu yang cukup lama. Hasil ini dapat digunakan sebagai pertimbangan dalam program pengendalian masa depan untuk Ae. aegypti, karena bisa dilakukan untuk meramalkan waktu pengendalian dan manajemen pengendalian yang efektif.

Confirmation of Anopheles peditaeniatus and Anopheles sundaicus as Malaria Vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) in Sungai Nyamuk Village, Sebatik Island North Kalimantan, Indonesia Using an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

Anopheles mosquitoes may be incriminated as malaria vectors by observing sporozoites in their salivary glands and by testing heads or thoraces by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect Plasmodium species-specific circumsporozoite proteins (CSP). This study tested Anopheles collected in Sungai Nyamuk Village for the presence of both Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax CSP. The Anopheles spp. were collected by human landing collection indoors and outdoors and by indoor and outdoor resting catches in Sungai Nyamuk Village, Nunukan District, North Kalimantan Province from August 2010 to January 2012. Overall, 5,100 Anopheles spp. comprising 11 species were collected and 2,259 adult parous females were tested by ELISA. Of these, only one Anopheles peditaeniatus Leicester (3.8%, n = 26) and one Anopheles sundaicus sensu lato (0.6%, n = 157) that originated from outdoor biting catches tested positive for P. falciparum CSP. The remaining females from indoor biting, outdoor resting, and indoor resting catches were negative for P. falciparum and P. vivax proteins. Confirmation of these vectors biting outdoors indicated that P. falciparum transmission may be occurring outside of houses by An. peditaeniatus and An. sundaicus.

Aktivitas Larvasida Biji Bengkuang sebagai Insektisida Nabati terhadap Larva Lalat Crysomya bezziana

Bengkuang merupakan salah satu tanaman obat yang berpotensi sebagai bioinsektisida. Penelitian ini bertujuan mengetahui efektivitas biji bengkuang sebagai insektisida nabati terhadap larva lalat Crysomya bezziana (C. bezziana) agen penyebab miasis secara in vitro. Penelitian ini terbagi menjadi 5 kelompok perlakuan. Masing-masing sebanyak 20 Larva instar 1 (L1), Larva instar 2 (L2), dan Larva instar 3 (L3) C.bezziana digunakan untuk pengujian in vitro menggunakan pot plastik yang berisi media larva dan ekstrak ethanol biji bengkuang dengan konsentrasi bertingkat 0,06, 0,12, dan 0,25%. Coumaphos 0,06% dan akuades steril digunakan sebagai kontrol positif dan negatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pada konsentrasi 0,25% mampu menyebabkan 100% kematian larva dan 100% pupa tidak menetas. Pengujian L3 menunjukkan bahwa ekstrak ethanol biji bengkuang mampu menyebabkan penurunan daya tetas pada semua konsentrasi. Pengujiaan L1 dan L2 untuk mengindikasikan efektifi tas ekstrak sebagai racun perut, sedangkan pengujian pada L3 sebagai indikasi racun kontak. Biji bengkuang memiliki daya larvasida terhadap beberapa jenis larva serangga C. bezziana.

Three Taxa in One: Cryptic Diversity in the Black Fly Simulium nobile (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Southeast Asia

We access the molecular diversity of the black fly Simulium nobile De Mejiere, using the universal cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) barcoding gene, across its distributional range in Southeast Asia. Our phylogenetic analyses recovered three well-supported mitochondrial lineages of S. nobile, suggesting the presence of cryptic species. Lineage A is composed of a population from Sabah, East Malaysia (Borneo); lineage B represents the type population from Java, Indonesia; and lineage C includes populations from the mainland of Southeast Asia (Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand). The genetic variation of lineage C on the mainland is greater than that of lineages A and B on the islands of Borneo and Java. Our study highlights the value of a molecular approach in assessing species status of simuliids in geographically distinct regions.

Cytogenetic and Molecular Evidence of Additional Cryptic Diversity in High Elevation Black fly Simulium feuerborni (Diptera: Simuliidae) Populations in Southeast Asia

Simulium feuerborni Edwards is geographically widespread in Southeast Asia. Previous cytogenetic study in Thailand revealed that this species is a species complex composed of two cytoforms (A and B). In this study, we cytologically examined specimens obtained from the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia, and Puncak, Java, Indonesia. The results revealed two additional cytoforms (C and D) of S. feuerborni. Specimens from Malaysia represent cytoform C, differentiated from other cytoforms by a fixed chromosome inversion on the long arm of chromosome III (IIIL-5). High frequencies of the B chromosome (33-83%) were also observed in this cytoform. Specimens from Indonesia represent the cytoform D. This cytoform is differentiated from others by a fixed chromosome inversion difference on the long arm of chromosome II (IIL-4). Mitochondrial DNA sequences support genetic differentiation among cytoforms A, B, and C. The pairwise F(ST) values among these cytoforms were highly significantly consistent with the divergent lineages of the cytoforms in a median-joining haplotype network. However, a lack of the sympatric populations prevented us from testing the species status of the cytoforms.

Tests of conspecificity for allopatric vectors: Simulium nodosum and Simulium shirakii (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Asia

BACKGROUND

Allopatric populations present challenges for biologists working with vectors. We suggest that conspecificity can be concluded in these cases when data from four character sets-chromosomal, ecological, molecular, and morphological-express variation no greater between the allopatric populations than between corresponding sympatric populations. We use this approach to test the conspecificity of Simulium nodosum Puri on the mainland of Southeast Asia and Simulium shirakii Kono & Takahasi in Taiwan. The validity of these two putative species has long been disputed given that they are morphologically indistinguishable.

FINDINGS

The mitochondria-encoded cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), 12S rRNA, and 16S rRNA genes and the nuclear-encoded 28S rRNA gene support the conspecific status of S. nodosum from Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam and S. shirakii from Taiwan; 0 to 0.19 % genetic differences between the two taxa suggest intraspecific polymorphism. The banding patterns of the polytene chromosomes of the insular Taiwanese population of S. shirakii and mainland populations of S. nodosum are congruent. The overlapping ranges of habitat characteristics and hosts of S. nodosum and S. shirakii corroborate the chromosomal, molecular, and morphological data.

CONCLUSIONS

Four independent sources of evidence (chromosomes, DNA, ecology, and morphology) support the conspecificity of S. nodosum and S. shirakii. We, therefore, synonymize S. shirakii with S. nodosum. This study provides a guide for applying the procedure of testing conspecificity to other sets of allopatric vectors.

Black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) of the Special Province of Aceh, Indonesia

The black fly fauna of the Special Province of Aceh, Indonesia, was surveyed in 24 streams in 5 regencies, from 7 to 13 June 1998. Ten species were identified, Simulium (Nevermannia) aureohirtum Brunetti, S. (Gomphostilbia) duolongum Takaoka & Davies, S. (G.) sheilae Takaoka & Davies, S. (G.) sundaicum Edwards, S. (S.) nobile de Meijere, S. (S.) fenestratum Edwards, S. (S.) argyrocinctum de Meijere, S. (S.) nebulicola Edwards, S. (S.) iridescens de Meijere, and S. (S.) minangkabaum Takaoka & Sigit. These species are essentially oriental in distribution, because they belong to the 3 subgenera that are dominant groups in oriental or Palaearctic regions, or both.

Effects of constant temperatures on oviposition and immature development of Simulium bidentatum (Diptera: Simuliidae), a vector of bovine Onchocerca (Nematoda: Onchocercidae) in central Kyushu, Japan

Laboratory developmental studies were carried out on Simulium bidentatum (Shiraki) under constant air and water temperatures (7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, and 28 degrees C). The median time required for female flies to complete oocyte maturation after blood feeding decreased from 8 to 1.5 d and the median time from blood feeding to oviposition decreased from 16 to 3 d as air temperature increased from 7 to 28 degrees C. Air temperatures from 16 to 22 degrees C were most suitable for oviposition. An average of 61.4% of eggs hatched. Egg developmental period decreased from 17 to 4.5 d when water temperature increased from 7 to 19 degrees C and decreased to 3.5 d when water temperature was between 22 and 28 degrees C. Larval and pupal development occurred at water temperatures > or = 13 degrees C, but was most successful from 16 to 22 degrees C. Seven (in 16 lots) or 6 instars (in 1 lot) were indicated by using the Dyar rule. We conclude that S. bidentatum is adapted to moderate weather conditions in spring and autumn and that approximately 7 generations of this species occur per year in Oita, Japan.