Raptor Pediatrics

Neonatal and juvenile raptors may differ from adults in their husbandry, disease predispositions, and medical therapies. There are differences between captive bred juveniles and those presented for rehabilitation to the wild, which must be taken into consideration for successful long-term outcomes. In captive settings, many metabolic and infectious diseases may be linked to problems with diet. The successful rehabilitation and release of wild raptor chicks requires special precautions beyond avoiding imprinting.

Intralipid Emulsion Therapy for the Treatment of Suspected Toxicity in 2 Avian Species

Intravenous lipid emulsion (ILE) therapy has shown promise as a treatment option for a variety of lipophilic toxins. Two birds presented for suspected ingestion of a toxic substance. A blue-and-gold macaw (Ara ararauna) presented after chewing a block of bromethalin rodenticide without overt clinical signs at the time of presentation. Additionally, a free-ranging bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) was found weak and depressed near a municipal landfill after presumptive ingestion of pentobarbital. Both birds were treated with ILE therapy for potential intoxication without any adverse events. The macaw was clinically normal after 3 days of hospitalization and at a 1-week reevaluation. The eagle was transferred to a rehabilitation center after markedly improved mentation and strength and was released 7 days later. Clinicians should consider ILE therapy for the treatment of lipophilic toxicities; however, monitoring is recommended for persistent lipemia and other adverse effects that have been reported in the veterinary literature.

Clinical Management of Avian Renal Disease

Treatment of avian renal disease relies on supportive care, such as fluid therapy and nutritional support. Analgesia and adaptations of the environment are indicated in cases of renal disease associated with painful joints. Other treatments vary with the underlying etiology and may include systemic antibiotics, antifungal therapy, vitamin A supplementation, or chelation therapy.

Successful chemical ablation of an intraorbital cyst caused by an eyelid injury and iatrogenic ankyloblepharon formation in a duck

CASE DESCRIPTION A client-owned 2-year-old 1.8-kg (4-lb) male pet Rouen duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) was evaluated because of severe swelling around the left eye following traumatic injury to the upper and lower eyelids and 2 associated surgeries that resulted in the removal of the entire upper and lower eyelid margins. CLINICAL FINDINGS At initial evaluation, ankyloblepharon of the left eye was observed, with no upper or lower eyelid margins and a large, round, fluctuant subcutaneous mass over the left orbit. Orbital exploration and histologic examination revealed a benign cyst consisting of fibrous tissue, conjunctiva, and skeletal muscle bundles. Bacterial culture of cystic fluid yielded few Staphylococcus delphini. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Excision of the cyst and evisceration of the left globe were performed, and once daily treatment with orally administered enrofloxacin suspension (12.6 mg/kg [5.7 mg/lb]) and meloxicam (1 mg/kg [0.45 mg/lb]) was initiated. Over the next 4 days, the cyst redeveloped and progressively enlarged. Accumulated fluid was aspirated from the cyst, and 20 mg of gentamicin was injected intraorbitally with ultrasound guidance. Over the subsequent 27-month period, no recurrence of clinical signs or adverse effects were reported by the owner. CLINICAL RELEVANCE To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of cyst formation after adnexal injury and evisceration in birds and its successful treatment with intralesional gentamicin injection. Findings emphasized the importance of preserving lacrimal puncta during adnexal or eye removal surgeries in birds. Intralesional injection of gentamicin with the goal of destroying fluid-producing cells may be a safe and effective way to treat intraorbital cysts in birds and other species, although additional research would be required to confirm this.

A Retrospective Study of Horner Syndrome in Australian Wild Birds, 2010-2016

Horner syndrome was identified in 25 of 30 777 avian admissions to Currumbin Wildlife Hospital during 2010-2016. Unilateral ptosis and erection of facial feathers were distinct findings on physical examination and consistent across 9 species. Affected birds were biased toward adults (64%) suffering traumatic injuries (88%). Concurrent injuries requiring treatment were present in 38% of cases, and 76% had additional neurologic deficits. Prognosis for release was poor, with an overall success rate of 32%. Resolution of clinical signs increased to 44% with higher doses of meloxicam and required an average hospitalization of 22 days (range, 3-78 days). Further investigation of the underlying causes of Horner syndrome in birds to provide treatment and prognostic guidelines is warranted.

Avian Ganglioneuritis in Clinical Practice

Avian ganglioneuritis (AG) comprises one of the most intricate pathologies in avian medicine and is researched worldwide. Avian bornavirus (ABV) has been shown to be a causative agent of proventricular dilatation disease in birds. The avian Bornaviridae represent a genetically diverse group of viruses that are widely distributed in captive and wild populations around the world. ABV and other infective agents are implicated as a cause of the autoimmune pathology that leads to AG, similar to human Guillain Barrè syndrome. Management of affected birds is beneficial and currently centered at reducing neurologic inflammation, managing secondary complications, and providing nutritional support.

Multimodal Drug Therapy and Physical Rehabilitation in the Successful Treatment of Capture Myopathy in a Lesser Flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor)

A wild-caught lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor) from the Fort Worth Zoo (Fort Worth, TX, USA) presented with moderate lameness that progressed to the inability to stand 2 days after restraint and handling. Results of blood tests showed severely elevated creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities, confirming suspected capture myopathy. Intensive supportive therapy, consisting of intravenous fluids and muscle relaxants, along with physical rehabilitation therapy, nutritional support, and anxiolytics, were instituted to aid in relaxation and muscle regeneration. After 2 weeks of intensive therapy, the bird showed substantial improvement and could remain standing throughout the day after being assisted to a standing position. By day 23, the bird was able to stand independently and walk completely unassisted, with no discernible lameness. The bird has subsequently remained healthy since it was returned to the flock approximately 27 days after it was first presented for treatment. Although anecdotal communications of successful treatment of this condition in flamingos exist, this is the first report, to our knowledge, that describes in detail the successful treatment of capture myopathy in any flamingo species. Success in this case is attributed to the combination of early fluid and drug therapy, intensive physical rehabilitation therapy, and anxiolytics to counteract the hyperexcitable nature of this wild-caught bird.

Rhabdomyolysis and Artifactual Increase in Plasma Bicarbonate Concentration in an Amazon Parrot (Amazona species)

A 7-year-old male Amazon parrot housed outdoors presented with acute collapse, marked lethargy, and open-mouth breathing. The patient had stiffness of the pectoral muscles, and petechiation and ecchymosis noted around the eyes and beneath the mandible. Laboratory data revealed markedly increased aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase activity consistent with rhabdomyolysis, as well as markedly increased plasma bicarbonate concentration. Marked clinical improvement and resolution of laboratory abnormalities occurred with fluid therapy, administration of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication, and husbandry modifications, including indoor housing and dietary alteration. A spurious increase in bicarbonate measurement as documented in equine and bovine cases of rhabdomyolysis also occurred in this avian patient and must be considered for accurate interpretation of acid-base status in exotic species presenting with consistent clinical signs.

Second-generation Anticoagulant Rodenticide Poisoning in a Captive Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus)

A 28-year-old female Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) housed in an outside exhibit at the National Aviary in Pittsburgh, PA, began showing signs of weakness. Toxicosis with an anticoagulant rodenticide was suspected because its mate had died 1 day earlier from possible brodifacoum poisoning. A rapid decline in the packed cell volume, despite vitamin K₁ treatment, necessitated a blood transfusion with blood from bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and Steller's sea eagles (Haliaeetus pelagicus). Supportive therapy after transfusion included vitamin K₁ (5 mg/kg IM q12h) as well as enrofloxacin, vitamin B complex, selenium and vitamin E, and subcutaneous fluids as needed. After a 39-day treatment period, a tapering dosage of vitamin K₁ was initiated, and treatment ended after 17 weeks. However, 2 weeks later, the bird suffered from a potential relapse. It was successfully treated with a repeat tapering vitamin K₁ regimen lasting a total of 4 months.

Avian Oncology: Diseases, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics

Companion birds are increasingly living longer due to improved husbandry, nutrition, and veterinary care. As a consequence, a growing number of geriatric disease conditions are diagnosed and managed by veterinarians. Awareness of bird owners of diagnostic and treatment options for neoplastic diseases in humans and domestic animals has led to increasing demand to provide advanced diagnostic and treatment modalities for companion birds diagnosed with neoplasia. Treatment remains challenging in many companion birds due to the lack of information regarding prognosis and efficacy of antineoplastic treatments in these species. There is no established standard of care for most tumors in companion birds.

Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes Mellitus in a Bali Mynah (Leucopsar rothschildi)

An 18-year-old female Bali mynah (Leucopsar rothschildi) was presented for polyphagia, weight loss, and incoordination. Diabetes mellitus was diagnosed based on the history and clinical findings, including persistent hyperglycemia with concurrent hypoinsulinemia and glucosuria. A treatment protocol was developed that led to improvement of clinical signs and management of hyperglycemia over several months. Because of the advanced age of the animal, difficulty in maintaining euglycemia, and the stress of handling and treatment, euthanasia was elected 167 days after initial presentation. At postmortem examination, no pancreatic lesions were detected histologically that would account for the diabetes mellitus. To our knowledge this is the first reported case of diabetes mellitus and clinical management of this condition in a passerine species.

Management of Severe Frostbite in a Grey-Headed Parrot (Poicephalus fuscicollis suahelicus)

An approximately 5-year-old female grey-headed parrot (Poicephalus fuscicollis suahelicus) was evaluated after exposure to outdoor temperatures below -20°C (-4°F) for approximately 22 hours. Severe frostbite affecting multiple digits, as well as dehydration and a depressed attitude, were diagnosed. Treatment included oral antibiotics, antifungals, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs), pentoxifylline, and topical aloe vera. Surgical amputation of the affected toes was not performed. Mild to moderate pododermatitis over the intertarsal joints developed because of a shift in weight bearing after the loss of most digits. Within 5 months after initial presentation, all frost-damaged toes had self-amputated, and the bird was able to function independently with no limitations in mobility.

Medical Management of Hypovitaminosis D With Cholecalciferol and Elastic Therapeutic Taping in Red-legged Seriema (Cariama cristata) Chicks

Three hand-reared, 50-53 day-old, red-legged seriema (Cariama cristata) chicks were evaluated for acute lameness and reluctance to ambulate. Two of the 3 chicks presented with angular limb deformities of the proximal tarsometatarsi and external rotation of the legs. Radiographs demonstrated decreased opacity of the long bone of the legs, with poorly delineated cortices and deviation of the proximal tarsometarsi. Serum concentrations of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol revealed all 3 chicks were deficient in vitamin D(3) at presentation. The chicks were administered injectable vitamin D(3) (cholecalciferol), oral vitamin D(3), and an ultraviolet B (UV-B) light was placed in their enclosure. Elastic, therapeutic taping was used to correct angular limb deformities present in 2 of the 3 chicks. Taping was continued until the angular limb deformities were corrected and lameness resolved. Hypovitaminosis D is a common cause of metabolic bone disease in captive avian species. Cholecalciferol administration, UV-B light supplementation, and elastic, therapeutic taping were effective treatments for osteodystrophy and secondary angular limb deformities due to hypovitaminosis D. This multifaceted treatment may be useful in other long-legged juvenile birds with similar clinical signs.

[Veterinary treatment of pigeon flocks]

Veterinary treatment of pigeon flocks requires specific knowledge on the management of the various pigeon flocks as well as of common diseases in these birds and important diagnostic and therapeutic measures. In this context, it is important to differentiate between racing pigeons, thoroughbreds and pigeons kept for meat production, that is, between food-supplying and companion animals. The following article provides an overview of the species-specific characteristics of Columba livia f. domestica and frequently occurring diseases as well as common therapeutic and prophylactic measures.

[Monitoring the success of veterinary treatment in rehabilitated and released birds of prey using radiotelemetry]

OBJECTIVE

Free-ranging birds of prey brought to veterinary practice should only be treated after thorough diagnostics. Before their release back into the wild, specific training - including falconry techniques - may be necessary, depending on raptor species and age. Rehabilitated birds of prey were monitored using radiotelemetry after release back into the wild. The success of veterinary therapy and the prognosis of treated diseases/injuries in free-ranging birds were evaluated. In addition, the use of radiotelemetry as a simple technique for surveillance was evaluated. The project was undertaken in cooperation with schools as a contribution to environmental education. MATERIAL UND METHODS: Three common buzzards (Buteo buteo) and one kestrel (Falco tinnunculus)were treated and released with a radio transmitter attached to a tail feather. They were tracked daily (by car or plane), observed using binoculars and their GPS coordinates were documented.

RESULTS

One transmitter was lost early, making monitoring of the bird impossible. Three birds were monitored over a period of more than 14 days. These birds were successfully reintroduced into the wild, as documented from courtship displays and mating. The longest flight distance achieved was 44 km.

CONCLUSIONS

Veterinary treatment aimed at rehabilitating feral birds can be successful. Radiotelemetry is a suitable tool to monitor free-ranging birds. The application of this technique is performed readily by laypeople (school students).

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Being in agreement with other studies, this data should motivate veterinarians to treat wild birds of prey for rehabilitation.

Bumblefoot: a comparison of clinical presentation and treatment of pododermatitis in rabbits, rodents, and birds

Pododermatitis, also known as bumblefoot, is a common condition encountered in birds, rabbits, and rodents in clinical practice. This article compares the anatomy and physiology of the foot and the predisposing factors for pododermatitis in each of the species discussed. Clinical presentation, diagnostics, and treatment options, including medical and surgical therapies, are provided. In addition, alternative therapies, including natural remedies, therapeutic laser, and acupuncture, are explored. This article is intended to encourage practitioners to use a multimodal approach for successful management of this disease in all species.

Clinical approach to dermatologic disease in exotic animals

Skin disease is an extremely common presenting complaint to the exotic animal practitioner. A systematic diagnostic approach is necessary in these cases to achieve a diagnosis and formulate an effective treatment plan. In all exotic species, husbandry plays a central role in the pathogenesis of cutaneous disease, so a thorough evaluation of the husbandry is critical for successful management. The clinical approach to skin disease in exotic animal patients is reviewed with specific focus on structure and function of the skin, diagnostic testing, and differential diagnoses for commonly encountered cutaneous diseases.

Psittacine incubation and pediatrics

Psittacine pediatric medicine and surgery can only continue to be practiced by avian veterinarians if psittacine aviculture (the successful captive breeding of parrot species) is active and thriving. Although beautiful, intelligent parrots are popular as beloved pets and reside in zoo and private collections around the world, private psittacine aviculture is in a transition period recovering from difficult economic times. Many of the larger aviculturists have left and the rise of the small aviculturist has significantly changed the industry.

Avian respiratory distress: etiology, diagnosis, and treatment

Respiratory distress is usually a life-threatening emergency in any species and this is particularly important in avian species because of their unique anatomy and physiology. In the emergency room, observation of breathing patterns, respiratory sounds, and a brief physical examination are the most important tools for the diagnosis and treatment of respiratory distress in avian patients. These tools will help the clinician localize the lesion. This discussion focuses on the 5 anatomic divisions of the respiratory system and provides clinically important anatomic and physiologic principles and diagnosis and treatment protocols for the common diseases occurring in each part.

Management of common psittacine reproductive disorders in clinical practice

The reproductive organs play a key role in the maintenance of normal homeostasis in psittacine birds. For this reason, sex determination should be part of the baseline data collected on every avian patient. Disorders of the psittacine reproductive tract can have a negative effect on the function of other organ systems in the body. Reproductive organs may be plagued by a multitude of problems ranging from infection and neoplasia to inflammation and idiopathic issues that affect fertility. Detection of reproductive problems may require the use of a variety of modalities. The ability to treat these problems often depends on the presenting complaint as well as the clinical condition of the avian patient. Different reproductive disorders of male and female psittacine birds, with their detection and treatment are discussed in this article.

Avian diagnostic endoscopy

Unlike most animals, birds are blessed by an air sac system that essentially provides the endoscopist with a preinsufflated patient. Thanks to this unique anatomy and the pioneering work of Greg Harrison, Michael Taylor, and other avian veterinarians, rigid endoscopy has enjoyed considerable popularity in avian practice over the past 30 years. Indeed, endoscopy now is considered an essential component of the avian investigation for many clinical presentations, and indeed few could argue that high-quality avian medicine is possible without rigid endoscopy. The ability to examine the internal viscera, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and reproductive tracts, and collect samples for definitive diagnosis continues to play a central role in avian practice, and this article summarizes the most common diagnostic endoscopic approaches likely to be undertaken in companion species.

The aging raptor

There is little information available in the literature regarding geriatric raptor medicine. Estimating the life span of birds of prey and evaluating factors that influence longevity are continuing to be explored. Identifying disease conditions that arise with advancing age may involve various body systems including the musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and others. Falconry, exhibit, and wildlife raptors are reviewed with regard to factors that affect their mortality, life expectancy, and age evaluation. In addition, medical conditions that are frequently seen in geriatric raptors are covered in this article.

Avian transfusion medicine

Anemia is defined as a decreased capacity of the blood to carry oxygen and is recognized by packed cell volume, erythrocyte, and hemoglobin values below reference ranges. Causes of anemia in birds include blood loss, heavy metal toxicosis, parasitic infection, and chronic disease. Several differences exist between avian and mammalian physiology, including the avian ability to tolerate greater losses of blood. However, the use of blood products has become an effective tool for treating anemic avian patients. Whole blood transfusions (autologous, homologous, and heterologous) and administration of hemoglobin-based, oxygen-carrying solutions are the treatments used most commonly in birds.

Emergency care of raptors

Raptors may present with a variety of conditions, such as trauma, debilitation, and disease, that necessitate emergency care. Emergency treatment should prioritize stabilization of the patient. Diagnostic testing should be delayed until feasible based on patient status. This article reviews emergency medicine in raptors, including appropriate handling and restraint, hospitalization, triage and patient assessment, sample collection, supportive care, and common emergency presentations.

Bandaging, endoscopy, and surgery in the emergency avian patient

This article is divided into three parts and describes procedures used in avian medicine after initial stabilization. The first part includes the application of bandages and splints for fractures. The second part describes the use of endoscopy to examine the choana, oral cavity, trachea, and, to a lesser extent, internal organs. The last part discusses equipment required and techniques used for esophagostomy tube placement, air sac cannulation, and surgery, with approaches to the coelomic cavity and a select number of surgical procedures. This article is intended to provide the emergency animal clinician with knowledge necessary to provide basic stabilization for avian patients and knowledge of procedures that can be performed by the experienced clinician.

Emergency and critical care of pet birds

Critically ill birds must be assessed accurately and provided with immediate supportive care. This article reviews the assessment and diagnostics required for evaluating the critical avian patient. The most common emergencies seen in pet birds are discussed. Diagnostics and treatments protocols are provided to help direct the practitioner toward a complete recovery.

Cardiovascular physiology and diseases of pet birds

Avian cardiac disease in pet birds occurs more often than previously assumed. The article focuses on anatomic peculiarities of the avian cardiovascular system and common diseases. Diagnostic possibilities are demonstrated, and therapeutic measures are discussed.

Waterfowl toxicology: a review

Waterfowl populations may serve as sentinel species for natural and anthropogenic toxicologic problems in the environment. Unfortunately, many toxins cause nonspecific clinical signs, acute mortality, and subtle or no pathologic changes, making toxicologic investigations extremely difficult. The purpose of this article is to review important waterfowl toxins, including heavy metals, pesticides, botulism, mycotoxins, algal toxins, and petroleum oil. When applicable, clinical signs, diagnosis, pathologic findings, and treatment are discussed. Although most of the information in the literature is based on wild waterfowl populations or experimental toxicologic investigations, the information is also applicable to captive waterfowl populations.

Raptor toxicology

Birds of prey have demonstrated the negative impact that toxic agents can cause on animal populations and ecosystem dynamics. Lead, cholinesterase inhibitors (eg, organophosphates, carbamates), and anticoagulant rodenticides (eg, brodifacoum) are the most common toxic agents that currently affect the health of wild birds of prey in the United States. For raptors held in captivity, the list of toxic agents expands and includes toxic inhalants such as carbon monoxide and polytetrafluoroethylene. This article provides diagnostic and treatment guidelines for the toxic agents discussed.

The avian pancreas in health and disease

The avian endocrine pancreas shares some similarities with mammals but also some clinically relevant differences in anatomy and physiology. Diabetes mellitus, an uncommon disease of pet birds, is a challenging condition because of lack of knowledge of the exact pathophysiology and responses to insulin therapy. This article reviews the anatomy and physiology of the avian pancreas and describes the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of diabetes mellitus in pet birds.

Commonality and biosynthesis of the O-methyl phosphoramidate capsule modification in Campylobacter jejuni

In this study we investigated the commonality and biosynthesis of the O-methyl phosphoramidate (MeOPN) group found on the capsular polysaccharide (CPS) of Campylobacter jejuni. High resolution magic angle spinning NMR spectroscopy was used as a rapid, high throughput means to examine multiple isolates, analyze the cecal contents of colonized chickens, and screen a library of CPS mutants for the presence of MeOPN. Sixty eight percent of C. jejuni strains were found to express the MeOPN with a high prevalence among isolates from enteritis, Guillain Barré, and Miller-Fisher syndrome patients. In contrast, MeOPN was not observed for any of the Campylobacter coli strains examined. The MeOPN was detected on C. jejuni retrieved from cecal contents of colonized chickens demonstrating that the modification is expressed by bacteria inhabiting the avian gastrointestinal tract. In C. jejuni 11168H, the cj1415-cj1418 cluster was shown to be involved in the biosynthesis of MeOPN. Genetic complementation studies and NMR/mass spectrometric analyses of CPS from this strain also revealed that cj1421 and cj1422 encode MeOPN transferases. Cj1421 adds the MeOPN to C-3 of the beta-d-GalfNAc residue, whereas Cj1422 transfers the MeOPN to C-4 of D-glycero-alpha-L-gluco-heptopyranose. CPS produced by the 11168H strain was found to be extensively modified with variable MeOPN, methyl, ethanolamine, and N-glycerol groups. These findings establish the importance of the MeOPN as a diagnostic marker and therapeutic target for C. jejuni and set the groundwork for future studies aimed at the detailed elucidation of the MeOPN biosynthetic pathway.

INTRALESIONAL CISPLATIN CHEMOTHERAPY AND TOPICAL CRYOTHERAPY FOR THE CONTROL OF CHOANAL SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA IN AN AFRICAN PENGUIN (SPHENISCUS DEMERSUS)

A 3.5-yr-old, 2.5-kg female African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) was diagnosed with a choanal squamous cell carcinoma on the basis of biopsy after a history of choanal ulceration and anorexia with weight loss. Therapeutic modalities included the use of intralesional cisplatin followed by localized, topical cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen. The penguin remained free of clinical disease for a period of 9 mo, at which time a second cryotreatment was performed. The patient has remained free of all signs of choanal carcinoma for a period of 13 mo since the second cryotreatment.

Clinical approach to renal neoplasia in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus)

Renal neoplasia in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) is seen regularly in general practice and is of interest to many practicing veterinary surgeons. This review article provides an overview of the current knowledge and the most recent reports in avian literature regarding renal tumours in budgerigars, with the emphasis on clinical diagnosis and treatment. The high prevalence of renal neoplasia in budgerigar is discussed, with notes on the most commonly diagnosed tumours, possibility of metastases, sex and age predisposition. The possibility of ultrasonography and radiography in the diagnosis of this pathological condition are compared as well as the possible role of blood and urine analyses. Two studies are described, both of which investigate the possible involvement of a retrovirus as the aetiological agent.

Common procedures in psittacines

General techniques performed on psittacine birds are described in this article, including restraint, handling, and grooming. Procedures to collect diagnostic samples and to administer therapeutic agents are detailed, including fluid therapy and nutritional support.

Common procedures in other avian species

Although psittacine species represent the majority of avian patients seen in most exotic animal practices, nonpsittacine species such as passerines and galliformes may be presented as pets, as members of zoo collections, or as injured or ill wildlife. Many features of handling, restraint, sample collection, medicine, and surgery are similar in psittacine and nonpsittacine species. In many cases, the equipment required will be similar as well, with a few modifications.

Raptor medicine: an approach to wild, falconry, and educational birds of prey

A veterinarian receiving birds of prey (raptors) will often be presented with wild, educational, or falconry raptors. Raptors trained for the sport of falconry and educational raptors are handled in a precise manner, often differently from the wild raptors. It is imperative for veterinarians treating raptors to be familiar with the equipment and terminology used by the individuals caring for these birds. The hospital staff must also be educated to handle the raptors properly, both wild and tame, because differences do exist between the approaches. Raptor medicine requires a thorough diagnostic work-up and aggressive therapeutic plan to help ensure a fast and complete recovery.

Diagnosis and treatment of avian renal disease

Reports on the incidence of renal disease in the avian patient vary,but renal disease is common in poultry and birds of prey. Clinical renal disease is probably under-recognized in the companion bird,with the notable exception of renal tumors in the budgerigar (Melopsittacusundulatus). Diagnosis of renal disease may rely on the identification of consistent clinical signs, clinical pathology, survey radiographs, and laparoscopic evaluation and biopsy of the kidneys. Treatment of avian renal disease relies on supportive care such as fluid therapy and nutritional support. Other treatments vary with the underlying cause and the clinical picture but may include systemic antibiotics, diuretics, parenteral vitamin A, and agents to lower uric acid levels such as allopurinol.

Equipping the avian practice

The interest in avian medicine grows every year, and the degree of successful diagnosis and treatment in our avian patient has increased tremendously over the last 2 decades. For a veterinarian interested in avian practice there are many decisions to be made before one just accepts a patient. As outlined in this summary, there are many decisions to make regarding the level and diversity a practitioner wishes to explore (only exotics, poultry, ratites, Columbiforms, raptors, and so on) and then which equipment will be necessary to perform that level of practice. There is no master list of equipment that every avian practitioner must own. Needs must be catered to the species seen and the individual interest of the practitioner. Continuing education courses are now offered throughout the country on various aspects of avian medicine. The Association of Avian Veterinarians provides a journal, yearly conference, Web site, and a wide range of support materials. The author implores interested veterinarians to investigate these great learning experiences before casually deciding to add avian patients to a general companion animal practice.

SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF SUSPECTED EXERTIONAL MYOPATHY IN A RHEA (RHEA AMERICANA)

A 7-yr-old, adult, female greater rhea (Rhea americana) from the National Zoological Park presented with a 24-hr history of severe left leg lameness that progressed to an inability to stand. Blood work revealed creatine phosphokinase (CPK) above 50,000 U/L and elevated lactate dehydrogenase. The bird's condition deteriorated over the next week. The bird's CPK increased to over 208,400 U/L. Aggressive intravenous fluids and physical therapy along with oral anxiolytic and muscle-relaxant drugs were instituted. After 2 wk of aggressive therapy, initial signs of improvement were noted. By day 28, the bird was able to walk unassisted with no noticeable lameness. This is one of the few reported cases of successful treatment of suspected ratite exertional myopathy. It is believed that success in this case can be attributed to persistent, aggressive physical therapy, muscle relaxants, and anxiolytics aimed to counteract the hyperexcitable nature of these birds.

Ventricular phytobezoar impaction in three micronesian kingfishers (Halcyon cinnamomina cinnamomina)

Three juvenile male Micronesian kingfishers (Halcyon cinnamomina cinnamomina) housed in the same enclosure presented with rapid weight gain and coelomic distension. Physical examination and radiography revealed marked enlargement of the ventriculus and a single, large foreign body within the ventriculus in each individual. Surgical removal by ventriculotomy was attempted in one individual, which died during the procedure. A second individual was treated with natural peanut butter 0.5 ml p.o. b.i.d. for 14 days and recovered, casting the foreign material. The third bird was similarly treated without success and subsequently died during attempts at endoscopic removal of the foreign body. In all three birds, the foreign bodies proved to be phytobezoars. The birds had been observed stripping leaf fragments from live corn plants (Dracaena fragrans) used in the enclosure. Plant fibers from the phytobezoars were compared with D. fragrans leaves and were considered identical. Medical treatment of phytobezoars with peanut butter or similar oil-containing substances in birds should be considered as an alternative to surgical extraction.