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Vitamin D status can affect COVID-19 outcomes also in pediatric population. PHARMANUTRITION 2022; 22:100319. [PMID: 36268528 PMCID: PMC9562619 DOI: 10.1016/j.phanu.2022.100319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Background vitamin D influences the immune system and the inflammatory response. It is known that vitamin D supplementation reduces the risk of acute respiratory tract infection. In the last two years, many researchers have investigated vitamin D's role in the pathophysiology of COVID-19 disease. Results the findings obtained from clinical trials and systematic reviews highlight that most patients with COVID-19 have decreased vitamin D levels and low levels of vitamin D increase the risk of severe disease. This evidence seems to be also confirmed in the pediatric population. Conclusions further studies (systematic review and meta-analysis) conducted on children are needed to confirm that vitamin D affects COVID-19 outcomes and to determine the effectiveness of supplementation and the appropriate dose, duration and mode of administration.
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Key Words
- , IFN-γ, reduce interferon-gamma
- , RAS, renin-angiotensin system
- ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- CI, confidence interval
- COVID-19
- Children
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- DCs, dendritic cells
- HR, Hazard Risk
- ICU, intensive care unit
- IL, interleukin
- IgE, immunoglobulin E
- Immunity
- MD, mean difference
- NK, natural killer
- OR, odds ratio
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PRRs, pattern recognition receptors
- RCTs, randomized control trials
- RR, risk ratio
- SARS-CoV-2 infection
- TLRs, Toll-like receptors
- TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α
- Treg cells, CD, regulatory T cellcluster of differentiation
- VDRs, vitamin D receptors
- Vitamin D
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Abstract
Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a clinical syndrome that occurs in patients with cirrhosis and is characterised by acute deterioration, organ failure and high short-term mortality. Alcohol is one of the leading causes of ACLF and the most frequently reported aetiology of underlying chronic liver disease. Among patients with alcoholic hepatitis (AH), ACLF is a frequent and severe complication. It is characterised by both immune dysfunction associated to an increased risk of infection and high-grade systemic inflammation that ultimately induce organ failure. Diagnosis and severity of ACLF determine AH prognosis, and therefore, ACLF prognostic scores should be used in severe AH with organ failure. Corticosteroids remain the first-line treatment for severe AH but they seem insufficient when ACLF is associated. Novel therapeutic targets to contain the excessive inflammatory response and reduce infection have been identified and are under investigation. With liver transplantation remaining one of the most effective therapies for severe AH and ACLF, adequate organ allocation represents a growing challenge. Hence, a clear understanding of the pathophysiology, clinical implications and management strategies of ACLF in AH is essential for hepatologists, which is narrated briefly in this review.
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Key Words
- ACLF, Acute-on-chronic liver failure
- AH, alcoholic hepatitis
- ALT, alanine aminotransferase
- APASL, Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver
- AST, aspartate aminotransferase
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- EASL-CLIF, European Association for the Study of the Liver – Chronic Liver Failure Consortium
- GAHS, Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score
- IL, interleukin
- INR, international normalised ratio
- MELD, model for end-stage liver disease
- NAC, N-acetylcysteine
- NACSELD, North American Consortium for the Study of End-Stage Liver Disease
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- TNF, tumour necrosis factor
- WGO, World Gastroenterology Organization
- acute-on-chronic liver failure
- alcoholic hepatitis
- cirrhosis
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Pulmonary delivery of siRNA against acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:600-620. [PMID: 34401226 PMCID: PMC8359643 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) has been under investigation for the treatment of several unmet medical needs, including acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ALI/ARDS) wherein siRNA may be implemented to modify the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines at the mRNA level. The properties such as clear anatomy, accessibility, and relatively low enzyme activity make the lung a good target for local siRNA therapy. However, the translation of siRNA is restricted by the inefficient delivery of siRNA therapeutics to the target cells due to the properties of naked siRNA. Thus, this review will focus on the various delivery systems that can be used and the different barriers that need to be surmounted for the development of stable inhalable siRNA formulations for human use before siRNA therapeutics for ALI/ARDS become available in the clinic.
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Key Words
- AAV, adeno-associated virus
- ALI/ARDS
- ALI/ARDS, acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome
- AM, alveolar macrophage
- ATI, alveolar cell type I
- ATII, alveolar cell type II
- AV, adenovirus
- Ago-2, argonaute 2
- CFDA, China Food and Drug Administration
- COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
- CPP, cell-penetrating peptide
- CS, cigarette smoke
- CXCR4, C–X–C motif chemokine receptor type 4
- Cellular uptake
- DAMPs, danger-associated molecular patterns
- DC-Chol, 3β-(N-(N′,N′-dimethylethylenediamine)-carbamoyl) cholesterol
- DDAB, dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide
- DODAP, 1,2-dioleyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane
- DODMA, 1,2-dioleyloxy-N,N-dimethyl-3-aminopropane
- DOGS, dioctadecyl amido glycin spermine
- DOPC, 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine
- DOPE, 1,2-dioleoyl-l-α-glycero-3-phosphatidylethanolamine
- DOSPA, 2,3-dioleyloxy-N-[2-(sperminecarboxamido)ethyl]-N,N-dimethyl-1-propanaminium
- DOTAP, 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane
- DOTMA, N-[1-(2,3-dioleoyloxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trimethylammonium
- DPI, dry powder inhaler
- DPPC, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine
- Drug delivery
- EC, endothelial cell
- EPC, egg phosphatidylcholine
- EXOs, exosomes
- Endosomal escape
- EpiC, epithelial cell
- FDA, US Food and Drug Administration
- HALI, hyperoxic acute lung injury
- HMGB1, high-mobility group box 1
- HMVEC, human primary microvascular endothelial cell
- HNPs, hybrid nanoparticles
- Hem-CLP, hemorrhagic shock followed by cecal ligation and puncture septic challenge
- ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1
- IFN, interferons
- Inflammatory diseases
- LPS, lipopolysaccharides
- MEND, multifunctional envelope-type nano device
- MIF, macrophage migration inhibitory factor
- Myd88, myeloid differentiation primary response 88
- N/P ratio, nitrogen /phosphate ratio
- NETs, neutrophil extracellular traps
- NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa B
- NPs, nanoparticles
- Nanoparticles
- PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1
- PAMAM, polyamidoamine
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PD-L1, programmed death ligand-1
- PDGFRα, platelet-derived growth factor receptor-α
- PEEP, positive end-expiratory pressure
- PEG, polyethylene glycol
- PEI, polyethyleneimine
- PF, pulmonary fibrosis
- PFC, perfluorocarbon
- PLGA, poly(d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid)
- PMs, polymeric micelles
- PRR, pattern recognition receptor
- PS, pulmonary surfactant
- Pulmonary administration
- RIP2, receptor-interacting protein 2
- RISC, RNA-induced silencing complex
- RNAi, RNA interference
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- SLN, solid lipid nanoparticle
- SNALP, stable nucleic acid lipid particle
- TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β
- TLR, Toll-like receptor
- TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α
- VALI, ventilator-associated lung injury
- VILI, ventilator-induced lung injury
- dsDNA, double-stranded DNA
- dsRNA, double-stranded RNA
- eggPG, l-α-phosphatidylglycerol
- mRNA, messenger RNA
- miRNA, microRNA
- pDNA, plasmid DNA
- shRNA, short RNA
- siRNA
- siRNA, small interfering RNA
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The Effects of Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns on Peripheral Blood Monocytes in Patients with Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2022; 12:808-817. [PMID: 35677503 PMCID: PMC9168738 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2021.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Innate immune responses to gut-derived pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Whether NAFLD patients have increased sensitivity to PAMP exposure has yet to be reported. METHODS Peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC)/monocytes were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), Pam3CSK4, or BSA conjugated palmitate in vitro. Changes in toll-like receptors (TLR), cytokines, and chemokine receptors (CR) expressions were documented by flow cytometry and/or enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assays (ELISAs). RESULTS TLR2 and TLR4 expression were similar at baseline and increased to a similar extent (TLR2) or remained unchanged (TLR4) following PAMP exposure in NAFLD and healthy control (HC) monocytes. Proinflammatory IL-1β and IL-6 levels were similar at baseline but increased in a concentration-dependent manner to a greater extent in NAFLD PBMCs. CCR1 and CCR2 expressions at baseline were similar and decreased to a similar extent in NAFLD and HC monocytes. The extent of PAMP-induced proinflammatory cytokine release correlated with evidence of hepatocyte injury (CK18M30 levels). DISCUSSION NAFLD patients have increased proinflammatory cytokine responses following exposure to PAMPs relative to HC subjects. This response is concentration-dependent and correlates with the extent of hepatic injury.
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Key Words
- ALT, alanine aminotransferase
- CM, culture medium
- CR, chemokine receptor
- ELISAs, enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assays
- HC, healthy controls
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- NAFLD
- NAFLD, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
- NASH
- PAMPs
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cell
- Pal, palmitate
- Pam, Pam3CSK4
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
- pathogen-associated molecular patterns
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Recognizing Dysfunctional Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses Contributing to Liver Damage in Patients With Cirrhosis. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2022; 12:993-1002. [PMID: 34744379 PMCID: PMC8560502 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2021.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The human host immune system wards off attacks by enemies such as viruses by mounting an inflammatory response which may sometimes injure self-tissues. Dysfunctional immune/inflammatory response by the host may affect the functioning of vital organs. The largest number of innate immune cells in the body resides in the liver. On encountering a new insult or injury to the liver, the innate immune system responds quickly to counter it. Acute liver insults may trigger acute liver failure or acute on chronic liver failure; these disorders are associated with a predominant innate immune response. Activation of the reticuloendothelial system (part of the innate immune response) predicts short-term and medium-term survival in patients with acute on chronic liver failure. Liver diseases associated with an aberrant adaptive immune response like autoimmune hepatitis respond well to treatment with steroids and other immunosuppressants, while those associated with innate immune dysfunction like acute on chronic liver failure do not respond well to steroids; recent reports suggest that the latter disorders may respond to therapeutic plasma exchange. How does the immune system in a patient with liver disease respond to SARS CoV2 infection? While commonly used tests in routine clinical practice provide clues to activation of different arms of immune response in patients with cirrhosis, specialized tests may help characterize this further. This review discusses the tests which reflect aberrant immune responses and treatment of patients with cirrhosis.
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Key Words
- ACLF, acute on chronic liver failure
- AIH, autoimmune hepatitis
- ANCA, anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies
- APASL, Asia Pacific Association for Study of Liver
- COVID-19, coronavirus disease of 2019
- CRP, C-reactive protein
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- EASL, European Association for Study of Liver
- HLA, human leukocyte antigen
- IgG, immunoglobulin G
- IgG4 RD, IgG4 related disease
- MELD, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease
- NK cells, natural killer cells
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PBC, primary biliary cholangitis
- PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis
- SARS CoV2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- VWF, von Willebrand factor
- cirrhosis
- immune dysfunction
- investigations
- reticuloendothelial activation
- sMR, soluble mannose receptor
- treatment
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Lonicerin targets EZH2 to alleviate ulcerative colitis by autophagy-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome inactivation. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:2880-2899. [PMID: 34589402 PMCID: PMC8463273 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Aberrant activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in colonic macrophages strongly associates with the occurrence and progression of ulcerative colitis. Although targeting NLRP3 inflammasome has been considered to be a potential therapy, the underlying mechanism through which pathway the intestinal inflammation is modulated remains controversial. By focusing on the flavonoid lonicerin, one of the most abundant constituents existed in a long historical anti-inflammatory and anti-infectious herb Lonicera japonica Thunb., here we report its therapeutic effect on intestinal inflammation by binding directly to enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) histone methyltransferase. EZH2-mediated modification of H3K27me3 promotes the expression of autophagy-related protein 5, which in turn leads to enhanced autophagy and accelerates autolysosome-mediated NLRP3 degradation. Mutations of EZH2 residues (His129 and Arg685) indicated by the dynamic simulation study have found to greatly diminish the protective effect of lonicerin. More importantly, in vivo studies verify that lonicerin dose-dependently disrupts the NLRP3–ASC–pro-caspase-1 complex assembly and alleviates colitis, which is compromised by administration of EZH2 overexpression plasmid. Thus, these findings together put forth the stage for further considering lonicerin as an anti-inflammatory epigenetic agent and suggesting EZH2/ATG5/NLRP3 axis may serve as a novel strategy to prevent ulcerative colitis as well as other inflammatory diseases.
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Key Words
- 3-MC, 3-methylcholanthrene
- 5-ASA, 5-aminosalicylic acid
- AIM2, absent in melanoma 2
- ATG5, autophagy-related protein 5
- ATG7, autophagy-related protein 7
- ATP, adenosine triphosphate
- Autophagy
- BMDMs, bone marrow-derived macrophages
- CETSA, cellular thermal shift assay
- CHX, cycloheximide
- ChIP, chromatin immunoprecipitation
- Colitis
- DAI, disease activity index
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide
- DSS, dextran sulfate sodium
- DTT, dithiothreitol
- ECL, enhanced chemiluminescent
- EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
- ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
- EZH2
- EZH2, enhancer of zeste homolog 2
- FBS, fetal bovine serum
- H&E, hematoxylin and eosin
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- Lonicerin
- M-CSF, macrophage colony stimulating factor
- MDP, muramyldipeptide
- MPO, myeloperoxidase
- MSU, monosodium urate crystals
- NLRP3 inflammasome
- NLRP3, nucleotide-binding domain-like receptors family pyrin domain containing 3
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PMA, phorbol myristate acetate
- PMSF, phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride
- PRC2, polycomb repressive complex 2
- RMSD, root mean-square deviation
- RMSF, root mean-square fluctuation
- SIP, solvent-induced protein precipitation
- TEM, transmission electron microscopy
- UC, ulcerative colitis
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Abstract
The recently identified novel cytosolic DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) activates the downstream adaptor protein stimulator of interferon genes (STING) by catalysing the synthesis of cyclic GMP-AMP. This in turn initiates an innate immune response through the release of various cytokines, including type I interferon. Foreign DNA (microbial infection) or endogenous DNA (nuclear or mitochondrial leakage) can serve as cGAS ligands and lead to the activation of cGAS-STING signalling. Therefore, the cGAS-STING pathway plays essential roles in infectious diseases, sterile inflammation, tumours, and autoimmune diseases. In addition, cGAS-STING signalling affects the progression of liver inflammation through other mechanisms, such as autophagy and metabolism. In this review, we summarise recent advances in our understanding of the role of cGAS-STING signalling in the innate immune modulation of different liver diseases. Furthermore, we discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting the cGAS-STING pathway in the treatment of liver diseases.
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Key Words
- AIM2, absent in melanoma 2
- ALD, alcohol-related liver disease
- APCs, antigen-presenting cells
- CDNs, cyclic dinucleotides
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- DCs, dendritic cells
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- GVHD, graft-versus-host disease
- HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma
- HSCs, hepatic stellate cells
- IFN-I, type I interferon
- IL, interleukin
- IRF3, interferon regulatory factor 3
- IRI, ischaemia refusion injury
- KCs, Kupffer cells
- LSECs, liver sinusoidal endothelial cells
- MHC, major histocompatibility complex
- NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
- NK cells, natural killer cells
- NPCs, non-parenchymal cells
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PD-1, programmed cell death protein-1
- PD-L1, programmed cell death protein ligand-1
- PPRs, pattern recognition receptors
- SAVI, STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy
- STING, stimulator of interferon genes
- TBK1, TANK-binding kinase 1
- TGF-β1, transforming growth factor-β1
- TLR, Toll-like receptor
- TNF, tumour necrosis factor
- XRCC, X-ray repair cross complementing
- aHSCT, allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation
- cGAMP, cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate
- cGAS, cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase
- cGAS-STING signalling
- dsDNA, double-strand DNA
- hepatocellular carcinoma
- innate immune response
- liver injury
- mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin
- mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA
- nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
- siRNA, small interfering RNA
- ssRNA, single-stranded RNA
- viral hepatitis
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Abstract
Alcohol-related liver disease characterises a broad spectrum of hepatic diseases that result from heavy alcohol use, and include alcohol-related steatosis, steatohepatitis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and alcoholic hepatitis. Amongst heavy drinkers, progression to more severe forms of alcohol-related liver disease is not universal, with only 20% developing cirrhosis and up to one-third developing alcoholic hepatitis. Non-alcohol-related triggers for severe disease are not well understood, but the intestinal microbiome is thought to be a contributing factor. This review examines the role of the microbiome in mild alcohol-related liver disease, cirrhosis, and alcoholic hepatitis. While most of the literature discusses bacterial dysbiosis, we also discuss the available evidence on fungal (mycobiome) and virome alterations in patients with alcohol-related liver disease. Additionally, we explore the mechanisms by which the microbiome contributes to the pathogenesis of alcohol-related liver disease, including effects on intestinal permeability, bile acid dysregulation, and production of hepatotoxic virulence factors.
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Key Words
- AH, alcoholic hepatitis
- ALD, Alcohol-related liver disease
- AUD, alcohol use disorder
- Alcohol
- Bile acids
- CDR, cirrhosis dysbiosis ratio
- Cirrhosis
- FGF19, fibroblast growth factor 19
- FXR, farnesoid X receptor
- Hepatitis
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- MELD, model for end-stage liver disease
- Microbiome
- Mycobiome
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PPI, proton pump inhibitor
- SCFA, short-chain fatty acid
- Virome
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Current approaches used in treating COVID-19 from a molecular mechanisms and immune response perspective. Saudi Pharm J 2020; 28:1333-1352. [PMID: 32905015 PMCID: PMC7462599 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2020.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. SARS-CoV-2 targets the respiratory system, resulting in symptoms such as fever, headache, dry cough, dyspnea, and dizziness. These symptoms vary from person to person, ranging from mild to hypoxia with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and sometimes death. Although not confirmed, phylogenetic analysis suggests that SARS-CoV-2 may have originated from bats; the intermediary facilitating its transfer from bats to humans is unknown. Owing to the rapid spread of infection and high number of deaths caused by SARS-CoV-2, most countries have enacted strict curfews and the practice of social distancing while awaiting the availability of effective U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved medications and/or vaccines. This review offers an overview of the various types of coronaviruses (CoVs), their targeted hosts and cellular receptors, a timeline of their emergence, and the roles of key elements of the immune system in fighting pathogen attacks, while focusing on SARS-CoV-2 and its genomic structure and pathogenesis. Furthermore, we review drugs targeting COVID-19 that are under investigation and in clinical trials, in addition to progress using mesenchymal stem cells to treat COVID-19. We conclude by reviewing the latest updates on COVID-19 vaccine development. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of how SARS-CoV-2 interacts with host cells and stimulates the immune response is extremely important, especially as scientists look for new strategies to guide their development of specific COVID-19 therapies and vaccines.
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Key Words
- ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- AHFS, American Hospital Formula Service
- ANGII, angiotensin II
- APCs, antigen presenting cells
- ARDS, acute respiratory distress syndrome
- COVID-19, coronavirus disease
- CoVs, coronaviruses
- Coronavirus
- GVHD, graft versus host disease
- HCoVs, human coronoaviruses
- IBV, infectious bronchitis coronavirus
- IFN-γ, interferon-gamma
- ILCs, innate lymphoid cells
- Investigational medications
- MERS-CoV, Middle East respiratory syndrome
- NKs, natural killer cells
- ORFs, open reading frames
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- Pandemic
- Pathophysiology
- RdRp, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
- SARS-CoV-2
- SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
- SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus
- TMPRSS2, transmembrane serine protease 2
- Viral immune response
- WHO, World Health Organization
- nsps, nonstructural proteins
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Acute-on-chronic liver failure: Definitions, pathophysiology and principles of treatment. JHEP Rep 2020; 3:100176. [PMID: 33205036 PMCID: PMC7652714 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2020.100176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The term acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) defines an abrupt and life-threatening worsening of clinical conditions in patients with cirrhosis or chronic liver disease. In recent years, different definitions and diagnostic criteria for the syndrome have been proposed by the major international scientific societies. The main controversies relate to the type of acute insult (specifically hepatic or also extrahepatic), the stage of underlying liver disease (cirrhosis or chronic hepatitis) and the concomitant extrahepatic organ failure(s) that should be considered in the definition of ACLF. Therefore, different severity criteria and prognostic scores have been proposed and validated. Current evidence shows that the pathophysiology of ACLF is closely associated with an intense systemic inflammation sustained by circulating pathogen-associated molecular patterns and damage-associated molecular patterns. The development of organ failures may be a result of a combination of tissue hypoperfusion, direct immune-mediated damage and mitochondrial dysfunction. Management of ACLF is currently based on the supportive treatment of organ failures, mainly in an intensive care setting. For selected patients, liver transplantation is an effective treatment that offers a good long-term prognosis. Future studies on potential mechanistic treatments that improve patient survival are eagerly awaited.
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Key Words
- AARC, APASL ACLF Research Consortium
- ACLF, acute-on-chronic liver failure
- AKI, acute kidney injury
- APASL, Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver
- Acute decompensation
- Bacterial infections
- Bacterial translocation
- CLIF, Chronic Liver Failure-Consortium
- COSSH, Chinese Group on the Study of Severe Hepatitis
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- EASL, European Association for the Study of the Liver - Chronic Liver
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- HMGB1, high mobility group box 1
- ICU, intensive care unit
- INR, international normalised ratio
- Immunopathology
- Inflammatory response
- MELD, model for end-stage liver disease
- Metabolism
- Multiorgan failure
- NACSELD, North American Consortium for the Study of End-stage Liver Disease
- NO, nitric oxide
- OF, organ failure
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PRR, pattern-recognition receptors
- Sterile inflammation
- TLR, Toll-like receptor
- UNOS, United Network for Organ Sharing
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Indian National Association for the Study of the Liver Consensus Statement on Acute Liver Failure (Part 1): Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Presentation and Prognosis. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2020; 10:339-376. [PMID: 32655238 PMCID: PMC7335721 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2020.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute liver failure (ALF) is an infrequent, unpredictable, potentially fatal complication of acute liver injury (ALI) consequent to varied etiologies. Etiologies of ALF as reported in the literature have regional differences, which affects the clinical presentation and natural course. In this part of the consensus article designed to reflect the clinical practices in India, disease burden, epidemiology, clinical presentation, monitoring, and prognostication have been discussed. In India, viral hepatitis is the most frequent cause of ALF, with drug-induced hepatitis due to antituberculosis drugs being the second most frequent cause. The clinical presentation of ALF is characterized by jaundice, coagulopathy, and encephalopathy. It is important to differentiate ALF from other causes of liver failure, including acute on chronic liver failure, subacute liver failure, as well as certain tropical infections which can mimic this presentation. The disease often has a fulminant clinical course with high short-term mortality. Death is usually attributable to cerebral complications, infections, and resultant multiorgan failure. Timely liver transplantation (LT) can change the outcome, and hence, it is vital to provide intensive care to patients until LT can be arranged. It is equally important to assess prognosis to select patients who are suitable for LT. Several prognostic scores have been proposed, and their comparisons show that indigenously developed dynamic scores have an edge over scores described from the Western world. Management of ALF will be described in part 2 of this document.
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Key Words
- ACLF, acute on chronic liver failure
- AFLP, acute fatty liver of pregnancy
- AKI, Acute kidney injury
- ALF, Acute liver failure
- ALFED, Acute Liver Failure Early Dynamic
- ALT, alanine transaminase
- ANA, antinuclear antibody
- AP, Alkaline phosphatase
- APTT, activated partial thromboplastin time
- ASM, alternative system of medicine
- ASMA, antismooth muscle antibody
- AST, aspartate transaminase
- ATN, Acute tubular necrosis
- ATP, adenosine triphosphate
- ATT, anti-TB therapy
- AUROC, Area under the receiver operating characteristics curve
- BCS, Budd-Chiari syndrome
- BMI, body mass index
- CBF, cerebral blood flow
- CBFV, cerebral blood flow volume
- CE, cerebral edema
- CHBV, chronic HBV
- CLD, chronic liver disease
- CNS, central nervous system
- CPI, clinical prognostic indicator
- CSF, cerebrospinal fluid
- DAMPs, Damage-associated molecular patterns
- DILI, drug-induced liver injury
- EBV, Epstein-Barr virus
- ETCO2, End tidal CO2
- GRADE, Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation
- HAV, hepatitis A virus
- HBV, Hepatitis B virus
- HELLP, hemolysis
- HEV, hepatitis E virus
- HLH, Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis
- HSV, herpes simplex virus
- HV, hepatic vein
- HVOTO, hepatic venous outflow tract obstruction
- IAHG, International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group
- ICH, intracerebral hypertension
- ICP, intracerebral pressure
- ICU, intensive care unit
- IFN, interferon
- IL, interleukin
- IND-ALF, ALF of indeterminate etiology
- INDILI, Indian Network for DILI
- KCC, King's College Criteria
- LC, liver cirrhosis
- LDLT, living donor liver transplantation
- LT, liver transplantation
- MAP, mean arterial pressure
- MHN, massive hepatic necrosis
- MPT, mitochondrial permeability transition
- MUAC, mid-upper arm circumference
- NAPQI, n-acetyl-p-benzo-quinone-imine
- NPV, negative predictive value
- NWI, New Wilson's Index
- ONSD, optic nerve sheath diameter
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PCR, polymerase chain reaction
- PELD, Pediatric End-Stage Liver Disease
- PPV, positive predictive value
- PT, prothrombin time
- RAAS, renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system
- SHF, subacute hepatic failure
- SIRS, systemic inflammatory response syndrome
- SNS, sympathetic nervous system
- TB, tuberculosis
- TCD, transcranial Doppler
- TGF, tumor growth factor
- TJLB, transjugular liver biopsy
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- TSFT, triceps skin fold thickness
- US, ultrasound
- USALF, US Acute Liver Failure
- VZV, varicella-zoster virus
- WD, Wilson disease
- Wilson disease (WD)
- YP, yellow phosphorus
- acute liver failure
- autoimmune hepatitis (AIH)
- drug-induced liver injury
- elevated liver enzymes, low platelets
- sALI, severe acute liver injury
- viral hepatitis
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Chronic urticaria and thyroid pathology. World Allergy Organ J 2020; 13:100101. [PMID: 32180891 PMCID: PMC7063156 DOI: 10.1016/j.waojou.2020.100101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Urticaria is defined as the sudden appearance of erythematous, itchy wheals of variable size, with or without angioedema (AE) (swelling of the deeper layers of the skin). Its classification depends on time course of symptoms and the presence of eliciting factors. When it lasts less than 6 weeks it is classified as acute urticaria (AU), and if the symptoms persist for more than 6 weeks, it is classified as chronic urticaria (CU). Current International Guidelines also classify CU as chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU) and inducible urticarial, according to the absence or presence of environmental triggering factors. CSU is defined as urticaria and/or angioedema in which there is no evidence of a specific eliciting factor. CSU is associated with autoimmunity in 30-45% of the cases, sharing some immunological mechanisms with other autoimmune diseases, and is associated with autoimmune thyroid disease (ATD) in about 4.3%-57.4% patients. Several studies suggest that adequate therapy with anti-thyroid drugs or levothyroxine in early stages of ATD and CSU, may help to remit the latter; but there is still a lack of double-blind, placebo-controlled studies that support this hypothesis in patients without abnormal thyroid hormone levels. The objective of this review is to describe the pathophysiology of chronic spontaneous urticaria and its association with autoimmune thyroid disease.
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Key Words
- AAbs, autoantibodies
- AD, autoimmune diseases
- AE, angioedema
- AMA, antithyroid microsomal antibody
- ASST, autologous serum skin test
- ATAbs, anti-thyroid autoantibodies
- ATD, autoimmune thyroid disease
- Autoimmunity
- BAT, basophil activation test
- CAU, chronic autoimmune urticaria
- CSU, chronic spontaneous urticaria
- CU, chronic urticaria
- Chronic urticaria
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- FcεRIa, high affinity IgE receptor
- GD, Graves' disease
- HT, Hashimoto's thyroiditis/autoimmune thyroiditis
- Histamine
- ICU, inducible chronic urticaria
- IFN-γ, gamma interferon
- IL, Interleukin
- IgE, Immunoglobulin E
- IgG, Immunoglobulin G
- Levothyroxine
- NSAH, non-sedating antihistamines
- PAF, platelet activating factor
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- T4L, free thyroxine
- TG, thyroglobulin
- TGAbs, anti-thyroglobulin antibodies
- TLR, Toll-like receptors
- TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha
- TPOAbs, anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies
- TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone
- TSHR, thyroid stimulating hormone receptor
- Thyroid disease
- Treg, regulatory T cells
- UAS, urticaria activity score
- Urticaria
- VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
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Disturbed Yin-Yang balance: stress increases the susceptibility to primary and recurrent infections of herpes simplex virus type 1. Acta Pharm Sin B 2020; 10:383-398. [PMID: 32140387 PMCID: PMC7049575 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), a neurotropic herpes virus, is able to establish a lifelong latent infection in the human host. Following primary replication in mucosal epithelial cells, the virus can enter sensory neurons innervating peripheral tissues via nerve termini. The viral genome is then transported to the nucleus where it can be maintained without producing infectious progeny, and thus latency is established in the cell. Yin–Yang balance is an essential concept in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory. Yin represents stable and inhibitory factors, and Yang represents the active and aggressive factors. When the organism is exposed to stress, especially psychological stress caused by emotional stimulation, the Yin–Yang balance is disturbed and the virus can re-engage in productive replication, resulting in recurrent diseases. Therefore, a better understanding of the stress-induced susceptibility to HSV-1 primary infection and reactivation is needed and will provide helpful insights into the effective control and treatment of HSV-1. Here we reviewed the recent advances in the studies of HSV-1 susceptibility, latency and reactivation. We included mechanisms involved in primary infection and the regulation of latency and described how stress-induced changes increase the susceptibility to primary and recurrent infections.
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Key Words
- 4E-BP, eIF4E-binding protein
- AD, Alzheimer's disease
- AKT, protein kinase B
- AMPK, AMP-dependent kinase
- BCL-2, B-cell lymphoma 2
- CNS, central nervous system
- CORT, corticosterone
- CPE, cytopathic effect
- CTCF, CCCTC-binding factor
- CTL, cytotoxic T lymphocyte
- CoREST, REST corepressor 1
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- DCs, dendritic cells
- DEX, dexamethasone
- GREs, GR response elements
- GRs, glucocorticoid receptors
- H3K9, histone H3 on lysines 9
- HCF-1, host cell factor 1
- HDACs, histone deacetylases
- HPA axis, hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis
- HPK, herpetic simplex keratitis
- HPT axis, hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis
- HSV-1
- HSV-1, herpes simplex virus type 1
- Herpes simplex virus type 1
- ICP, infected cell polypeptide
- IRF3, interferon regulatory factor 3
- KLF15, Krüppel-like transcription factor 15
- LAT, latency-associated transcripts
- LRF, Luman/CREB3 recruitment factor
- LSD1, lysine-specific demethylase 1
- Latency
- MAVS, mitochondrial antiviral-signaling protein
- MOI, multiplicity of infection
- ND10, nuclear domains 10
- NGF, nerve growth factor
- NK cells, natural killer cells
- OCT-1, octamer binding protein 1
- ORFs, open reading frames
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PDK1, pyruvate dehydrogenase lipoamide kinase isozyme 1
- PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinases
- PML, promyelocytic leukemia protein
- PNS, peripheral nervous system
- PRC1, protein regulator of cytokinesis 1
- PRRs, pattern-recognition receptors
- PTMs, post-translational modifications
- RANKL, receptor activator of NF-κB ligands
- REST, RE1-silencing transcription factor
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- Reactivation
- SGKs, serum and glucocorticoid-regulated protein kinases
- SIRT1, sirtuin 1
- Stress
- Susceptibility
- T3, thyroid hormone
- TCM, traditional Chinese medicine
- TG, trigeminal ganglia
- TK, thymidine kinase
- TRIM14, tripartite motif-containing 14
- TRKA, tropomyosin receptor kinase A
- TRM, tissue resident memory T cells
- cGAS, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase
- mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin
- sncRNAs, small non-coding RNAs
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Antigen delivery format variation and formulation stability through use of a hybrid vector. Vaccine X 2019; 1:100012. [PMID: 31384734 PMCID: PMC6668244 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvacx.2019.100012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A hybrid biological-biomaterial antigen delivery vector comprised of a polymeric shell encapsulating an Escherichia coli core was previously developed for in situ antigen production and subsequent delivery. Due to the engineering capacity of the bacterial core, the hybrid vector provides unique opportunities for immunogenicity optimization through varying cellular localization (cytoplasm, periplasm, cellular surface) and type (protein or DNA) of antigen. In this work, three protein-based hybrid vector formats were compared in which the pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA) was localized to the cytoplasm, surface, and periplasmic space of the bacterial core for vaccination against pneumococcal disease. Furthermore, we tested the hybrid vector's capacity as a DNA vaccine against Streptococcus pneumoniae by introducing a plasmid into the bacterial core to facilitate PspA expression in antigen presenting cells (APCs). Through testing these various formulations, we determined that cytoplasmic accumulation of PspA elicited the strongest immune response (antibody production and protection against bacterial challenge) and enabled complete protection at substantially lower doses when compared to vaccination with PspA + adjuvant. We also improved the storage stability of the hybrid vector to retain complete activity after 1 month at 4 °C using an approach in which hybrid vectors suspended in a microbial freeze drying buffer were desiccated. These results demonstrate the flexibility and robustness of the hybrid vector formulation, which has the potential to be a potent vaccine against S. pneumoniae.
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Key Words
- APCs, antigen presenting cells
- AS, aqueous storage
- CDM, chemically defined bacterial growth medium
- CFA, Complete Freund's Adjuvant
- CHV, cytoplasmic hybrid vector
- CPSs, capsular polysaccharides
- ClyA, cytolysin A
- DNA vaccine
- DS, desiccated storage
- EHV, empty hybrid vector
- IN, intranasal
- IP, intraperitoneal
- LBVs, live bacterial vectors
- LLO, listeriolysin O
- NVT, non-vaccine type
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PCVs, pneumococcal conjugate vaccines
- PHV, periplasmic hybrid vector
- PcpA, pneumococcal choline-binding protein A
- PhtD, histidine triad protein D
- Pneumococcal disease
- Pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA)
- PspA, pneumococcal surface protein A
- SC, subcutaneous
- SHV, surface hybrid vector
- Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Vaccine delivery
- pHV, plasmid hybrid vector
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Polysaccharide isolated from seeds of Plantago asiatica L. induces maturation of dendritic cells through MAPK and NF-κB pathway. Saudi J Biol Sci 2018; 25:1202-1207. [PMID: 30174523 PMCID: PMC6117183 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2017.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Plantago species are used as traditional medicine in Asian and Europe. Polysaccharide isolated from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L. could stimulate maturation transformation of bone-marrow derived dendritic cells (DCs). We found that blocking p38, ERK1/2 and JNK MAPK signal transduction could significantly decreased the PLP-2 induced expression of MHC II, CD86 surface molecules on DCs. Blocking p38 and JNK signal also significantly inhibited the cytokine secretion of TNF-α and IL-12p70 as well, while blocking ERK1/2 signal only decreased the secretion of TNF-α. Meanwhile, DCs in the three MAPK signal-blocking groups showed dramatically attenuated effects on stimulating proliferation of T lymphocytes. Similarly, blocking signal transduction of NF-κB pathway also significantly impaired the phenotypic and functional maturation development of DCs induced by PLP-2. These data suggest that MAPK and NF-κB pathway mediates the PLP-induced maturation on DCs. Especially, among the three MAPK pathways, activation of JNK signal transduction is the most important for DCs development after PLP-2 incubation. And PLP-2 may activate the MAPK and NF-κB pathway by triggering toll-like receptor 4 on DCs.
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Key Words
- CD, cluster of differentiation
- DCs, dendritic cells
- Dendritic cell
- ERK, extracellular signal regulated kinases
- IL, interleukin
- JNK, c-Jun amino-terminal kinases
- MAPK
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- NF-κB
- NF-κB, nuclear factor κB
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PDTC, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate
- PLP, polysaccharide from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L.
- PRR, pattern recognition receptors
- Plantago asiatica L.
- Polysaccharides
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- Toll-like receptor
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Abstract
Tenascin-C is a large, multimodular, extracellular matrix glycoprotein that exhibits a very restricted pattern of expression but an enormously diverse range of functions. Here, we discuss the importance of deciphering the expression pattern of, and effects mediated by, different forms of this molecule in order to fully understand tenascin-C biology. We focus on both post transcriptional and post translational events such as splicing, glycosylation, assembly into a 3D matrix and proteolytic cleavage, highlighting how these modifications are key to defining tenascin-C function.
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Key Words
- AD1/AD2, additional domain 1/ additional domain 2
- ADAMTS, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs
- ASMCs, aortic smooth muscle cells
- BDNF, brain derived neurotrophic factor
- BHKs, baby hamster kidney cells
- BMP, bone morphogenetic protein
- CA19–9, carbohydrate antigen 19–9
- CALEB, chicken acidic leucine-rich EGF-like domain containing brain protein
- CEA, carcinoembryonic antigen
- CNS, central nervous system
- CRC, colorectal carcinomas
- CTGF, connective tissue growth factor
- DCIS, ductal carcinoma in-situ
- ECM, extracellular matrix
- EDA-FN, extra domain A containing fibronectin
- EDB-FN, extra domain B containing fibronectin
- EGF-L, epidermal growth factor-like
- EGF-R, epidermal growth factor receptor
- ELISPOT, enzyme-linked immunospot assay
- FBG, fibrinogen-like globe
- FGF2, fibroblast growth factor 2
- FGF4, fibroblast growth factor 4
- FN, fibronectin
- FNIII, fibronectin type III-like repeat
- GMEM, glioma-mesenchymal extracellular matrix antigen
- GPI, glycosylphosphatidylinositol
- HB-EGF, heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor
- HCEs, immortalized human corneal epithelial cell line
- HGF, hepatocyte growth factor
- HNK-1, human natural killer-1
- HSPGs, heparan sulfate proteoglycans
- HUVECs, human umbilical vein endothelial cells
- ICC, immunocytochemistry
- IF, immunofluorescence
- IFNγ, interferon gamma
- IGF, insulin-like growth factor
- IGF-BP, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein
- IHC, immunohistochemistry
- IL, interleukin
- ISH, in situ hybridization
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- MMP, matrix metalloproteinase
- MPNSTs, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors
- Mr, molecular mass
- NB, northern blot
- NF-kB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells
- NK, natural killer cells
- NSCLC, non-small cell lung carcinoma
- NSCs, neural stem cells
- NT, neurotrophin
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PDGF, platelet derived growth factor
- PDGF-Rβ, platelet derived growth factor receptor β
- PIGF, phosphatidylinositol-glycan biosynthesis class F protein
- PLCγ, phospholipase-C gamma
- PNS, peripheral nervous system
- PTPRζ1, receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase zeta
- RA, rheumatoid arthritis
- RCC, renal cell carcinoma
- RD, rhabdomyosarcoma
- RGD, arginylglycylaspartic acid
- RT-PCR, real-time polymerase chain reaction
- SB, Southern blot
- SCC, squamous cell carcinoma
- SMCs, smooth muscle cells
- SVZ, sub-ventricular zone
- TA, tenascin assembly domain
- TGFβ, transforming growth factor β
- TIMP, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases
- TLR4, toll-like receptor 4
- TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α
- TSS, transcription start site
- UBC, urothelial bladder cancer
- UCC, urothelial cell carcinoma
- VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
- VSMCs, vascular smooth muscle cells
- VZ, ventricular zone
- WB, immunoblot/ western blot
- bFGF, basic fibroblast growth factor
- biosynthesis
- c, charged
- cancer
- ccRCC, clear cell renal cell carcinoma
- chRCC, chromophobe-primary renal cell carcinoma
- development
- glycosylation
- mAb, monoclonal antibody
- matrix assembly
- mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK
- pHo, extracellular pH
- pRCC, papillary renal cell carcinoma
- proteolytic cleavage
- siRNA, small interfering RNA
- splicing
- tenascin-C
- therapeutics
- transcription
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Mechanisms and pathways of innate immune activation and regulation in health and cancer. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2015; 10:3270-85. [PMID: 25625930 DOI: 10.4161/21645515.2014.979640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Research on innate immune signaling and regulation has recently focused on pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) and their signaling pathways. Members of PRRs sense diverse microbial invasions or danger signals, and initiate innate immune signaling pathways, leading to proinflammatory cytokines production, which, in turn, instructs adaptive immune response development. Despite the diverse functions employed by innate immune signaling to respond to a variety of different pathogens, the innate immune response must be tightly regulated. Otherwise, aberrant, uncontrolled immune responses will lead to harmful, or even fatal, consequences. Therefore, it is essential to better discern innate immune signaling and many regulators, controlling various signaling pathways, have been identified. In this review, we focus on the recent advances in our understanding of the activation and regulation of innate immune signaling in the host response to pathogens and cancer.
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Key Words
- AIM2, absent in melanoma 2
- ALRs, AIM2-like receptors
- AMPK, AMP activated protein kinase
- ASC, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD
- Atg16L, autophagy related 16-like
- BMM, bone marrow-derived macrophage
- CARD, caspase recruitment domain
- CDNs, cyclic dinucleotides
- CLRs, C-type lectin receptors
- CMV, cytomegalovirus
- CYLD, the familial cylindromatosis tumor suppressor gene
- DAMPs, danger-associated molecular patterns
- DCs, dendritic cells
- DDX41, DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) box polypeptide 41
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- GBP5, guanylate-binding protein 5
- GSK3β, Glycogen synthase kinase 3β
- HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma
- IFI16, interferon, gamma-inducible protein 16
- IFN, interferon
- IKK, IkB kinase
- IKKi, inducible IkB kinase
- IRAK, interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase
- IRF, interferon regulatory factor
- KSHV, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus
- LBP, LPS-binding protein
- LGP 2, laboratory of genetics and physiology 2
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- LRR, leucine-rich repeat
- LT, lethal toxin
- LUBAC, linear ubiquitin assembly complex
- MAVS, mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein
- MDA5, melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5
- MDP, muramyl dipeptide
- MIB, mind bomb
- MyD88, myeloid differentiation factor 88
- NAIPs, neuronal apoptosis inhibitory proteins
- NEMO, NF-kB essential modulator
- NLRs, Nod- like receptors
- NOD, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain
- Nrdp1, neuregulin receptor degradation protein 1
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PKC-d, protein kinase C delta
- PKR, dsRNA-dependent protein kinase
- PRRs
- PRRs, pathogen recognition receptors
- RACK1, receptor for activated C kinase 1
- RAUL, RTA-associated E3 ligase
- RIG-I, retinoic acid-inducible gene 1
- RIP, receptor-interacting protein
- RLRs, RIG-I-like receptors
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- SARM, sterile a- and armadillo motif-containing protein
- SIGIRR, single Ig IL-1-related receptor
- SOCS, suppressor of cytokine signaling
- STING, stimulator of interferon gene
- TAK1, TGF-b-activating kinase 1
- TANK, TRAF family-member-associated NF-kB activator
- TBK1, TANK binding kinase 1
- TIR, Toll IL-1 receptor
- TIRAP, TIR domain-containing adapter protein
- TLRs, Toll-like receptors
- TRAF, TNFR-associated factor
- TRAILR, tumor-necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor
- TRAM, TRIF-related adaptor molecule
- TRIF, TIR domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN-b
- TRIMs, tripartite motif containing proteins
- TRIP, TRAF-interacting protein
- ULK1, autophagy related serine threonine UNC-51- like kinase
- cDC, conventional dendritic cell
- cGAS, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase
- cIAP, cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein
- cancer
- iE-DAP, g-D-glutamyl-meso-diaminopimelic acid
- inflammation
- innate immunity
- pDC, plasmacytoid dendritic cell
- type I interferon
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Animal Models Correlating Immune Cells for the Development of NAFLD/NASH. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2015; 5:239-45. [PMID: 26628841 PMCID: PMC4632099 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2015.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
This review mainly elaborates on the animal models available for understanding the pathogenesis of the second hit of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) involving immune system. This is known to be a step forward from simple steatosis caused during the first hit, which leads to the stage of inflammation followed by more serious liver conditions like non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and cirrhosis. Immune-deficient animal models serve as an important tool for understanding the role of a specific cell type or a cytokine in the progression of NAFLD. These animal models can be used in combination with the already available animal models of NAFLD, including dietary models, as well as genetically modified mouse models. Advancements in molecular biological techniques enabled researchers to produce several new animal models for the study of NAFLD, including knockin, generalized knockout, and tissue-specific knockout mice. Development of NASH/NAFLD in various animal models having compromised immune system is discussed in this review.
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Key Words
- APPs, acute-phase proteins
- BAFF, B cell activating factor
- Btk, Bruton's tyrosine kinase gene
- DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns
- HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma
- IRFs, Interferon regulatory factors
- JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase
- MCD, methionine choline-deficient
- NAFLD
- NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
- NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
- NLRs, Nod-like receptors
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- immune cells
- mouse models
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Abstract
Ammonia, a key factor in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE), is predominantly derived from urea breakdown by urease producing large intestinal bacteria and from small intestine and kidneys, where the enzyme glutaminases releases ammonia from circulating glutamine. Non-culture techniques like pyrosequencing of bacterial 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid are used to characterize fecal microbiota. Fecal microbiota in patients with cirrhosis have been shown to alter with increasing Child-Turcotte-Pugh (CTP) and Model for End stage Liver Disease (MELD) scores, and with development of covert or overt HE. Cirrhosis dysbiosis ratio (CDR), the ratio of autochthonous/good bacteria (e.g. Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae and Clostridiales) to non-autochthonous/pathogenic bacteria (e.g. Enterobacteriaceae and Streptococcaceae), is significantly higher in controls and patients with compensated cirrhosis than patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Although their stool microbiota do not differ, sigmoid colonic mucosal microbiota in liver cirrhosis patients with and without HE, are different. Linkage of pathogenic colonic mucosal bacteria with poor cognition and inflammation suggests that important processes at the mucosal interface, such as bacterial translocation and immune dysfunction, are involved in the pathogenesis of HE. Fecal microbiome composition does not change significantly when HE is treated with lactulose or when HE recurs after lactulose withdrawal. Despite improving cognition and endotoxemia as well as shifting positive correlation of pathogenic bacteria with metabolites, linked to ammonia, aromatic amino acids and oxidative stress, to a negative correlation, rifaximin changes gut microbiome composition only modestly. These observations suggest that the beneficial effects of lactulose and rifaximin could be associated with a change in microbial metabolic function as well as an improvement in dysbiosis.
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Key Words
- CDR, cirrhosis dysbiosis ratio
- HE, hepatic encephalopathy
- IL, interleukin
- LGG, Lactobacillus GG strain
- LPO, left parietal operculum
- MELD, model for end stage liver disease
- MHE, minimal hepatic encephalopathy
- MRS, magnetic resonance spectroscopy
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PCR, polymerase chain reaction
- RCT, randomized controlled trial
- RNA, ribonucleic acid
- SBP, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
- SIBO, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth
- SIRS, systemic inflammatory response syndrome
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- cirrhosis
- dysbiosis
- fMRI, functional MRI
- gut microbiome
- inflammation
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Recent advances in the anti-HCV mechanisms of interferon. Acta Pharm Sin B 2014; 4:241-7. [PMID: 26579391 PMCID: PMC4629091 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2014.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Revised: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon (IFN) in combination with ribavirin has been the standard of care (SOC) for chronic hepatitis C for the past few decades. Although the current SOC lacks the desired efficacy, and 4 new direct-acting antiviral agents have been recently approved, interferons are still likely to remain the cornerstone of therapy for some time. Moreover, as an important cytokine system of innate immunity, host interferon signaling provides a powerful antiviral response. Nevertheless, the mechanisms by which HCV infection controls interferon production, and how interferons, in turn, trigger anti-HCV activities as well as control the outcome of HCV infection remain to be clarified. In this report, we review current progress in understanding the mechanisms of IFN against HCV, and also summarize the knowledge of induction of interferon signaling by HCV infection.
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Key Words
- Antiviral agent
- CHC, chronic hepatitis C
- DCs, dendritic cells
- DNAM1, DNAX accessory molecule-1
- E2, envelop 2
- GAS, IFN-γ-activated site
- GWAS, genome-wide association studies
- Hepatitis C virus
- IFN, interferon
- IFN-α, interferon-α
- IFNAR1, interferon-alpha receptor 1
- IFNAR2, interferon-alpha receptor 2
- IFNGR1, interferon gamma receptor 1
- IFNGR2, interferon gamma receptor 2
- IFNL4, IFN-lambda 4
- IL-10R2, interleukin-10 receptor 2
- IL-29, interleukin-29
- IRF-3, interferon regulatory factor 3
- IRGs, IFN regulatory genes
- ISG15, interferon-stimulated gene 15
- ISGF3, IFN-stimulated gene factor 3
- ISGs, IFN-stimulated genes
- ISREs, IFN-stimulated response elements
- Interferon
- JAKs, Janus activated kinases
- MAVS, mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein
- MDA-5, melanoma differentiation-associated gene-5
- MHC, major histocompatibility complex
- Molecular mechanism
- NKCs, natural killer cells
- NKTCs, natural killer T cells
- OAS, 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PBMCs, peripheral blood mononuclear cells
- PKR, protein kinase R
- PRRs, pattern recognition receptors
- RIG-I, retinoic acid-inducible gene-I
- RLRs, RIG-I-like receptors
- RdRp, RNA dependent RNA polymerase
- SNPs, single-nucleotide polymorphisms
- SOC, standard of care
- STAT1, signal transducer and activator of transcription 1
- STAT2, signal transducer and activator of transcription 2
- SVR, sustained virological response
- TH1, T-helper-1
- TH2, T-helper-2
- TLRs, Toll-like receptors
- TYK2, tyrosine kinase 2
- USP18, ubiquitin specific peptidase 18
- dsRNA, double-stranded RNA
- pDC, plasmacytoid dendritic cell
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Tollip-induced down-regulation of MARCH1. RESULTS IN IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 3:17-25. [PMID: 24600555 DOI: 10.1016/j.rinim.2013.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In addition to their classical antigen presenting functions, MHC class II molecules potentiate the TLR-triggered production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Here, we have addressed the effect of Tollip and MARCH1 on the regulation of MHC II trafficking and TLR signaling. Our results show that MARCH1-deficient mice splenocytes are impaired in their capacity to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to poly(I:C) and that TLR3 and MHC II molecules interact in the endocytic pathway. Knocking down Tollip expression in human CIITA(+) HeLa cells increased expression of HLA-DR but reduced the proportion of MHC II molecules associated with the CLIP peptide. Truncation of the HLA-DR cytoplasmic tails abrogated the effect of Tollip on MHC class II expression. While overexpression of Tollip did not affect HLA-DR levels, it antagonized the function of co-transfected MARCH1. We found that Tollip strongly reduced MARCH1 protein levels and that the two molecules appear to compete for binding to MHC II molecules. Altogether, our results demonstrate that Tollip regulates MHC class II trafficking and that MARCH1 may represent a new Tollip target.
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Key Words
- APCs, antigen presenting cells
- Antigen presentation
- Btk, Bruton tyrosine kinase
- C2, internal protein kinase C conserved region 2
- CIITA, class II trans-activator
- CUE, coupling of ubiquitin to endoplasmic reticulum degradation domain
- DCs, dendritic cells
- IL-1RAcP, IL-1R-associated protein
- IL-1RI, IL-1 receptor
- IRAK, IL-1 receptor-associated kinase
- MARCH, membrane-associated RING-CH
- MARCH1
- MFVs, mean fluorescence values
- MHC II
- MHC II, MHC class II
- MIR, modulator of immune recognition
- PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- SOCS1, suppressor of cytokine signaling 1
- TBD, Tom1-binding domain
- TGFBR1, TGF-beta type I receptor
- TIR, Toll/IL-1 receptor
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- TLR3
- Tfr, transferrin receptor
- Tollip
- Tollip, Toll-interacting protein
- iDCs, immature DCs
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