Phytochemical profiling and bioactivity assessment of underutilized Symphytum species in comparison with Symphytum officinale

BACKGROUND

Symphytum (comfrey) genus, particularly Symphytum officinale, has been empirically used in folk medicine mainly for its potent anti-inflammatory properties. In an attempt to shed light on the valorization of less known taxa, the current study evaluated the metabolite profile and antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory effects of nine Symphytum species.

RESULTS

Phenolic acids, flavonoids and pyrrolizidine alkaloids were the most representative compounds in all comfrey samples. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed that, within the roots, S. grandiflorum was slightly different from S. ibericum, S. caucasicum and the remaining species. Within the aerial parts, S. caucasicum and S. asperum differed from the other samples. All Symphytum species showed good antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory activities, as evaluated in DPPH (up to 50.17 mg Trolox equivalents (TE) g-1), ABTS (up to 49.92 mg TE g-1), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC, up to 92.93 mg TE g-1), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP, up to 53.63 mg TE g-1), acetylcholinesterase (AChE, up to 0.52 mg galanthamine equivalents (GALAE) g-1), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE, up to 0.96 mg GALAE g-1), tyrosinase (up to 13.58 mg kojic acid equivalents g-1) and glucosidase (up to 0.28 mmol acarbose equivalents g-1) tests. Pearson correlation analysis revealed potential links between danshensu and ABTS/FRAP/CUPRAC, quercetin-O-hexoside and DPPH/CUPRAC, or rabdosiin and anti-BChE activity.

CONCLUSIONS

By assessing for the first time in a comparative manner the phytochemical-biological profile of a considerably high number of Symphytum samples, this study unveils the potential use of less common comfrey species as novel phytopharmaceutical or agricultural raw materials. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Pharmacological Significance of Boraginaceae with Special Insights into Shikonin and Its Potential in the Food Industry

Shikonin is a naphthoquinone pigment present in the hairy roots of the plant species from the Boraginaceae family. The compound has been well investigated for its highly efficient medicinal, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. Various extraction methodologies have been employed to maximise yield while minimising waste production of shikonin and its derivatives. Despite substantial research on shikonin and Boraginaceae plants, a research gap persists in the food industry and extraction technologies. This review addresses crucial aspects of shikonin deserving of further exploration. It begins by elucidating the attributes of the Boraginaceae plants and their medicinal traits in folklore. It proceeds to focus on the roots of the plant and its medicinal properties, followed by extraction procedures explored in the last fifteen years, emphasising the novel technologies that have been chosen to improve the yield extract while minimising extraction times. Furthermore, this review briefly outlines studies employing cell culture techniques to enhance in vitro shikonin production. Lastly, attention is directed towards research in the food industry, particularly on shikonin-loaded biodegradable films and the antioxidant activity of shikonin. This review concludes by summarising the future potential in food science and prominent research gaps in this field.

Comparative Analysis of Shikonin and Alkannin Acyltransferases Reveals Their Functional Conservation in Boraginaceae

Shikonin and its enantiomer, alkannin, are bioactive naphthoquinones produced in several plants of the family Boraginaceae. The structures of these acylated derivatives, which have various short-chain acyl moieties, differ among plant species. The acylation of shikonin and alkannin in Lithospermum erythrorhizon was previously reported to be catalyzed by two enantioselective BAHD acyltransferases, shikonin O-acyltransferase (LeSAT1) and alkannin O-acyltransferase (LeAAT1). However, the mechanisms by which various shikonin and alkannin derivatives are produced in Boraginaceae plants remain to be determined. In the present study, evaluation of six Boraginaceae plants identified 23 homologs of LeSAT1 and LeAAT1, with 15 of these enzymes found to catalyze the acylation of shikonin or alkannin, utilizing acetyl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA or isovaleryl-CoA as an acyl donor. Analyses of substrate specificities of these enzymes for both acyl donors and acyl acceptors and determination of their subcellular localization using Nicotiana benthamiana revealed a distinct functional differentiation of BAHD acyltransferases in Boraginaceae plants. Gene expression of these acyltransferases correlated with the enantiomeric ratio of produced shikonin/alkannin derivatives in L. erythrorhizon and Echium plantagineum. These enzymes showed conserved substrate specificities for acyl donors among plant species, indicating that the diversity in acyl moieties of shikonin/alkannin derivatives involved factors other than the differentiation of acyltransferases. These findings provide insight into the chemical diversification and evolutionary processes of shikonin/alkannin derivatives.

Effects of Naphthoquinones from the Roots of Onosma Armeniacum Klokov on Wound Healing

In Turkish folk medicine, the roots of Onosma armeniacum Klokov are used to heal wounds, burns, hemorrhoids, hoarseness, dyspnea, stomach ulcers, and abdominal aches. The objective was to evaluate the plant's ethnopharmacological applications using in vivo pharmacological experimental models. In vivo linear incision and circular excision the wound models were used to assess the wound healing activity along with histopathological investigation. The active component(s) were isolated and identified after being exposed to several chromatographic separation procedures on the primary extract. The n-hexane-dichloromethane mixture extract was subjected to chromatographic separation after the wound-healing activity was confirmed. Deoxyshikonin (1), β,β-dimethylacrylshikonin (2), α-methyl-n-butylshikonin (3), isovalerylshikonin (4), acetylshikonin (5), β-hydroxyisovalerylshikonin (6), and 5,8-O-dimethylacetylshikonin (7) were identified as the structures of the isolated compounds. The efficacy of O. armeniacum to heal wounds was investigated in this study. Shikonin derivatives were identified as the primary active components of the roots by bioassay-guided fractionation and isolation procedures.

A natural approach to breast cancer treatment: investigation of chemical features of aerial parts of endemic Onosma sintenisii Hausskn. ex Bornm and its antioxidant properties, in vitro cytotoxic and apoptosis induction on MCF-7 cells

Onosma sintenisii Hausskn. ex Bornm. (O. sintenisii) belongs to the Boraginaceae family and it is an endemic species from Irano-turanian phytogeographical region (central and eastern Anatolia) that distributes in steppe areas. This study aimed to investigate the chemical composition, antioxidant, in vitro cytotoxic and apoptosis induction of methanol extract of aerial parts of O. sintenisii. As a result of GC/MS analysis, 14 components were identified, and the major compounds of the extracts are retronecine (13.94%), α.-D-Glucopyranosiduronic acid (10.86%), melaniline (7.5%) and 1,2-Butanediol (4.02%), respectively. Antioxidant properties of O. sintenisii were determined by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and superoxide radical scavenging activity methods. While the DPPH free radical scavenging activity results of O. sintenisii extract varied between 62.49% and 32.27%, reducing power activity and superoxide radical scavenging activity were found to be low. The result of the MTT assay revealed strong anticancer activity of O. sintenisii extract. The most significant cytotoxic effect was noted at a concentration of 1000 µg/mL after 48 hours. These findings together with flow cytometry analysis suggest that apoptosis can be the main mechanism underlying cell death after O. sintenisii extract treatment.

Comparative Analyses of Complete Chloroplast Genomes of Microula sikkimensis and Related Species of Boraginaceae

The present study provides a detailed analysis of the chloroplast genome of Microula sikkimensis. The genome consisted of a total of 149,428 bp and four distinct regions, including a large single-copy region (81,329 bp), a small single-copy region (17,261 bp), and an inverted repeat region (25,419 bp). The genome contained 112 genes, including 78 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, and 4 rRNA genes, and some exhibited duplication in the inverted repeat region. The chloroplast genome displayed different GC content across regions, with the inverted repeat region exhibiting the highest. Codon usage analysis and the identification of simple sequence repeats (SSRs) offer valuable genetic markers. Comparative analysis with other Boraginaceae species highlighted conservation and diversity in coding and noncoding regions. Phylogenetic analysis placed M. sikkimensis within the Boraginaceae family, revealing its distinct relationship with specific species.

Phytochemical Profiling and Biological Assessment of the Aerial Parts from Three Mediterranean Alkanna Species (A. orientalis, A. tinctoria, A. kotschyana) in the Boraginaceae Family

This study focuses on the phytochemical analysis of the aerial parts of three Alkanna species: A. orientalis (L.) Boiss., A. tinctoria Tausch. and A. kotschyana A. DC. (Boraginaceae) growing wild in the Mediterranean basin, as mostly the roots of the genus have been widely researched. Their methanol extracts were subjected to qualitative LC-MS analyses, resulting in the annotation of 28 different secondary metabolites, with 27 originating from A. orientalis, 25 from A. tinctoria and 23 from A. kotschyana. The detected metabolites are categorized into three chemical types: organic acids (2), flavonoids and their glycosides (17), and caffeic acid derivatives (9). Furthermore, the chemical profiles of the three species are discussed chemotaxonomically. Caffeic acid and its derivatives, along with glucosides of quercetin and kaempferol, were identified in all three studied species. Additionally, their total phenolic and flavonoid contents were determined. The antioxidant capacity was evaluated through various chemical assays, as well as their in vitro enzyme inhibitory properties towards cholinesterases (AChE and BChE), α-amylase and α-glucosidase. The results showed that A. tinctoria exhibited the strongest antioxidant activity (211 mgTE/g extract in DPPH and 366 mgTE/g extract in ABTS), probably due to its high total phenolic (53.3 mgGAE/g extract) and flavonoid (20.8 mgRE/g extract) content, followed by A. kotschyana. These chemical and biological findings provide valuable insights for potential promising applications of the aerial parts of the species outside of the well-known uses of their roots.

The chemical composition of the aerial parts' essential oil of Cynoglossum clandestinum Desf. growing in Sicily, Italy

Cynoglossum L. is a taxonomically difficult genus belonging to the Boraginaceae family, distributed in Asia, Europe, mainly in Turkey, and in the Mediterranean region. Plants of this genus are used against various diseases in the ethnomedicine of several countries. In the present study, the chemical composition of the essential oil was obtained from the hydrodistillation of aerial parts of the Sicilian accession of Cynoglossum clandestinum Desf. was analysed by GC and GC-MS. The main constituents of the essential oil were aldehydes and ketones (69.9%) with nonanal (18.9%), 4-sec-butoxy-2-butanone (18.1%), and 3-methyl-butanal (13.1%) as main metabolites. No one paper has been previously published on the essential oil of this species, and there is a lack of studies also in the near related genera. The aim of this work is in fact, to study a species that has never been investigated, and through this, try to help place it within the Boraginaceae family.

Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids-Pros and Cons for Pharmaceutical and Medical Applications

Heterocyclic organic compounds named pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) belong to a group of alkaloids and are synthesized by either plants or microorganisms. Therefore, they are naturally occurring secondary metabolites. They are found in species applied in the pharmaceutical and food industries, thus a thorough knowledge of their pharmacological properties and toxicology to humans is of great importance for their further safe employment. This review is original because it synthesizes knowledge of plant and microbial PAs, which is unusual in the scientific literature. We have focused on the Boraginaceae family, which is unique due to the exceptional richness and diversity of its PAs in plant species. We have also presented the microbial sources of PAs, both from fungi and bacteria. The structure and metabolism of PAs have been discussed. Our main aim was to summarize the effects of PAs on humans, including both negative, toxic ones, mainly concerning hepatotoxicity and carcinogenicity, as well as potentially positive ones for pharmacological and medical applications. We have collected the results of studies on the anticancer activity of PAs from plant and microbial sources (mainly Streptomyces strains) and on the antimicrobial activity of PAs on different strains of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi). Finally, we have suggested potential applications and future perspectives.

Quinones from Cordia species from 1972 to 2023: isolation, structural diversity and pharmacological activities

Plants of the genus Cordia (Boraginaceae family) are widely distributed in the tropical regions of America, Africa, and Asia. They are extensively used in folk medicine due to their rich medicinal properties. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of the isolation, structure, biogenesis, and biological properties of quinones from Cordia species reported from 1972 to 2023. Meroterpenoids were identified as the major quinones in most Cordia species and are reported as a chemotaxonomic markers of the Cordia. In addition to this property, quinones are reported to display a wider and broader spectrum of activities, are efficient scaffold in biological activity, compared to other classes of compounds reported in Cordia, hence our focus on the study of quinones reported from Cordia species. About 70 types of quinones have been isolated, while others have been identified by phytochemical screening or gas chromatography. Although the biosynthesis of quinones from Cordia species is not yet fully understood, previous reports suggest that they may be derived from geranyl pyrophosphate and an aromatic precursor unit, followed by oxidative cyclization of the allylic methyl group. Studies have demonstrated that quinones from this genus exhibit antifungal, larvicidal, antileishmanial, anti-inflammatory, antibiofilm, antimycobacterial, antioxidant, antimalarial, neuroinhibitory, and hemolytic activities. In addition, they have been shown to exhibit remarkable cytotoxic effects against several cancer cell lines which is likely related to their ability to inhibit electron transport as well as oxidative phosphorylation, and generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). Their biological activities indicate potential utility in the development of new drugs, especially as active components in drug-carrier systems, against a broad spectrum of pathogens and ailments.

LC-MS and NMR Based Plant Metabolomics: A Comprehensive Phytochemical Investigation of Symphytum anatolicum

The application of metabolomics to the study of plants is growing because of the current development of analytical techniques. The most commonly used analytical technology driving plant metabolomics studies is Mass Spectrometry (MS) coupled to liquid chromatography (LC). In recent years, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, not requiring a previous chromatographic separation, has been receiving growing attention for metabolite fingerprinting of natural extracts. Herein, an integrated LC-MS and 1H NMR metabolomic approach provided a comprehensive phytochemical characterization of Symphytum anatolicum whole plant, taking into account both primary and specialized metabolites. Moreover, the NMR analyses provided direct quantitative information. Species belonging to the Symphytum genus, known as comfrey, have shown several biological activities including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hepatoprotective, antifungal, and antibacterial. The LC-MS profile showed the presence of 21 main specialized metabolites, belonging to the classes of flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, salvianols, and oxylipins. The 1H NMR spectrum revealed the occurrence of metabolites including organic acids, phenolics, flavonoids, sugars, and amino acids. A quantitative analysis of these metabolites was performed and their concentration was obtained with respect to the known concentration of TSP, by means of the software package Chenomx which allows quantification of individual components in the NMR spectra. Furthermore, the phenolic content, antioxidant activity, glucosidase, and tyrosinase inhibitory activity of S. anatolicum extract were evaluated. The resulting bioactivity profile suggests how S. anatolicum represents a source of metabolites with health-promoting activity.

Yield performance, mineral profile, and nitrate content in a selection of seventeen microgreen species

Introduction

Originally regarded as garnish greens, microgreens are increasingly valued for their nutritional profile, including their mineral content.

Methods

A study was conducted under controlled environmental conditions utilizing a selection of seventeen microgreen species belonging to seven different botanical families to investigate the genetic variation of macro- and micro-minerals and nitrate (NO3 -) content. Plants were grown in a soilless system using a natural fiber mat as the substrate. After germination, microgreens were fertigated with a modified half-strength Hoagland solution prepared using deionized water and without adding microelements. At harvest (10 to 19 days after sowing, based on the species), yield components were measured and dry tissue samples were analyzed for the concentration of total nitrogen (N), NO3 -, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, and B.

Results and discussion

Genotypic variations were observed for all of the examined parameters. Nitrogen and K were the principal macronutrients accounting for 38.4% and 33.8% of the total macro-minerals concentration, respectively, followed in order by Ca, P, S, and Mg. Except for sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), all the tested species accumulated high (1,000-2,500 mg kg-1 FW) or very high (>2,500 mg kg-1 FW) NO3 - levels. Eight of the studied species had a K concentration above 300 mg 100 g-1 FW and could be considered as a good dietary source of K. On the other hand, scallion (Allium fistulosum L.), red cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata), amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.), and Genovese basil (Ocinum basilicum L.) microgreens were a good source of Ca. Among micro-minerals, the most abundant was Fe followed by Zn, Mn, B, and Cu. Sunflower, scallion, and shiso (Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton) were a good source of Cu. Moreover, sunflower was a good source of Zn, whereas none of the other species examined could be considered a good source of Fe and Zn, suggesting that supplementary fertilization may be required to biofortify microgreens with essential microminerals. In conclusion, the tested microgreens can be a good source of minerals showing a high potential to address different dietary needs; however, their yield potential and mineral profile are largely determined by the genotype.

Natural Plant-Derived Compounds in Food and Cosmetics: A Paradigm of Shikonin and Its Derivatives

Shikonin and its derivatives are the natural naphthoquinone compounds produced in the roots of the Boraginaceae family. These red pigments have been used for a long time in coloring silk, as food colorants, and in the Chinese traditional system of medicines The resurgence of public interest in natural and plant-based products has led to this category of compounds being in high demand due to their wide range of biological activities including antioxidant, antitumor, antifungal, anti-inflammatory ones. Different researchers worldwide have reported various applications of shikonin derivatives in the area of pharmacology. Nevertheless, the use of these compounds in the food and cosmetics fields needs to be explored more in order to make them available for commercial utilization in various food industries as a packaging material and to enhance their shelf life without any side effects. Similarly, the antioxidant properties and skin whitening effects of these bioactive molecules may be used successfully in various cosmetic formulations. The present review delves into the updated knowledge on the various properties of shikonin derivatives in relation to food and cosmetics. The pharmacological effects of these bioactive compounds are also highlighted. Based on various studies, it can be concluded that these natural bioactive molecules have potential to be used in different sectors, including functional food, food additives, skin, health care, and to cure various diseases. Further research is required for the sustainable production of these compounds with minimum disturbances to the environment and in order to make them available in the market at an economic price. Simultaneous studies utilizing recent techniques in computational biology, bioinformatics, molecular docking, and artificial intelligence in laboratory and clinical trials would further help in making these potential candidates promising alternative natural bioactive therapeutics with multiple uses.

Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids from Monofloral and Multifloral Italian Honey

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are secondary metabolites produced by plants as a self-defense against insects. After bioactivation in the liver, some PAs can cause acute or chronic toxicity in humans. The aim of this study was to determine the presence of PAs in 121 samples of monofloral and multifloral honey from three different Italian regions (Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Marche and Calabria) to meet the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) suggestion. An in-house liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was validated according to European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) performance criteria. This method allowed the detection and quantification of 35 PAs. Of the 121 honey samples, 38 (31%), mostly from Calabria, contained PAs. The total content of the PAs ranged from 0.9 µg/kg to 33.1 µg/kg. In particular, echimidine was the most prevalent PA. A rapid human exposure assessment to PAs in honey and a risk characterization was performed using the EFSA RACE tool. The assessment highlighted a potential health concern only for toddlers who frequently consume elevated quantities of honey. This study showed a low presence of PAs in Italian honey; however, the importance of continuously monitoring these compounds is stressed, along with the suggestion that the relevant authorities establish maximum limits to guarantee support for producers and consumer safety.

In vitro antioxidant and anti-denaturation effects of Buglossoides purpurocaerulea (L.) I. M. Johnst. fruit extract

Fruits from Buglossoides purpurocaerulea (L.) I. M. Johnst. were extracted with methanol through maceration. The phytochemical composition of obtained raw extract was investigated with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) analyses. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents were also quantified and in vitro antioxidant activity was assessed using the DPPH assay and the β-carotene bleaching test. In order to verify the anti-arthritic potential, the raw extract was evaluated for its anti-denaturation effect on heat-treated bovine serum albumin (BSA), chosen as a protein model. Linoleic and α-linolenic acids were the most abundant identified apolar constituents. HPTLC analyses allowed the identification of rosmarinic acid. The sample showed a concentration-dependent antioxidant activity and it was also proven to be effective in preventing the heat-induced denaturation of BSA, with an IC₅₀ value equal to 15.7 ± 0.5 µg/mL.

The complete plastome of Glandora prostrata subsp. lusitanica (Samp.) D.C.Thomas (Boraginaceae), the first chloroplast genome belonging to the Glandora genus

Glandora prostrata (Loisel.) D.C.Thomas (Thomas et al., 2008), besides being a common plant of western and south-western Europe and north-western Africa, is a species with a wealth of reported uses in traditional and folk medicine. The chloroplast genome of Glandora prostrata subsp. lusitanica (Samp.) D.C.Thomas (Thomas et al., 2008) isolate BPTPS049 described in this study is the first publicly available complete plastome belonging to the Glandora genus. The chloroplast genome (GenBank accession number: ON641304) is 150,041 bp in length with 37.5% GC content, displaying a quadripartite structure that contains a pair of inverted repeat regions (25,833 bp each), separated by a large (81,222 bp) and small (17,153 bp) single-copy regions. It has 131 annotated genes including 86 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, and eight rRNA genes. The phylogenetic analysis performed confirms that G. prostrata subsp. lusitanica is placed under the Boraginaceae family, which belongs to the Boraginales order. This study will contribute to conservation, phylogenetic, and evolutionary studies that comprise this traditional species relevant to the landscape of aromatic, medicinal, and condiment plants from Portugal.

Heliotropium procubens Mill: Taxonomic Significance and Characterization of Phenolic Compounds via UHPLC-HRMS- In Vitro Antioxidant and Enzyme Inhibitory Activities

The aim of the present study was the phytochemical analysis of the aerial parts of Heliotropium procumbens Mill., a herb from Boraginaceae plant family not previously studied. The methanol (ME) and aqueous extracts (WE) of the aerial parts were assayed for their total phenolic and flavonoid content and antioxidant properties, using free radical scavenging (DPPH, ABTS), reducing power (FRAP, CUPRAC), phosphomolybdenum and metal chelating assays. The extracts displayed considerable free radical scavenging activity against DPPH and ABTS radicals, with potential values of 46.88 and 68.31 mg TE/g extract for ME, and 93.43 and 131.48 mg TE/g extract for WE, respectively. Key clinical enzymes involved in neurodegenerative diseases AChE and BChE, diabetes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) and skin whitening (tyrosinase) were also assayed. The phytochemical profile of the studied species was determined through UHPLC-HRMS, whereby 26 secondary metabolites were identified, three of which (luteolin-7-glucoside, lithospermic and rosmarinic acids) were isolated and structurally determined by NMR spectral means. H. procubens was found to harbor bioactive metabolites and could, hence, serve as a source of biological activities which could be further explored and exploited for potential applications.

Chemopreventive Effects of Onosma mutabilis against Azoxymethane-Induced Colon Cancer in Rats via Amendment of Bax/Bcl-2 and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Onosma species (Boraginaceae) are well known as medicinal plants due to their wide range of pharmaceutical potential. The present study aims to investigate the anticancer (in vitro) and chemo-protective (in vivo) efficacies of Onosma mutabilis extract (OME) in the azoxymethane (AOM)-induced aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in rats. The in vitro antiproliferative effects of OME were determined on two human tumor cell lines (Caco-2 and HT-29) via MTT assay. The in vivo chemoprotective effects of OME were investigated by performing various biochemical analyses in serum and tissue homogenates of albino rats, along with determining oxidative stress biomarkers. Inflammatory biomarkers of colon, colonic gross morphology (by methylene blue), ACF formation, and colonic histopathology (H & E stain) were determined. The immunohistochemistry of colonic tissues was also assessed by Bax and Bcl-2 protein expression. The results showed that the antitumor activity of OME against Caco-2 and HT-29 colorectal cancer cells ranged between 22.28-36.55 µg/mL. OME supplementation caused a significant drop in the ACF values and improved the immunohistochemistry of the rats shown by up-regulation of Bax and down-regulation of Bcl-2 protein expressions. These outcomes reveal that O. mutabilis may have chemoprotective efficiency against AOM-induced colon cancer represented by the attenuation of ACF formation possibly through inhibition of free radicals, inflammation, and stimulation of the colon antioxidant armory (SOD, CAT, and GPx) and positive regulation of the Nrf2-Keap1 pathway.

The complete chloroplast genome of Cynoglossum amabile Stapf & J. R. Drumm., 1906 (Boraginaceae), a traditional Chinese herbal medicine

Cynoglossum amabile Stapf & J. R. Drumm., 1906 is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine from southwest China. To better determine its phylogenetic relatedness to other Boraginaceae species, the chloroplast (cp) genome of C. amabile was sequenced. The complete cp genome of C. amabile is 151,532 bp in length, containing a small single-copy (SSC) region with a length of 17,366 bp, a large single-copy (LSC) region with a length of 82,902 bp, and a pair of inverted repeats (IRs) regions each with a length of 25,632 bp. The overall GC content of the cp genome is 37.4%. The maximum-likelihood phylogenetic tree showed that Bothriospermum zeylanicum (J. Jacq.) Druce, 1917 was closely related to C. amabile.

The chloroplast genome of Lappula myosotis V. Wolf, a medicinal species

Lappula myosotis V. Wolf 1776 is an annual or biennial plant with important medicinal value. In the present study, we report the complete chloroplast genome data of L. myosotis, which has a length of 146,668 bp, including a small single-copy (SSC) region of 17,059 bp, a large single-copy (LSC) region of 79,691 bp, and a pair of inverted repeats (IRs) of 24,959 bp. A total of 127 genes encoding tRNA and rRNA were annotated. The total CG content of the chloroplast genome was 37.7%. The maximum-likelihood (ML) phylogenetic tree strongly supported that L. myosotis is closely related to Trigonotis peduncularis. The complete chloroplast genome of L. myosotis provides useful information on the evolution and phylogenetic relationship among Boraginaceae plants.

Current Trends and Future Prospects on the Therapeutic Potential of Cordia dichotoma G. Forst.-A Valuable Folk Medicine

BACKGROUND

Cordia dichotoma G. Forst (Boraginaceae), usually recognized as Clammy/ Indian cherry, is a familiar Ayurvedic, Unani, and modern herbal medicine used for diverse unrelated ailments since antiquity. It is rich in phytochemical constituents, has nutritional significance, and possesses enormous pharmacological properties.

OBJECTIVE

This review has been established to highlight the importance of C. dichotoma G. Forst by providing comprehensive knowledge of its phytochemical, ethnobotanical, pharmacological, and toxicological aspects with a perception to foster pharmaceutical research to exploit its maximum potential as a therapeutic agent.

METHODS

Literature research has been accomplished using Google Scholar and databases like Science Direct, WOS, PubMed, SciFinder, Scopus with updates until June 2022.

RESULTS

The work is an update on C. dichotoma G. and it reviewed and analyzed its phytochemical, ethnobotanical, pharmacological and toxicological knowledge from early human communities to contemporary medicinal and pharmaceutical applications with comprehensive examination of myriad plausible applications in the present-day scientific milieu. The species depicted the presence of diverse phytochemical profiles, possibly justifying its bioactive potential.

CONCLUSION

This review will help lay grounds to facilitate state-of-art research intended to acquire additional information about the plant. The study offers opportunities to explore bio-guided isolation strategies for isolating and purifying phytochemical constituents that are biologically effective including pharmacological and pharmaceutical aspects to better understand its clinical relevance. Exploring pure isolated phytoconstituents for their mode of action including estimation of their bioavailability and pharmacokinetic parameters would be of considerable interest in assessing the attained pharmacological effect. Clinical studies are required to validate the suitability of its traditional usage.

Phenylpropanoids from Brachybotrys paridiformis maxim. Ex oliv. And their anti-HBV activities (II)

Five undescribed phenylpropanoids, one undescribed phenolic glucoside, and sixteen known compounds were isolated from Brachybotrys paridiformis Maxim. Ex Oliv. The undescribed compounds were named brachoside B-C, brach acid A-B, brachnan A, and brachin D, respectively. Additionally, the anti-hepatitis B virus activities of all isolated compounds were studied. Among them, brachnan A, brach acid A, globoidnan A, 3-carboxy-6,7-dihydroxy-1-(3',4'-dihydroxy-phenyl)-naphthalene, and 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde showed significant anti-hepatitis B virus activities.

Combined Effects of Scarification, Phytohormones, Stratification, and Soil Type on the Germination and/or Seedling Performance of Three Tamaulipan Thornscrub Forest Species

Tamaulipan thornforests in south Texas and northeast Mexico are a conservation hotspot. Shortages of native seedlings limit regional restoration and are largely driven by knowledge gaps regarding propagation of the 75+ thornforest species planted during restorations. We previously investigated three thornforest species with low or inconsistent germination or seedling survival: Ebenopsis ebano (Fabaceae), Cordia boissieri (Boraginaceae), and Zanthoxylum fagara (Rutaceae), and identified the types and dosages of chemical seed treatments that maximized germination. However, chemical treatments were performed in isolation and combinational treatments may be required to break dormancy or maximize germination. This study builds on prior work by investigating the effects of all possible combinations of sulfuric acid (SA), gibberellic acid (GA), and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) treatments on germination of the same focal species, and further quantified the combined effects of five chemical treatments, three stratification treatments, and six soil mixture types on the germination and seedling performance of the focal species. Ebenopsis ebano germination peaked with SA and was not improved with additional chemical treatments. Cordia boissieri germination was highest with GA only in our indoor experiment but peaked with GA + IBA + SA in our outdoor experiment. Zanthoxylum fagara germination was near zero in all treatments. Stratification treatments marginally reduced E. ebano germination and reduced C. boissieri seedling height. Soil type had significant impacts on E. ebano germination and leaf abundance (residual differences up to 40% or 4 leaves, respectively) and influenced some of the effects of chemical treatments. These results enhance our understanding of thornforest seed ecology and best practices for nursery propagation of seedlings.

Shikonin derivatives as potent xanthine oxidase inhibitors: in-vitro study

Induction of hypersensitivity reactions (may be fatal too) by specific XO inhibitors has led to development of new molecules that are efficacious and have safer ADME profile. Among natural compounds, biologically active Alkannin/Shikonin (A/S) derivatives have unexplored XO inhibition potential. Therefore, their iso-hexenylnaphthazarin nucleus was studied and found that the nucleus is similar to that of allopurinol, signifying the XO inhibitory potential of these derivatives. For confirmation of their potential, β,β-dimethylacrylshikonin and deoxyshikonin were successfully isolated and characterised from Arnebia euchroma (Royle.) Johnst. (Boraginaceae) and were evaluated for in vitro XO inhibitory potential. β,β-dimethylacrylshikonin and deoxyshikonin showed a good XO inhibition potential with IC₅₀ values of 7.475 ± 1.46 µg/mL and 4.487 ± 0.88 µg/mL, respectively. Results also validated the pharmacophore hypothesis, and it was concluded that nucleus iso-hexenylnaphthazarin can be remodelled for optimising the efficacy.

Genome size and endoreplication in two pairs of cytogenetically contrasting species of Pulmonaria (Boraginaceae) in Central Europe

Genome size is species-specific feature and commonly constant in an organism. In various plants, DNA content in cell nucleus is commonly increased in process of endoreplication, cellular-specific multiplication of DNA content without mitosis. This leads to the endopolyploidy, the presence of multiplied chromosome sets in a subset of cells. The relationship of endopolyploidy to species-specific genome size is rarely analysed and is not fully understood. While negative correlation between genome size and endopolyploidy level is supposed, this is species- and lineage-specific. In the present study, we shed light on this topic, exploring both genome size and endoreplication-induced DNA content variation in two pairs of morphologically similar species of Pulmonaria, P. obscura-P. officinalis and P. mollis-P. murinii. We aim (i) to characterize genome size and chromosome numbers in these species using cytogenetic, root-tip squashing and flow cytometry (FCM) techniques; (ii) to investigate the degree of endopolyploidy in various plant organs, including the root, stem, leaf, calyx and corolla using FCM; and (iii) to comprehensively characterize and compare the level of endopolyploidy and DNA content in various organs of all four species in relation to species systematic relationships and genome size variation. We have confirmed the diploid-dysploid nature of chromosome complements, and divergent genome sizes for Pulmonaria species: P. murinii with 2n = 2x = 14, 2.31 pg/2C, P. obscura 2n = 2x = 14, 2.69 pg/2C, P. officinalis 2n = 2x = 16, 2.96 pg/2C and P. mollis 2n = 2x = 18, 3.18 pg/2C. Endopolyploidy varies between species and organs, and we have documented 4C-8C in all four organs and up to 32C (64C) endopolyploid nuclei in stems at least in some species. Two species with lower genome sizes tend to have higher endopolyploidy levels than their closest relatives. Endoreplication-generated tissue-specific mean DNA content is increased and more balanced among species in all four organs compared to genome size. Our results argue for the narrow relationship between genome size and endopolyploidy in the present plant group within the genus Pulmonaria, and endopolyploidization seems to play a compensatory developmental role in organs of related morphologically similar species.

Morphological, ecological and geographic differences between diploids and tetraploids of Symphytum officinale (Boraginaceae) justify both cytotypes as separate species

Polyploidization is generally considered to be an important evolutionary driver affecting the genetic diversity, that can alter the morphology, phenology, physiology or ecology of plants, which in turn may make the taxonomy of polyploids more difficult. One such example is the Symphytum officinale complex, a polyploid species group represented by three major cytotypes: tetraploids (2n = 48), less common, geographically restricted diploids (2n = 24) and hypotetraploids (2n = 40). In most European floras only one polymorphic species, S. officinale, is widely recognized, while the particular cytotypes are usually considered conspecific. Our study provided a thorough evaluation of the ploidy level diversity, morphological and ecological variation, with a special attempt to clarify the status of 'white-flowered' diploids. Using flow cytometry, we identified three cytotypes: widespread tetraploids (76.1 %); less frequent diploids (23.6 %) with scattered distribution across the range of tetraploids and confined only to several areas of Europe; and extremely rare triploids (0.3 %). Diploids and tetraploids showed diffuse parapatric pattern of distribution, with only four mixed-cytotype populations (2.7 %) found, but almost entirely without triploids, suggesting reproductive isolation between di- and tetraploids. Niche of diploids falls nearly completely within the niche of tetraploids that showed niche expansion. Tetraploids also showed a shift in niche optimum towards a less continental and colder climate, coupled with expansion to more disturbance-prone sites with higher nutrient availability. Diploids were clearly distinguishable morphologically from tetraploids. The morphological differentiation of studied cytotypes appears to be taxonomically significant, especially in combination with ecological differences and the apparent presence of hybridization barriers. Both cytotypes should be treated as separate species (i.e. S. bohemicum and S. officinale s. str.).

Two new stilbene glucosides and a new benzoic acid derivative from Tournefortia sibirica

Two new stilbene glucosides, trans-3,5-dihydroxy-4-methoxystilbene 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (1), cis-3,5-dihydroxy-4-methoxystilbene 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (2), one new benzoic acid derivative, cis-4-hydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-2-butenyl benzoate 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (3), and four known compounds (4 - 7) were isolated from Tournefortia sibirica L. The structures of these compounds were elucidated on the basis of spectral data. Anti-inflammatory effects of compounds (1 - 7) were evaluated in terms of inhibition on production of NO, TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Compounds 1, 2 and 5 - 7 could inhibit the levels of NO, TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells with IC₅₀ values ranging from 40.96 to 88.76 µM.

Johnstonellapunensis (Boraginaceae), a new species endemic to the dry Puna of Chile

In an earlier molecular phylogenetic study, a sample of what was originally identified as Cryptanthahispida (Boraginaceae) from Chile, grouped with species of the genus Johnstonella. This sample was subsequently shown not to be C.hispida, but an undescribed species, endemic to the dry Puna of Chile. This new species is described here as Johnstonellapunensis, along with a key to all South American species of the genus. Johnstonellapunensis resembles other members of that genus in having an ovate fruit shape, ovate nutlets and a long style that extends beyond the nutlets. It is unusual in the genus in having a non-tuberculate, dimpled to rugulose nutlet surface sculpturing. Its closest relative within the genus is likely the South American J.diplotricha.

Assessment of Distribution and Diversity of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in the Most Prevalent Boraginaceae Species in Macedonia

Systematic study of extraction efficiency of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and corresponding pyrrolizidine alkaloid N-oxides (PANOs) from plant material for subsequent LC/MS analysis was carried out. The optimal extraction was achieved with methanol and one clean up step using SPE C18 column. With the optimized LC-ESI-MS/MS method using ion trap, the distribution and diversity of PAs and PANOs in plant material (leaves, flowers and stems) obtained from wild-growing E. vulgare, E. italicum, S. officinale L., C. creticum and O. heterophylla species from Macedonia was assessed. These widespread Boraginaceae species contain various PAs and PANOs and 25 of them were identified. Based on these qualitative and quantitative analyses, the profiles of 1,2-unsaturated PAs for each sample were obtained and their toxic potential was estimated. The toxic potential of O. heterophylla and C. creticum were assumed to be highest (containing up to 4753 mg/kg and 3507 mg/kg), followed by E. vulgare (up to 1340 mg/kg), S. officinale L. (up to 479 mg/kg) and E. italicum (up to 16 mg/kg). This method can be used for monitoring the inclusion of these secondary metabolites in the food chain in order to contribute in their risk management.

Phenylpropanoids from Brachybotrys paridiformis Maxim. ex Oliv. and their anti-HBV activities

Using chemical and spectroscopic data, this study on Brachybotrys paridiformis Maxim. ex Oliv. identified four undescribed phenylpropanoids, brachin A-C and brachoside A, together with nine other known compounds. The isolated compounds were tested for anti-hepatitis B virus activities in the HepG2.2.15 cell line. Among them, caffeic anhydride showed the most potent activity.

Anti-inflammatory activity of Anchusa italica Retz. in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells mediated by the Nrf2/HO-1, MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Anchusa italica Retz. (Boraginaceae) is an important medicinal plant for the treatment of meningitis and pneumonia in traditional Uygur medicines.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To clarify the anti-inflammatory activity of A. italica, to reveal its molecular mechanisms, and to discover the anti-inflammatory active ingredients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dried and crushed aerial parts of A. italica were extracted with 75% ethanol to yield crude extract (AICE) and AICE was fractionated to obtain petroleum ether extract (AIPE), dichloromethane extract (AIDE), ethyl acetate extract (AIEE), n-butanol extract (AIBE) and residues (AIW). By measuring the effects of AIPE, AIDE, AIEE, AIBE and AIW on cell viability and nitric oxide (NO) in Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated RAW264.7 cell lines, AIDE with the lowest cytotoxicity and NO contents was finally selected for further chemical and anti-inflammatory investigations. LC-MS/MS experiment was applied to analyze the chemical composition of AIDE. MTT and Griess methods were used to detect the cell viability and to quantify the nitrite levels in culture supernatants, respectively. Prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) production was examined by ELISA assays. Real-time quantitative PCR was used to detect the expression of hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1), Nrf2-mediated quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO-1), glutathione S-transferase A 1 (GSTA1) and glutathione S-transferase M 1 (GSTM1) mRNA. Western blot analysis was employed to examine the protein expression and enzymatic activities.

RESULTS

In preliminary anti-inflammatory screening, AIDE showed the lowest cytotoxicity and the most significant inhibitory effect on the production of NO (the inhibitory is 89%) induced by LPS among the tested five extracts. Thirty-three compounds including twenty-five triterpenoids were identified by LC-MS/MS analysis. AIDE could inhibit LPS-induced the over-expression of NO, IL-6, PGE₂, IL-1β and TNF-α and down-regulate the levels of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), P38-MAPK (P38) and nuclear transcription factors κB-P65 (P65) phosphorylation. It promoted the mRNA expression level of HO-1, NQO-1, GSTA1 and GSTM1 and the protein expression level of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and HO-1. After the treatment of AIDE, P65 nuclear translocation was inhibited and Nrf2 nuclear translocation was increased. In addition, the protein expression of pyrolytic relevant protein nod-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) and IL-1β were decreased after the AIDE treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Anchusa italica Retz. exerted its anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear transcription factors κB (NF-κB) and pyrolytic relevant proteins, down-regulating inflammatory factor levels, and activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Triterpenoids might be its major active anti-inflammatory ingredients.

Taxonomic revision of the southern African species of the genus Cynoglossum L. (Boraginaceae)

The aim of the study is to provide a revision of the genus Cynoglossum in southern Africa. The genus is taxonomically problematic within the family Boraginaceae, due to the morphological similarities it shares with other closely related genera in the family. Cynoglossum plants are low-growing biennial, perennial, or rarely annual herbs which are recognizable by their hairy stems and leaves, the latter are usually basal and long petiolate. Based on the latest checklist, a total of eight species of this genus are listed for the study region: C.alticola, C.amabile, C.austroafricanum, C.geometricum, C.hispidum, C.lanceolatum, C.obtusicalyx (endemic to South Africa), and C.spelaeum. The occurrence of C.amabile in the region, however, requires further investigation since the only existing specimen was collected within a protected area in the KwaZulu-Natal province. Two specimens collected in the Doornpoort area in Pretoria, Gauteng province, assigned to this species appear to have been misidentified. Diagnostic characters are described, correct nomenclature, synonyms, typification, distribution maps, as well as the key for identifying the studied species, are provided.

Nanoencapsulation of n-butanol extract of Symphytum kurdicum and Symphytum asperrimum: Focus on phytochemical analysis, anti-oxidant and antibacterial activity

Objectives

The current study's objectives were to obtain different extracts and essential oils of Symphytum kurdicum and Symphytum asperrimum and to determine the chemical composition, as well as to evaluate free radical scavenging activity (IC50) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and the effect of liposomal formulation on antimicrobial properties.

Materials and Methods

Air-dried powdered aerial parts of S. kurdicum and S. asperrimum were used. The antioxidant and antibacterial properties, essential oil compositions, total phenol, and flavonoid contents of different fractions were determined by DPPH test, disk diffusion assay, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, Folin-ciocalteu reagent, and colorimetric assay method, respectively. The film hydration method was used to fabricate nanoparticles.

Results

GC-MS analysis indicated that hexafarnesyl acetone was a major essential oil component. n-butanol and ethyl acetate extracts of S. kurdicum had the highest anti-oxidant activity. Extracts of both plants showed antimicrobial activity. The extracts' maximum inhibition zones against Staphylococcus epidermidis were established. A particle size analyzer detected the formulation size of 140 nm. The optimum formulation of liposomes contains the ratio of 75 mg lecithin, 25 mg cholesterol, and 50 mg herbal extract. Despite the nanoparticles' appropriate particle size, the liposomal extract's antimicrobial effect was lower than that of the free form.

Conclusion

Our findings demonstrated that extracts have significant antibacterial and anti-oxidant activities, attributed to their bioactive constituents.

Structure and activity of a novel robust peroxidase from Alkanna frigida cell culture

Demands for peroxidases (POX)s with diverse physicochemical properties have steadily grown as more applications of POXs are demonstrated. Plants are among the best sources of versatile POXs, and plant biotechnology, as an agricultural hassle-free technology, promises to circumvent the limitations of natural resource exploitation and to address the demands. Following this trend, it was shown that POX production steadily increased during the 31-day subculture of Alkanna frigida (from Boraginaceae) callus on Murashige-Skoog medium containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (10^-6 M) and kinetin (10^-5 M). The purified cationic enzyme (POX_alf) maintained its optimal activity over pH 4-7 for 2 years. It was resistant to H₂O₂ high concentrations (IC50 = 543.7 mM) and showed high specific activity in the reaction with phenol (4320.5 AU mg^-1 > 20-fold of HRP AU). Furthermore, the specificity constant ratio of guaiacol to phenol indicated a 100 times faster reaction of POX_alf with guaiacol. However, in contrast to HRP, it had little effect on diazo derivatives of aniline and meta-diaminobenzene. Based on the resulting primary structure from the tandem mass analysis, the POX_alf 3D structure was constructed via homology modelling. Despite the high topological similarity between the HRP and POX_alf structures, there were important differences between the active site pockets that could explain the observed differences in the corresponding substrate spectra and the specific activities. Considering the dynamics of POX_alf production, its inactivity towards IAA and its high affinity for guaiacol, POX_alf may have associated roles with A. frigida cell wall construction and monolignol metabolism.

Palyno-anatomical microscopic characterization of selected species of Boraginaceae and Fabaceae

Palyno-anatomical characterization of some selected species of Boraginaceae and Fabaceae using light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was conducted. Six species of them belongs to four genera of family Boraginaceae and other six species belongs to four genera of Fabaceae. The current study aimed to investigate palyno-anatomical features for correct identification and taxonomic significance. Pollen grains were acetolyzed and observed both qualitatively and quantitatively through light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Statistical data was analyzed through cluster analysis which categorized plants into clusters. Principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to illustrate morphological variation among selected plant species. Studied plant species showed variation in shape, size, aperture type, exine ornamentation of pollen, size and shape of epidermal cells, types of stomata, guard cells, subsidiary cells and trichome types. Exine thickness was recorded maximum 2.30 ± 0.1 μm in Lablab purpureus and minimum 1.05 ± 0.2 in Gastrocotyle hispida. PCA summarized 73.78% of accumulative variance. Trichome index was observed highest 62% on the adaxial surface of Heliotropium europaeum and lowest 21% on adaxial surface of L. purpureus. These findings reinforce the importance of palyno-anatomical features in the characterization and identification of taxa. It was concluded that description of palyno-anatomical characteristics presented in this study, highly contribute to our knowledge for correct identification of plant species.

Polyurethane Foam Rafts Supported In Vitro Cultures of Rindera graeca Roots for Enhanced Production of Rinderol, Potent Proapoptotic Naphthoquinone Compound

Unique phytochemical profile of plants belonging to Boraginaceae family provides a prolific resource of lipophilic pigments from the group of naphthoquinone derivatives. To overcome low compound content, the major obstacle of plant-based production, immobilization of Rindera graeca roots in in vitro cultures was implemented for efficient production of rinderol, novel furanonaphthoquinone derivative with anticancer properties. Chromatographic procedures revealed rinderol presence in extracts of all investigated root lines, derived both from root biomass and post-culture medium. Unexpectedly, in the second stage of the experiment, rinderol production was ceased in control, unmodified culture systems. On the contrary, roots immobilized on PUF rafts uniformly and stably produced rinderol, and its highest amount was noted for transformed root lines after 42 days of cultivation (222.98 ± 10.47 µg/flask). PUF occurred to be the main place of compound accumulation. Moreover, investigation of rinderol biological activity revealed its fast-acting cell death induction in HeLa cervical cancer cells at relatively low concentrations. Presented results revealed successful application of R. graeca roots immobilization on PUF rafts for production and in situ product removal of rinderol, novel lipophilic furanonaphthoquinone with suggested proapoptotic activity.

A new combination in Pseudolappula (Boraginaceae, Rochelieae) based on morphological, molecular and palynological evidence

Lappulasinaica was recently transferred to the monotypic genus Pseudolappula based on phylogenetic studies, while the related species, L.occultata, has remained in the genus Lappula. In this study, morphological, molecular, and palynological evidence supports that L.occultata should be transferred to the genus Pseudolappula. Both L.occultata and P.sinaica share a combination of nutlets features that distinguish them from Lappula: a longer adaxial keel and a linear attachment scar. Phylogenetic analysis based on ITS and trnL-F strongly supports L.occultata as the sister taxon of P.sinaica. In addition, pollen grains of these two species are 3-syncolporate with 3 alternating pseudocolpi, which is significantly different from the grains of Lappula taxa. Based on the above evidence, the new combination Pseudolappulaoccultata is proposed.

Chemical composition of Gastrocotyle hispida (Forssk.) bunge and Heliotropium crispum Desf. and evaluation of their multiple in vitro biological potentials

Medicinal plants largely serve as a source of bioactive compounds in traditional medicines to cure various diseases. The present study was aimed at chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic and antihemolytic potential of five different extracts of G. hispida and H. crispum (Boraginaceae). G. hispida methanolic extract displayed highest number (eleven) of polyphenolic compounds by using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Functional groups were identified by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and elements (Si, Fe, Ba, Mg, Ti, Ca, Mg and Cr) were observed by using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) which were also highly expressed in G. hispida as compared to H. crispum. Antioxidant activity was determined via six assays and antibacterial activity was observed in decreasing order of methanol > ethanol > chloroform > ethyl acetate > n-Hexane in both species. Cytotoxic potential was investigated against brine shrimps and then liver (HepG2) and skin (HT144) cancer cell lines which was detected highest in the G. hispida ethanolic extract (50.76 % and 72.95 %). However, H. crispum chloroform extract revealed highest (31.869 μg/mL) antihemolytic activity and its methanolic extract indicated highest (13.5 %) alpha-amylase inhibitory potential. Altogether, results suggested that both species could be used effectively in food and drug industries owing to the presence of vital bioactive compounds and elements. In future, we recommend to isolate active compounds and to perform in vivo biological assays to further validate their potential biological applications.

Toxicity of Varronia curassavica Jacq. Essential Oil to Two Arthropod Pests and Their Natural Enemy

This study aimed to evaluate the toxicity of the Varronia curassavica Jacq. essential oil to two cosmopolitan and polyphagous pest species, the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) and the green aphid (Myzus persicae Sulzer). Additionally, we tested the essential oil toxicity to a generalist predatory insect, the green lacewing Ceraeochrysa cubana Hagen. The treatments consisted of four essential oil concentrations (0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0%) and one control (Tween® 80 + water). At 0.75% concentration, the V. curassavica essential oil caused the highest mortalities for both pests. The concentration of 1.0% of the essential oil interfered mainly in the rates of oviposition and egg hatching and caused a decrease in the instantaneous population growth rate (r_i) of T. urticae. Survival of the C. cubana was not affected by the highest tested concentration of the essential oil (1%). Tested concentrations V. curassavica essential oil were toxic to T. urticae and M. persicae, but not to the predator C. cubana.

Phylogenomics, floral evolution, and biogeography of Lithospermum L. (Boraginaceae)

Lithospermum (Boraginaceae), a geographically cosmopolitan medium-sized genus, includes diverse floral morphology, with variation in corolla size and shape and in breeding system. Over the past decade, multiple studies have examined the evolutionary history of Lithospermum, with most utilizing DNA regions from the plastid genome and/or the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer. These studies have, in general, not resulted in well-resolved and well-supported phylogenies. In the present study, 298 nuclear DNA regions, amplified via target sequence capture, were utilized for phylogenetic reconstruction for Lithospermum and relatives in Boraginaceae, and patterns of floral evolution, species diversification, and biogeography were examined. Based on multiple phylogenetic methods, Lithospermum is resolved as monophyletic, and the New World species of the genus are also monophyletic. While minimal phylogenetic incongruence is resolved within the nuclear genome, incongruence between the nuclear and plastid genomes is recovered. This is likely due to incomplete lineage sorting during early diversification of the genus in the Americas approximately 7.8 million years ago. At least four shifts to longer corollas are identified throughout Lithospermum, and this may be due to selection for hummingbird-pollinated flowers, particularly for species in Mexico and the southwestern United States. In the New World, one clade of species of the genus diversified primarily across the United States and Canada, and another radiated throughout the mountains of Mexico.

Development of the first microsatellite markers using high-throughput sequencing for a hexaploid coastal species, Tournefortia argentea L. f. (Boraginaceae)

BACKGROUD

Tournefortia argentea L. f. is a hexaploid shrub or tree species with ecological and evolutionary significances, which forms the fringe of vegetation closest to the sea on tropical coral islands. Previous studies have never addressed on genetic information, and thus genomic resources remain scarce.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We used nine individuals from different islands to identify polymorphic microsatellites of T. argentea by Illumina high-throughput sequencing. Thirty-five polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed. Characteristics of each locus were tested using 48 individuals collected from three populations of T. argentea. A total of 320 alleles were found across the 35 microsatellite loci. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 5 to 15, with an average of 9.1. Observed and expected heterozygosities in each locus per population varied from 0.000 to 1.000 and from 0.000 to 0.893, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we report the development of 35 polymorphic microsatellite markers based on Illumina high-throughput sequencing. These markers will facilitate the investigations of genetic diversity, population structures and evolutionary history of T. argentea.

Effects of Scarification, Phytohormones, Soil Type, and Warming on the Germination and/or Seedling Performance of Three Tamaulipan Thornscrub Forest Species

The Tamaulipan thornforests of south Texas and northeast Mexico are an ecologically and economically important conservation hotspot. Thornforest restoration is limited by native tree and shrub seedling availability for planting. Seedling shortages arise from low seed availability and knowledge gaps regarding best practices for germinating and growing the 70+ thornforest species desired for restoration plantings. To fill key knowledge gaps, we investigated three ecologically important thornforest species with low or highly variable germination or seedling survival rates: Ebenopsis ebano, Cordia boissieri, and Zanthoxylum fagara. For each, we quantified the effects of different dosages of chemical seed treatments used to promote germination (sulfuric acid, SA; gibberellic acid, GA; indole-3-butyric acid, IBA) on germination likelihood and timing. We also quantified the effects that these chemical seed treatments, soil media mixture type, and soil warming had on seedling survival, growth, and root morphology. Ebenopsis germination peaked (>90%) with 40-60 min SA treatment. Cordia germination peaked (40%) with 100 mg/L GA treatment. Zanthoxylum germination was negligible across all treatments. Seed molding was rare but stirring during SA treatment reduced Ebenopsis molding by 4%. Ebenopsis seedling survival, height, leaf count, and root morphology were minimally affected by seed treatments, generally reduced by warming, and influenced by soil mix, which also mediated responses to warming. These results suggest improvements to existing practices that could increase Ebenopsis germination by 10-20% and potentially double Cordia germination.

Chemical Profile and Screening of Bioactive Metabolites of Rindera graeca (A. DC.) Bois. & Heldr. (Boraginaceae) In Vitro Cultures

Rindera graeca is a rare endemic plant where in vitro culture has been used in order to investigate bioactive metabolites. Phytochemical study of the in vitro shoots and hairy roots led to the isolation of seven phenolic derivatives and the unusual furano-naphthoquinone rinderol. R. graeca was also analyzed for its pyrrolizidine alkaloids content by LC-MS, and it was found to contain echinatine together with echinatine and rinderine N-oxides. Rinderol, isolated only from in vitro hairy root culture for the first time in the genus, revealed promising bioactivities. It was evaluated in vitro against a panel of microorganisms, showing very strong activity specifically against Gram-positive bacteria (MIC values 0.98 × 10-2-1.18 µg/mL) as well as very interesting antiproliferative effect against the human non-small-cell bronchopulmonary carcinoma cell line NSCLC-N6-L16 and the epidermoid lung cancer cell line A549. These findings were compared with the chemical profile of the plant from nature, while this study is the first to report on the effects of R. graeca extracts obtained from in vitro culture, providing a valuable contribution to the scientific community towards this sustainable method of production of potential bioactive molecules.

In Vitro Enzyme Inhibitory Properties, Antioxidant Activities, and Phytochemical Profiles of Moltkia aurea and Moltkia coerulea

Objectives

In Turkey, the genus Moltkia Lehm. is represented by two species, namely Moltkia aurea Boiss. and M. coerulea (Willd.) Lehm., which are used as both food and for medicinal purposes. This study aimed to evaluate the antidiabetic and antioxidant potential and phytochemical profiles of leaf, flower, and root extracts of Moltkia species.

Materials and Methods

α-Glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory activities, antioxidant effects, and total phenol and flavonoid contents of Moltkia extracts were evaluated. High-performance liquid chromatography was performed for identifying and quantifying phenolic compounds, which are responsible for various activities of these extracts.

Results

Among the investigated phenolic compounds, caffeic and rosmarinic acids and rutin were determined and quantified in methanol extracts. Rutin was the major compound in the flower extract of M. aurea. Rutin and rosmarinic acid were the major compounds in the leaf extract of M. aurea. The flowers, leaves and roots of M. coerulea were also rich in rosmarinic acid. The antioxidant and antidiabetic potential of these extracts may be attributable to their rutin and rosmarinic acid content.

Conclusion

Moltkia species can be used as natural sources of antioxidants. Notably, M. aurea extracts can be used for the development of herbal products with antidiabetic potential.

Dissection for Floral Micromorphology and Plastid Genome of Valuable Medicinal Borages Arnebia and Lithospermum (Boraginaceae)

The genera Arnebia and Lithospermum (Lithospermeae-Boraginaceae) comprise 25-30 and 50-60 species, respectively. Some of them are economically valuable, as their roots frequently contain a purple-red dye used in the cosmetic industry. Furthermore, dried roots of Arnebia euchroma, A. guttata, and Lithospermum erythrorhizon, which have been designated Lithospermi Radix, are used as traditional Korean herbal medicine. This study is the first report on the floral micromorphology and complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequences of A. guttata (including A. tibetana), A. euchroma, and L. erythrorhizon. We reveal great diversity in floral epidermal cell patterns, gynoecium, and structure of trichomes. The cp genomes were 149,361-150,465 bp in length, with conserved quadripartite structures. In total, 112 genes were identified, including 78 protein-coding regions, 30 tRNA genes, and four rRNA genes. Gene order, content, and orientation were highly conserved and were consistent with the general structure of angiosperm cp genomes. Comparison of the four cp genomes revealed locally divergent regions, mainly within intergenic spacer regions (atpH-atpI, petN-psbM, rbcL-psaI, ycf4-cemA, ndhF-rpl32, and ndhC-trnV-UAC). To facilitate species identification, we developed molecular markers psaA- ycf3 (PSY), trnI-CAU- ycf2 (TCY), and ndhC-trnV-UAC (NCTV) based on divergence hotspots. High-resolution phylogenetic analysis revealed clear clustering and a close relationship of Arnebia to its Lithospermum sister group, which was supported by strong bootstrap values and posterior probabilities. Overall, gynoecium characteristics and genetic distance of cp genomes suggest that A. tibetana, might be recognized as an independent species rather than a synonym of A. guttata. The present morphological and cp genomic results provide useful information for future studies, such as taxonomic, phylogenetic, and evolutionary analysis of Boraginaceae.

Mertensia (Boraginaceae) seeds are new sources of γ-linolenic acid and minor functional compounds

In this work, seeds from selected Mertensia species were analyzed for γ-linolenic acid-rich oils and minor functional compounds. Fatty acids (FA) were analyzed by GC-FID; tocopherols, sterols, squalene, and phenolics compounds by HPLC-DAD, and the structures of the latter were confirmed by LC-MS. M. maritima spp. asiatica and M. sibirica showed the highest amounts of γ-linolenic acid (22.8 and 18.7%, respectively) and total FA (15.9 and 10.9 g/100 g seeds, respectively). M. sibirica had the greatest levels of sterols, phenolics and tocopherols (244.8, 243.9 and 66.3 mg/100 g, respectively), in which stigmasterol, rosmarinic acid and α-tocopherol (237.7, 180.1 and 53.6 mg/100 g, respectively) were the most abundant components. M. maritima spp. asiatica and M. arizonica showed the highest amounts of squalene (2.5 and 1.1 mg /100 g seeds). Mertensia species constitute a new source of GLA-rich oils, suitable to be marketed by the pharmaceutical and food industries.

A Review on the Phytochemistry, Ethnobotanical Uses and Pharmacology of Borago Species

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Borago L., (family Boraginaceae) is a small genus of annual or perennial herbs with branched flowers, which is commonly found in the Mediterranean region. Some species known as Gavzabȃn in Asian and some African countries are traditionally used instead of Borago. Aims of the review: The purpose of this study was to provide comprehensive scientific information on phytochemistry, traditional uses and pharmacological activities of Borago species to provide an insight into further research on the therapeutic potential of these plants. In many studies, it has been shown that different parts of Borago species, including leaves, flowers, seeds, roots and aerial parts possess numerous ethnobotanical values.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All ethnobotanical, phytochemical, pharmacological, and clinical data were collected from online journals, magazines and books (all of which were published in English, Arabic, and Persian) from 1968 to 2018. Electronic databases such as Google, Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Researchgate, and other online collections were used.

RESULTS

The phytochemical studies on five species showed a wide range of phytochemicals belonging to different classes of secondary metabolites. From a pharmacological point of view, different extracts and fractions, essential oils, and pure compounds isolated from various Borago species have shown diverse activities in in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies confirming various traditional uses of Borago genus.

CONCLUSION

Considering the reported activities of the Borago genus both in traditional and modern medicine, further studies on biological aspects and identification of the mechanism of action for drug discovery are highly required.

Morpho-Colorimetric Characterization of the Sardinian Endemic Taxa of the Genus Anchusa L. by Seed Image Analysis

In this work, the seed morpho-colorimetric differentiation of the Sardinian endemic species of Anchusa (Boraginaceae) was evaluated. In Sardinia, the Anchusa genus includes the following seven taxa: A. capellii, A. crispa ssp. crispa, A. crispa ssp. maritima, A. formosa, A. littorea, A. montelinasana, and A. sardoa. Seed images were acquired using a flatbed scanner and analyzed using the free software package ImageJ. A total of 74 seed morpho-colorimetric features of 2692 seed lots of seven taxa of Anchusa belonging to 17 populations were extrapolated and used to build a database of seed size, shape, and color features. The data were statistically elaborated by the stepwise linear discriminant analysis (LDA) to compare and discriminate each accession and taxon. In addition, the seed morpho-colorimetric differences among coastal and mountainous taxa were evaluated. Considering the ecological conditions, the LDA was able to discriminate among the Anchusa taxa with a correct identification of 87.4% and 90.8% of specimens for mountainous and coastal plants, respectively. Moreover, the LDA of the 17 populations of Anchusa showed a low separation among species and populations within the coastal group, highlighting how the long-distance dispersal by flotation on the sea water surface and the pollination network may influence the similarity patterns observed. In addition, a misattribution was observed for A. crispa ssp. crispa, which was misclassified as A. crispa ssp. maritima in 14.1% of cases, while A. crispa ssp. maritima was misidentified as A. crispa ssp. crispa in 21.1% of cases, highlighting a close phenotypic relationship between these two taxa. The statistical results obtained through the seed image analysis showed that the morpho-colorimetric features of the seeds provide important information about the adaptation and evolution of Anchusa taxa in Sardinia.

Life history variation in an invasive plant is associated with climate and recent colonization of a specialist herbivore

PREMISE

Spatial variation in selective pressures can lead to intraspecific variation in life history, favoring some life histories and constraining others depending on the vulnerability of life stages. We examined how spatial variation in herbivory and climate influences flowering size and the occurrence of semelparity (reproducing once) versus iteroparity (reproducing multiple times) in the introduced range of an invasive plant, houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale). Houndstongue is a short-lived, semelparous perennial in its native range. In its introduced range, we previously documented increased rates of iteroparity and a higher median threshold flowering size compared to the native range. We hypothesized that the recent introduction of a specialist biocontrol insect (a root-boring weevil, Mogulones crucifer) would decrease threshold flowering size and reduce the proportion of iteroparous plants because M. crucifer preferentially attacks large individuals and may reduce overwinter survival.

METHODS

We surveyed 24 sites across the northwestern United States to quantify the frequency of semelparity versus iteroparity and to estimate weevil abundance and used demographic data collected from six sites to estimate median threshold flowering size.

RESULTS

We found that sites with greater winter precipitation and no weevils had a greater proportion of iteroparous plants. Sites with higher weevil attack had a lower median threshold flowering size.

CONCLUSIONS

The variation in frequency of flowering and threshold flowering size that we documented in North American houndstongue populations, and the relationships between this variation and herbivory and climate, provide evidence for how selective pressures covary with the life histories of invasive plants.

Epidermal Regeneration Induced by Comfrey Extract: A Study by Light and Electron Microscopy

INTRODUCTION

An accelerated healing of superficial wounds was demonstrated in clinical trials with a topical comfrey preparation (Symphytum × uplandicum Nyman). The effect has previously not been examined in skin models.

METHODS

An established in vitro model of epidermal cells with the typical strata was used for the observation of effects of applied substances on skin regeneration. Damage corresponding to a typical abrasion was created on day 1 by punching an opening into the epidermal fine structure down to the stratum basale. Samples were either untreated (controls) or exposed to comfrey cream on days 2, 3, 5, and 6. Tissue samples were taken for light and electron microscopy on days 1, 4, and 7.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Application of comfrey cream led to a quicker regeneration of skin cells and to an earlier differentiation of the cells towards a normal fine structure with a visible distinction of epidermal strata, keratin, and corneocyte formation within 4-7 days. The study covered the early days of skin regeneration and confirms the benefits observed in published clinical trials and non-interventional studies in patients with abrasions.