Spontaneous Pituitary Neoplasm in Two Female Geriatric Southern Giant Pouched Rats (Cricetomys ansorgei)

Southern giant pouched rats (Cricetomys ansorgei) are a small muroid species native to the sub-Saharan Africa. Their exceptionally developed olfactory system, trainability, and relatively small size makes them useful working animals for various applications in humanitarian work. At our institution, a breeding colony of Southern giant pouched rats is maintained to study their physiology and utility as scent detectors. This case report describes the occurrence of spontaneous pituitary neoplasms with distinct clinical presentations in 2 geriatric (approximately 7.5 y old) wild-caught female Southern giant pouched rats. The first pouched rat displayed vestibular deficits, including left-sided head tilt, ataxia, disorientation, and circling. MRI revealed a large, focal heterogeneous mass arising from the pituitary fossa. The second pouched rat presented with polyuria, polydipsia, and hyperglycemia but no neurologic signs. Examination after euthanasia revealed a prolactin (PRL)-expressing pituitary carcinoma and adenoma in the first and second pouched rat, respectively, associated with mammary hyperplasia in both animals. This is the first report of spontaneous PRL-producing pituitary tumors in Southern giant pouched rats.

Tissue cysts and serological detection toxoplasmosis among wild rats from Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia

Background

The protozoan Toxoplasma gondii is the source of zoonosis toxoplasmosis and causes public health problems throughout the world. Environmental contamination by oocysts excreted by cats as definitive hosts affects the spread of this disease. Wild rats as rodents can be used as an indicator of environmental contamination by oocysts, considering that rats have a habit of living in dirty environments and can be infected by oocysts from the environment.

Aim

This study aims to detect toxoplasmosis from tissue cysts and serological tests in wild rats as an indicator of environmental contamination in Surabaya.

Methods

A total of 100 wild rats collected from Surabaya were collected in five areas (West, East, Central, North, and South of Surabaya) obtained from three trapping locations: housing, dense settlements, and markets. All samples were examined microscopically for parasitological tests through the brain tissue samples, and the serum was examined using the toxoplasma modified agglutination test to detect the presence of IgG and Immunoglobulin M (IgM).

Results

This research used 100 wild rat samples, 77 Rattus tanezumi and 33 Rattus norvegicus, with evidence of 31% in serology and active infection with 19% tissue cyst. The results showed that the seroprevalence of T. gondii in wild rats was 31% (30% for IgG and 1% for IgM). Tissue cysts in the rat brain samples tested were 19% (19/100). The IgG prevalence rate in female rats was 25% (8/32), while for males, it was 32.3% (22/68). The highest seropositive IgG from densely populated settlements was 50%, markets were 25.8%, and housing was 12.1%. The highest seropositive IgM from densely populated settlements was 2.8%. Population density and the presence of cats are factors supporting the high seropositive rate at the trapping location.

Conclusion

This study revealed that there has been toxoplasmosis contamination in Surabaya with evidence of 31% in serology and active infection with 19% tissue cyst. It is necessary for controlling with surveillance in cats to prevent transmission in humans.

Assessing Methods for Replacement of Soiled Bedding Sentinels in Cage-level Exhaust IVC Racks

Soiled bedding sentinel programs have long been the cornerstone of rodent health monitoring surveillance. Many recent studies have evaluated methods to replace live animals in these programs; however, the type of ventilated rack being used greatly influences the detection rate of adventitious pathogens. This study evaluated 4 alternative sampling techniques across 5 distinct vivaria and assessed their accuracy in detecting 5 pathogens. Testing was done in an operational (real-world) setting using IVC racks that vent air at the cage level. The 5 agents surveyed were mouse norovirus, Helicobacter spp., Rodentibacter spp. Entamoeba muris, and Spironucleus muris. Samples were collected for subsequent PCR assays as follows: 1) cages with live sentinels exposed to soiled bedding; 2) filter paper placed on the lid of an unoccupied cage containing soiled bedding; 3) filter paper placed in the bedding of an unoccupied cage that contained soiled bedding; 4) swabs from an unoccupied sentinel cage that contained soiled bedding; and 5) pooled swabs from colony cages admixed with swabs from soiled bedding sentinel mice. Cumulative accuracy for all pathogens of interest was highest with the existing soiled bedding sentinel program, followed by pooled swabs of colony cages mixed with swabs from occupied soiled bedding sentinel cages. Soiled bedding sentinel cages detected mouse norovirus, Helicobacter spp., and S. muris with the highest accuracy; the pooled swabs were best in detecting Rodentibacter spp. and E. muris. The findings suggest that with the type of rack and caging used in our facilities, the soiled bedding sentinel method has highest concurrence with the expected health status of an animal room, and the results from this method can be enhanced with the addition of pooled swabs of colony animals.

A nose for cancer

New research shows mice can detect differences between the urine of healthy mice and those with melanoma. Emma Culjat-Vukman reports.

An invasive disease, sylvatic plague, increases fragmentation of black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) colonies

Context

A disease can be a source of disturbance, causing population declines or extirpations, altering species interactions, and affecting habitat structure. This is particularly relevant for diseases that affect keystone species or ecosystem engineers, leading to potentially cascading effects on ecosystems.

Objective

We investigated the invasion of a non-native disease, plague, to a keystone species, prairie dogs, and documented the resulting extent of fragmentation and habitat loss in western grasslands. Specifically, we assessed how the arrival of plague in the Conata Basin, South Dakota, United States, affected the size, shape, and aggregation of prairie dog colonies, an animal species known to be highly susceptible to plague.

Methods

Colonies in the prairie dog complex were mapped every 1 to 3 years from 1993 to 2015. Plague was first confirmed in 2008 and we compared prairie dog complex and colony characteristics before and after the arrival of plague.

Results

As expected the colony complex and the patches in colonies became smaller and more fragmented after the arrival of plague; the total area of each colony and the mean area per patch within a colony decreased, the number of patches per colony increased, and mean contiguity of each patch decreased, leading to habitat fragmentation.

Conclusion

We demonstrate how an emerging infectious disease can act as a source of disturbance to natural systems and lead to potentially permanent alteration of habitat characteristics. While perhaps not traditionally thought of as a source of ecosystem disturbances, in recent years emerging infectious diseases have shown to be able to have large effects on ecosystems if they affect keystone species.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of the First Cowpox Virus Isolate Derived from a Bank Vole

Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus (OPV) that infects a wide range of mammals. CPXV-specific DNA and antibodies were detected in different vole species, such as common voles (Microtus arvalis) and bank voles (Myodes glareolus). Therefore, voles are the putative main reservoir host of CPXV. However, CPXV was up to now only isolated from common voles. Here we report the detection and isolation of a bank vole-derived CPXV strain (GerMygEK 938/17) resulting from a large-scale screening of bank voles collected in Thuringia, Germany, during 2017 and 2018. Phylogenetic analysis using the complete viral genome sequence indicated a high similarity of the novel strain to CPXV clade 3 and to OPV “Abatino” but also to Ectromeliavirus (ECTV) strains. Phenotypic characterization of CPXV GerMygEK 938/17 using inoculation of embryonated chicken eggs displayed hemorrhagic pock lesions on the chorioallantoic membrane that are typical for CPXV but not for ECTV. CPXV GerMygEK 938/17 replicated in vole-derived kidney cell lines but at lower level than on Vero76 cell line. In conclusion, the first bank vole-derived CPXV isolate provides new insights into the genetic variability of CPXV in the putative reservoir host and is a valuable tool for further studies about CPXV-host interaction and molecular evolution of OPV.

Mini-FLOTAC as an alternative, non-invasive diagnostic tool for Schistosoma mansoni and other trematode infections in wildlife reservoirs

BACKGROUND

Schistosomiasis and food-borne trematodiases are not only of major public health concern, but can also have profound implications for livestock production and wildlife conservation. The zoonotic, multi-host nature of many digenean trematodes is a significant challenge for disease control programmes in endemic areas. However, our understanding of the epidemiological role that animal reservoirs, particularly wild hosts, may play in the transmission of zoonotic trematodiases suffers a dearth of information, with few, if any, standardised, reliable diagnostic tests available. We combined qualitative and quantitative data derived from post-mortem examinations, coprological analyses using the Mini-FLOTAC technique, and molecular tools to assess parasite community composition and the validity of non-invasive methods to detect trematode infections in 89 wild Hubert's multimammate mice (Mastomys huberti) from northern Senegal.

RESULTS

Parasites isolated at post-mortem examination were identified as Plagiorchis sp., Anchitrema sp., Echinostoma caproni, Schistosoma mansoni, and a hybrid between Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma bovis. The reports of E. caproni and Anchitrema sp. represent the first molecularly confirmed identifications for these trematodes in definitive hosts of sub-Saharan Africa. Comparison of prevalence estimates derived from parasitological analysis at post-mortem examination and Mini-FLOTAC analysis showed non-significant differences indicating comparable results between the two techniques (P = 1.00 for S. mansoni; P = 0.85 for E. caproni; P = 0.83 for Plagiorchis sp.). A Bayesian model, applied to estimate the sensitivities of the two tests for the diagnosis of Schistosoma infections, indicated similar median posterior probabilities of 83.1% for Mini-FLOTAC technique and 82.9% for post-mortem examination (95% Bayesian credible intervals of 64.0-94.6% and 63.7-94.7%, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed that the Mini-FLOTAC could be applied as an alternative diagnostic technique for the detection of the zoonotic S. mansoni and other trematodes in rodent reservoirs. The implementation of non-invasive diagnostics in wildlife would offer numerous advantages over lethal sampling methodologies, with potential impact on control strategies of zoonotic helminthiases in endemic areas of sub-Saharan Africa and on fostering a framework of animal use reduction in scientific practice.

Early Detection of Toxoplasma gondii Infection In Mongolian Gerbil By Quantitative Real-Time PCR

Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii, is associated with several clinical syndromes, including encephalitis, chorioretinitis, and congenital infection. Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous apicomplexan parasite found in both humans and animals. Mongolian gerbils, which are more susceptible to both high- and low-virulence Toxoplasma strains compared with mice, are considered useful models for assessing diagnosis and treatment methods for toxoplasmosis, as well as infection by and host defense to this organism. Here we established a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) method targeting the B1 gene for early and specific detection of T. gondii infection in Mongolian gerbil. The detection limit of the developed qPCR was approximately 1 T. gondii tachyzoite. This method was also applied to detect T. gondii genomic DNA in experimentally infected Mongolian gerbils, with positive results in blood (66.7%), liver (73.3%), lung (80.0%), spleen (80.0%), and peritoneal fluid (66.7%) samples as early as 1 day postinfection. Specificity tests confirmed no cross-reactivity with DNA templates of Neospora caninum, Cryptosporidium parvum, Eimeria tenella, Trypanosoma evansi, Schistosoma japonicum, Angiostrongylus cantonensis, and Strongyloides stercoralis. This study first reports the use of Mongolian gerbils as an animal model for early diagnosis of toxoplasmosis by qPCR.

Comparison of Diagnostic Methods and Sampling Sites for the Detection of Demodex musculi

Demodex mites are microscopic, cigar-shaped, follicular mites often regarded as commensal microfauna in mammals. Although Demodex spp. can cause dermatologic disease in any immunocompromised mammal, they are rarely reported in laboratory mice. Recent identification of Demodex musculi in a colony of immunodeficient mice with dermatitis afforded us the opportunity to investigate the comparative sensitivity of 4 antemortem diagnostic techniques to detect D. musculi-superficial skin scrape (SSS), tape impression (TI), fur pluck (FP), and deep skin scrape (DSS)-which we performed on 4 anatomic sites (face, interscapular region [IS], caudal ventrum [CV], and caudal dorsum [CD]) in 46 mice. DSS had an overall detection rate of 91.1% (n = 112 tests), with the highest detection rates in IS (93.5%), CV (89.1%), and CD (90.0%). The detection rates for SSS (62.5%; n = 112 tests), TI (57.5%; n = 138 tests), and FP (62.7%; n = 158 tests) were all lower than for DSS. IS was the most reliable site. Results from combined FP and DSS samples collected from IS and CV yielded 100% detection, whereas the face was not a desirable sampling site due to inadequate sample quality and low detection rate. Demodex eggs and larvae were observed from FP more often than DSS (19.0% of 158 tests compared with 14.3% of 112 tests). In a subset of samples, an 18S rRNA PCR assay was equivalent to DSS for detection of mites (both 100%, n = 8). We recommend collecting samples from both IS and CV by both FP and DSS to assess for the presence of D. musculi and performing further studies to assess whether PCR analysis can be used as a diagnostic tool for the detection of Demodex mites in laboratory mice.

Urethral diverticulum and urolithiasis in a female guinea pig (Cavia porcellus)

CASE DESCRIPTION A 5-year-old sexually intact female guinea pig was evaluated because of mild dysuria and a subcutaneous mass located cranioventral to the urogenital openings. CLINICAL FINDINGS Non-contrast-enhanced CT and surgical exploration of the distal aspect of the urethra revealed a urethral diverticulum with an intraluminal urolith. Analysis revealed that the urolith was composed of calcium carbonate and struvite. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME The urolith was surgically removed and ablation of the urethral diverticulum was attempted. Approximately 3 months later, the guinea pig was reevaluated for masses in the perineal region, and positive-contrast urethrocystography revealed 2 uroliths present in the same diverticulum. Uroliths were manually expressed with the patient under general anesthesia. Approximately 2 weeks later, urethroplasty was performed to create an enlarged stoma with the diverticulum, thereby preventing urine from pooling in the diverticulum and potentially reducing the risk of future urolith formation. The urethroplasty site healed well with no reported complications or evidence of urolith recurrence 6 months after surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Urolithiasis is common in guinea pigs, and urethral diverticulum and intraluminal urolith formation should be considered as a potential differential diagnosis for a subcutaneous mass along the distal aspect of the urethra. Creation of a urethral stoma from a urethral diverticulum via urethroplasty achieved a successful outcome in this patient.

Intestinal Parasites and Anthelmintic Treatments in a Laboratory Colony of Wild-caught African Pouched Rats (Cricetomys ansorgei)

African giant pouched rats (Cricetomys spp.) are large rodents native to subSaharan Africa. Wild-caught pouched rats identified as Cricetomys ansorgei (n = 49) were imported from Tanzania. A survey of gastrointestinal parasitism by fecal flotation revealed the presence of multiple parasites, including Nippostrongylus spp., Heterakis spp., Trichuris spp., Hymenolepis spp., Raillietina spp., and Eimeria spp. Oral self-administered fenbendazole (150 ppm), topical moxidectin (2 mg/kg), pyrantel pamoate (15 mg/kg), piperazine (100 mg/kg daily), and injectable ivermectin (0.25 mg/kg) were used to determine effective treatment options for the gastrointestinal parasites present in the colony. Pyrantel pamoate in a treat vehicle and piperazine in water bottles were easily administered and significantly reduced the numbers of animals shedding Nippostrongylus spp. and Heterakis spp. during the study. Moxidectin and ivermectin were clinically ineffective at reducing fecal egg shedding. Fenbendazole was most effective at clearing infection with Trichuris spp. Although 10 mg/kg praziquantel was ineffective, a single dose of 30 mg/kg praziquantel significantly reduced the number of African pouched rats that shed cestode embryos. A combination treatment may be necessary to successfully treat all parasites present in any given animal.

Evidence-Based Advances in Rodent Medicine

The number of exotic companion pet rodents seen in veterinary practices is growing very rapidly. According to the American Veterinary Medical Association's surveys, more than 2,093,000 pet rodents were kept in US households in 2007 and in 2012 it was more than 2,349,000 animals. This article summarizes the most important evidence-based knowledge in exotic pet rodents (diagnostics of the hyperadrenocorticism in guinea pigs, pituitary tumors in rats, urolithiasis in guinea pigs, use of itopride as prokinetics, use of deslorelin acetate in rodents, cause of dental disease, and prevention of mammary gland tumors in rats).

Murine Astrovirus Infection and Transmission in Neonatal CD1 Mice

Murine astrovirus (MuAstV) is a recently identified, widespread infection among laboratory mice. Our goal was to determine the duration of MuAstV infection, susceptibility of pups, and efficacy of soiled-bedding sentinels and environmental monitoring. Eight CD1 dams and their litters of 3-d-old pups and 8 CD1 dams and their litters of 13-d-old mice were inoculated orally with MuAstV. Neither dams nor offspring demonstrated any clinical signs, and MuAstV had little to no effect on weight gain in pups. MuAstV RNA was detected in feces from 15 of the 16 dams through postnatal day (PND) 21, and 9 dams were still shedding MuAstV at PND 42. MuAstV RNA was highest in intestines of mice. Low levels of MuAstV RNA were sporadically detected in the spleen, liver, and kidney. MuAstV was detected in 97% of feces from 3- to 9-wk-old mice born to infected dams. Several weanlings became pregnant, and intestines from their pups were MuAstV-negative at PND 0 through 5. Weekly swabs of cages housing MuAstV-infected mice were MuAstV-positive through PND 42. Swabs of the rear exhaust manifold of the ventilated rack were MuAstV-positive at 21 through 56 d after inoculation. In addition, 98% of sentinels that received soiled bedding from dams and their litters and 83% of sentinels that received soiled bedding from weaned mice were MuAstV-positive. Feces from most sentinels exposed to soiled bedding that had been stored for 1, 2 or 3 wk before addition of the sentinels were MuAstV-positive.

Mandibular odontoameloblastoma in a rat and a horse

Odontoameloblastoma (OA) is a mixed odontogenic tumor that is an ameloblastoma with concurrent histologic evidence of odontoma differentiation. As a mixed tumor, OA is a tripartite lesion comprised of neoplastic odontogenic epithelium, induced dental ectomesenchyme (dental pulp), and mineralized dental matrix. Although rare, OA represents a diagnostic conundrum, as it is histologically closely related to 2 other mixed odontogenic tumors: odontoma (complex and compound) and ameloblastic fibro-odontoma. Herein we describe an OA arising from the mandible of a 4-mo-old Fischer 344 rat that had been exposed in utero to the mutagen ENU (N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea), and a naturally occurring lesion in a 2-y-old Appaloosa horse. In order to satisfy the diagnostic criteria for this lesion, mineralized dental matrix in relationship to neoplastic odontogenic epithelium must be identifiable within the OA lesion. This group of odontogenic tumors is differentiated by the degree to which the dental matrix is organized and the relative proportions of pulp ectomesenchyme, odontogenic matrix, and odontogenic epithelium.

Disorders of the Reproductive Tract of Rabbits

Disorders of the reproductive tract are common in rabbits. Conditions are different in rabbits that are farmed for their meat or fur and those that are kept as pets. Farmed rabbits suffer from infections and diseases associated with pregnancy. Congenital abnormalities are more likely to be recognized and treated in pet rabbits. Pet rabbits suffer from age-related changes to their genital tract (hyperplasia, neoplasia, or hernias). Neutering is an important part of prevention and treatment of reproductive disorders. Knowledge of normal male and female reproductive anatomy is essential to prevent complications. These are described and illustrated.

Evaluation of Traditional and Contemporary Methods for Detecting Syphacia obvelata and Aspiculuris tetraptera in Laboratory Mice

There is no consensus regarding the best practice for detecting murine pinworm infections. Initially, we evaluated 7 fecal concentration methods by using feces containing Aspiculuris tetraptera (AT) eggs (n = 20 samples per method). Sodium nitrate flotation, sodium nitrate centrifugation, Sheather sugar centrifugation, and zinc sulfate centrifugation detected eggs in 100% of samples; zinc sulfate flotation and water sedimentation detected eggs in 90%. All had better detection rates than Sheather sugar flotation (50%). To determine optimal detection methods, Swiss Webster mice were exposed to Syphacia obvelata (SO; n = 60) or AT (n = 60). We compared the following methods at days 0, 30, and 90, beginning 21 or 28 d after SO and AT exposure, respectively: fecal concentration (AT only), anal tape test (SO only), direct examination of intestinal contents (cecum and colon), Swiss roll histology (cecum and colon), and PCR analysis (pooled fur swab and feces). Detection rates for SO-exposed mice were: PCR analysis, 45%; Swiss roll histology, 30%; intestinal content exam, 27%; and tape test, 27%. The SO detection rate for PCR analysis was significantly greater than that for the tape test. Detection rates for AT-exposed mice were: intestinal content exam, 53%; PCR analysis, 33%; fecal flotation, 22%; and Swiss roll histology, 17%. The AT detection rate of PCR analysis combined with intestinal content examination was greater than for PCR analysis only and the AT detection rate of intestinal content examination was greater than for Swiss roll histology. Combining PCR analysis with intestinal content examination detected 100% of infected animals. No single test detected all positive animals. We recommend combining PCR analysis with intestinal content examination for optimal pinworm detection.

Rodent Oncology: Diseases, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics

Cancer incidence in rodent species varies dramatically from a common occurrence in mice and rats to just a limited number of documented cases in chinchillas and degus. This article summarizes common tumors, both benign and malignant, that have been reported to occur in rodents. Outlined are clinical signs, diagnostics, and treatments that have been described for rodents presenting with specific neoplasms.

Antemortem detection of mouse parvovirus and mice minute virus by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of faecal samples

Parvoviruses remain one of the most common viral infections seen in laboratory mouse colonies. The purpose of this study was to develop an antemortem polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay to detect mice infected with mouse parvovirus-1 (MPV) and mice minute virus (MMV) using faecal samples. The MMV PCR assay consistently detected as few as 100 plasmid copies of MMV in faecal samples, while the MPV PCR assay detected as few as 10 plasmid copies of MPV. Faecal pellets from infected mice held at room temperature from 1 to 7 days tested positive by MMV and MPV PCR, respectively. This demonstrates that parvovirus DNA is stable in faecal samples kept at room temperature. PCR assays were also used to follow the length of MMV and MPV shedding in faeces from SENCAR mice, which were endemically infected with multiple agents. MMV faecal shedding was detected in 60–70% of the mice 5–7 weeks old, and by 13 weeks of age, faecal samples from all mice were negative for MMV. MPV faecal shedding was detected in 90–100% of the mice 5–11 weeks old; however, by 19 weeks of age, faecal samples from all mice were negative for MPV. These findings confirm that faecal shedding occurs for a limited time and suggest that 5–9-week-old mice are the most appropriate age group in endemically infected mice for faecal testing by MMV and MPV PCR.

Monitoring a mouse colony for Helicobacter bilis using a Helicobacter-genus-specific nested PCR

Although Helicobacter infections of laboratory mice are usually subclinical, they may interfere with in vivo experiments and thus may lead to misinterpretation of data. As such, it is important to provide a means to unequivocally identify infections with murine Helicobacter spp. In the present study, a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was established and shown to be 10 to 100 times more sensitive than the single-step PCR commonly used for routine diagnosis of Helicobacter spp. Experimental infection of Helicobacter-free mice demonstrated that faeces, caecum, colon and rectum but not liver are equally suitable for the detection of H. bilis. However, use of faecal pellets is advantageous since detection of H. bilis is possible one week after infection and analysis of faeces instead of tissues avoids euthanasia of animals. Furthermore, it generates representative data for all animals housed in the same cage and analysis can be repeatedly performed. Use of samples from breeding pairs but not offspring provides representative information about the Helicobacter status of a mouse colony. Both C3H/HeJ and C57BL/6 mice appear to be susceptible to H. bilis and persistent infection was observed during the 20-week experimental period. Analysis of pooled faecal pellets by nested PCR seems to be the most sensitive approach for H. bilis monitoring of the given breeding colony.

Anthropometrical parameters and markers of obesity in rats

The present study was undertaken to determine anthropometrical parameters in male adult Wistar rats. We tested the hypothesis that the anthropometrical index may identify obesity and may predict its adverse effects on lipid profile and oxidative stress in rats. Two experimental protocols were performed. In the first experiment, 50 male Wistar rats, 21 days old and fed a control chow were studied up to 150 days of age. In the second experiment, male Wistar rats, 60 days old, were divided into three groups ( n = 8): control (C) given free access to a control chow; (S) receiving the control chow and drinking 30% sucrose ad libitum and (HC) fed a high-carbohydrate diet ad libitum. The first experiment showed that food consumption, energy intake and body weight increased with increasing age, while specific rate of body mass gain was significantly decreased. There were no significant differences in body length and thoracic circumference of rats from 60 days of age. The abdominal circumference (AC) and body mass index (BMI) significantly increased with enhancing age in rats up to 90 days of age and remained constant thereafter. In the second experiment, after 30 days of dietary treatment, the final body weight, body mass gain, carcass fat and BMI were higher in S and HC rats than in C. There were no significant alterations in body length and carcass protein among the groups. Triacylglycerol (TG), total cholesterol (CT), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and lipid hydroperoxide (LH) were higher in S and HC rats than in C. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) decreased in HC rats and total antioxidant substances (TAS) decreased in S and HC rats. There were positive correlations between BMI with carcass fat, BMI with LH and BMI and serum TG concentration. In conclusion, the BMI for male adult Wistar rats ranged between 0.45 and 0.68 g/cm2. Obesity may be easily estimated from the BMI in rats. Alterations in BMI were associated with dyslipidemic profile and oxidative stress in serum of rats and BMI may predict these adverse consequences of the obesity in rats.

Detection of antibodies to Streptobacillus moniliformis in rats by an immunoblot procedure

An immunoblot (IB) technique for detecting antibodies to Streptobacillus moniliformis in rat sera was evaluated. Immune sera to three S. moniliformis strains showed a similar reactivity pattern with both autologous and homologous antigens in the 18–87 kDa range. Using a rat S. moniliformis strain as the antigen, a similar reactivity pattern was found with sera from rats infected experimentally with S. moniliformis and sentinels. Two to five proteins were detected in the 32–55 kDa range. Over a period of 2.5 years, 27/133 rat serum panels submitted for routine monitoring yielded one or more S. moniliformis enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-positive samples. In one of these 27 panels, sera showed an IB reactivity pattern resembling that observed with immune sera and with sera from infected and exposed rats. S. moniliformis was confirmed in the colony by both culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Sera from the remaining 26 ELISA-positive serum panels frequently showed activity to a 57 kDa antigen but not more than one antigen was detected in the 32–55 kDa range. We conclude that the IB can be used as a confirmatory test for the detection of S. moniliformis infection in ELISA-positive rats.

Novel Arenavirus Isolates from Namaqua Rock Mice, Namibia, Southern Africa

Arenaviruses are feared as agents that cause viral hemorrhagic fevers. We report the identification, isolation, and genetic characterization of 2 novel arenaviruses from Namaqua rock mice in Namibia. These findings extend knowledge of the distribution and diversity of arenaviruses in Africa.

Bordetella pseudohinzii as a Confounding Organism in Murine Models of Pulmonary Disease

A group studying acute lung injury observed an increased percentage of neutrophils in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid of mice. BAL was performed, and lung samples were collected sterilely from 5 C57BL/6 mice that had been bred inhouse. Pure colonies of bacteria, initially identified as Bordetella hinzii were cultured from 2 of the 5 mice which had the highest percentages of neutrophils (21% and 26%) in the BAL fluid. Subsequent sequencing of a portion of the ompA gene from this isolate demonstrated 100% homology with the published B. pseudohinzii sequence. We then selected 10 mice from the investigator's colony to determine the best test to screen for B. pseudohinzii in the facility. BAL was performed, the left lung lobe was collected for culture and PCR analysis, the right lung lobe and nasal passages were collected for histopathology, an oral swab was collected for culture, and an oral swab and fecal pellets were collected for PCR analysis. B. pseudohinzii was cultured from the oral cavity, lung, or both in 8 of the 10 mice analyzed. All 8 of these mice were fecal PCR positive for B. pseudohinzii; 7 had increased neutrophils (5% to 20%) in the BAL fluid, whereas the 8th mouse had a normal neutrophil percentage (2%). Active bronchopneumonia was not observed, but some infected mice had mild to moderate rhinitis. B. pseudohinzii appears to be a microbial agent of importance in mouse colonies that can confound pulmonary research. Commercial vendors and institutions should consider colony screening, routine reporting, and exclusion of B. pseudohinzii.

Guidance Regarding Sample Collection and Refinement of Fecal Flotation Exam for the Isolation of Aspiculuris tetraptera

Aspiculuris tetraptera continues to be a problem in rodent vivaria, in part due to difficulties in parasite detection. Although PCR testing is highly sensitive, it is expensive and does not always provide immediate results. Consequently, many institutions rely on passive fecal flotation as a quick inhouse exam for diagnosing A. tetraptera infections. To increase the sensitivity of this test, we examined multiple parameters to determine the optimal test protocol. A 30-min soaking period prior to fecal flotation for 15 min allowed fecal pellets to soften and facilitated efficient egg isolation. We also evaluated the effect of time of day, sample size, age, sex, and housing status on egg isolation. No evidence of cyclical egg shedding was found, and although larger fecal sample sizes did not result in more eggs isolated, their use reduced the incidence of false-negative exams. The most eggs were isolated from 8- and 12-wk-old mice, and as mice aged, the number of eggs isolated declined. Overall, neither sex nor housing status influenced the number of eggs isolated. Finally, examination of multiple diagnostic tests (fecal flotation exam, direct examination of cecal and colonic contents, and fecal PCR) revealed that no single test was definitive, thus indicating that multiple tests might be required to successfully screen mice with low pinworm burdens. These findings provide guidance regarding sample selection, collection, and processing to efficiently detect A. tetraptera.

Polycystic echinococcosis in Pacas, Amazon region, Peru

In the Peruvian Amazon, paca meat is consumed by humans. To determine human risk for polycystic echinococcosis, we examined wild pacas from 2 villages; 15 (11.7%) of 128 were infected with Echinococcus vogeli tapeworms. High E. vogeli prevalence among pacas indicates potential risk for humans living in E. vogeli–contaminated areas.

Transurethral Cystoscopy and Endoscopic Urolith Removal in Female Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus)

Urinary diseases are commonly found in guinea pigs. Diagnostic workup includes clinical examination, blood testing, imaging studies, urine culture, and urinalysis. This article describes the use of transurethral cystoscopy in female guinea pigs as an ancillary tool to diagnose abnormalities within the bladder and urethra. In addition, the transurethral cystoscopic removal of uroliths measuring up to 5 mm and situated within the urinary bladder is described.

Hematological Assessment in Pet Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus): Blood Sample Collection and Blood Cell Identification

Pet guinea pigs are presented to veterinary clinics for routine care and treatment of clinical diseases. In addition to obtaining clinical history and exam findings, diagnostic testing may be required, including hematological assessments. This article describes common blood collection methods, including venipuncture sites, the volume of blood that can be safely collected, and handling of the blood. Hematological parameters for normal guinea pigs are provided for comparison with in-house or commercial test results. A description of the morphology of guinea pig leukocytes is provided to assist in performing a differential count.

Characterization of rat pinworm (Syphacia muris) epidemiology as a means to increase detection and elimination

Rodent pinworms persist in many institutions, suggesting deficiencies in eradication and diagnostic processes. When pinworms are detected, treatment success is common, but false-negative test results during health surveillance or after treatment likely contribute to the continued presence of this parasite. PCR testing is not always practical, and increased information regarding the life cycle and general epidemiology of pinworm infestations could improve the sensitivity of traditional nonPCR detection methods and improve eradication efforts. We therefore investigated a pinworm (Syphacia muris) infestation in Sprague-Dawley rats (Rattus norvegicus) to develop a more accurate testing strategy. In addition, we sought to determine the duration of egg viability by using an in vitro hatching protocol to assess environmental persistence. Finally, we tested the ovicidal efficacy of a disinfectant used at our institution. Eggs were shed in higher numbers in the midafternoon as compared with other times of the day, and the sex of the host had no consistent effect on egg shedding. Egg shedding showed periodicity over time, with shedding decreasing to 0 at 2- to 3-wk intervals. Neither cecal examination nor tape tests alone reliably predicted pinworm infestation, and results of the 2 tests did not necessarily coincide. Eggs aged for as long as 7 mo remained viable, indicating a potential for recontamination from the environment. Finally, gaseous chlorine dioxide was an effective ovicidal agent, with a kill rate of 99.7%. These results suggest that strategies for S. muris eradication can be optimized to increase detection and elimination.

False-positive results after environmental pinworm PCR testing due to Rhabditid nematodes in Corncob bedding

Modern rodent colonies are housed in individually ventilated cages to protect the animals from contamination with adventitious pathogens. Standard health monitoring through soiled-bedding sentinels does not always detect infections, especially in the context of low pathogen prevalence. Recently proposed alternatives include analyzing environmental samples from the cages or rack exhaust by PCR to improve the detection of rodent pathogens but optimal sampling strategies have not yet been established for different microorganisms. Although generally very sensitive and specific, these molecular assays are not foolproof and subject to false-positive and -negative results and should always be interpreted cautiously with an overall understanding of the intrinsic controls and all the variables that may affect the results. Here, we report a limited Aspiculuris tetraptera outbreak in a mouse barrier facility that was detected by fecal PCR in sentinels and confirmed by fecal flotation and direct cecal examination of both sentinels and colony animals. The outbreak led to a widespread survey of all facilities for pinworms by using environmental PCR from ventilated rack exhaust plenums. Environmental PCR suggested an unexpected widespread contamination of all ventilated racks holding nonautoclaved cages, but results could not be confirmed in sentinel or colony animals by fecal flotation, cecal and colonic examination, or cage PCR testing. After additional investigation, the unexpected environmental PCR results were confirmed as false-positive findings due to the nonspecificity of the assay, leading to the amplification of rhabditid nematodes, which are not infectious in rodents but which contaminated the corncob bedding.

Comparison between Quantitative Buffy Coat (QBC) and Giemsa-stained Thin Film (GTF) technique for blood protozoan infections in wild rats

The quantitative buffy coat (QBC) technique and conventional Giemsa thin blood smear was compared to determine the sensitivity and specificity of the technique in detecting blood parasitic infection of the rodent populations from four urban cities in Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 432 blood samples from four rat species (Rattus norvegicus, Rattus rattus diardii, Rattus exulans and Rattus argentiventer) were screened using both techniques and successfully detected two blood protozoan species (Trypanosoma lewisi and Plasmodium sp.) with Trypanosoma lewisi predominantly infecting the population. Results showed that Giemsa-stained thin film (GTF) was the better detection method on blood parasitemia (46.7%) compared to Quantitative Buffy Coat method (38.9%) with overall detection technique sensitivity and specificity at 83.2% and 74.8% respectively. The sensitivity in detection of Trypanosoma lewisi was 84.4% with value slightly lower for Plasmodium sp. infections at 76.6%. Statistical analysis proved that GTF technique was significantly more sensitive in the detection of blood protozoan infections in the rodent population compared to QBC (p<0.05).

A bead-based multiplex assay for the detection of DNA viruses infecting laboratory rodents

The Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Association (FELASA) recommends screening of laboratory rodents and biological materials for a broad variety of bacterial agents, viruses, and parasites. Methods commonly used to date for pathogen detection are neither cost-effective nor time- and animal-efficient or uniform. However, an infection even if silent alters experimental results through changing the animals’ physiology and increases inter-individual variability. As a consequence higher numbers of animals and experiments are needed for valid and significant results. We developed a novel high-throughput multiplex assay, called rodent DNA virus finder (rDVF) for the simultaneous identification of 24 DNA viruses infecting mice and rats. We detected all 24 DNA viruses with high specificity and reproducibility. Detection limits for the different DNA viruses varied between 10 and 1000 copies per PCR. The validation of rDVF was done with DNA isolated from homogenised organs amplified by pathogen specific primers in one multiplex PCR. The biotinylated amplicons were detected via hybridisation to specific oligonucleotide probes coupled to spectrally distinct sets of fluorescent Luminex beads. In conclusion, rDVF may have the potential to replace conventional testing and may simplify and improve routine detection of DNA viruses infecting rodents.

Thyroid diseases in rodent species

There are an abundance of studies of thyroid disease in rodents in a laboratory setting; however, research is limited in pet rodent populations. Validated reference intervals for thyroid testing are scarce, making interpretation of blood work difficult. Hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism have been reported in multiple rodent species, with the most data available for guinea pigs. Thyroid neoplasia has been reported in the most common rodent species, although often as an incidental finding at necropsy. Further research is needed to determine frequencies of disease, methods of diagnosing, and treatment options with the best efficacy.

Combined evaluation of commonly used techniques, including PCR, for diagnosis of mouse fur mites

Our study evaluated and compared the false-negative rates (FNR) of a wide array of fur-mite diagnostic tests, including 2 postmortem tests (pelt exam and sticky paper) and 3 antemortem tests (adhesive tape, fur pluck, and PCR). Past publications examining fur-mite diagnostic techniques primarily used paired comparisons, evaluating tests by their level of agreement with only one other test. However, different combinations or pairs of diagnostics are used in the different studies, making the results of these comparisons difficult to interpret across all available diagnostics. In the current study, mice from a conventionally maintained colony endemic for Myobia musculi were identified as positive based on at least one positive diagnostic test. From this pool of positive animals, the FNR of all tests were quantified. The PCR assay and the pelt exam performed the best, with 0% and 2% FNR respectively, whereas tape, fur-pluck, and sticky-paper tests showed 24%, 26%, and 36% FNR, respectively. Our study shows that for mice in a colony naturally infested with Myobia musculi, PCR testing can be used for reliable antemortem detection, and pelt exam performed by experienced examiners is reliable for postmortem detection.

Ovarian cystic disease in guinea pigs

Ovarian cysts are nonfunctional, fluid-filled cysts that develop spontaneously near the ovaries throughout the female guinea pig's reproductive cycle, reducing fertility in females older than 15 months and causing potentially serious uterine disorders. Permanent treatment requires ovariohysterectomy or ovariectomy. This article reviews the clinical signs, diagnosis, histopathology, treatment (including hormonal therapies), surgery, and postoperative care.

Ultrasound-guided percutaneous antegrade hydropropulsion to relieve ureteral obstruction in a pet guinea pig (Cavia porcellus)

Severe hydroureter and hydronephrosis secondary to ureteral obstruction by calculus were present in a guinea pig. A palliative ultrasound-guided percutaneous antegrade hydropropulsion was performed under general anesthesia to relieve the ureteral obstruction and the associated clinical signs. We describe the technique and the considerations for its potential application in similar cases.

Efficacy of direct detection of pathogens in naturally infected mice by using a high-density PCR array

We used a high-density array of real-time PCR assays for commonly reported rodent infectious agents (PRIA) to test naturally infected index mice and sentinel mice exposed by contact and soiled-bedding transfer. PRIA detected 14 pathogens--including viruses, bacteria, fur mites, pinworms, and enteric protozoa--in 97.2% of 28 pooled fecal samples, fur-perianal swabs, and oral swabs from 4 cages containing a total of 10 index mice. Among these pathogens, PRIA (like conventional health monitoring methods) failed to detect Mycoplasma pulmonis, Pasteurella pneumotropica, and Giardia spp. in all of the 9 contact and 9 soiled-bedding sentinels. PRIA demonstrated murine adenovirus and Cryptosporidium and Spironucleus spp. in contact but not soiled-bedding sentinels and detected Helicobacter and pinworms in fewer than half of the soiled-bedding sentinels. Of the 4 species of Helicobacter that species-specific PCR assays identified in index mice, only H. ganmani was found in soiled-bedding and contact sentinels. PRIA detected all of the pathogens in sentinels that were identified by conventional methods. Myobia musculi was detected by PCR in index and sentinel mice but missed by conventional parasitologic examinations. In summary, PRIA reproducibly detected diverse pathogens in heavily pooled specimens collected noninvasively from infected index mice antemortem. The inability of PRIA and conventional health monitoring methods (that is, parasitology, micro-biology, and serology) to demonstrate transmission of some pathogens to contact sentinels and the inefficient transmission of others to soiled-bedding sentinels underscores the importance of direct PCR testing to determine the pathogen status of rodents in quarantine and during routine colony surveillance.

Evaluation of diagnostic methods for Myocoptes musculinus according to age and treatment status of mice (Mus musculus)

Detecting and controlling murine fur mites continues to be challenging. Here we compared the efficacy of fur-pluck, cage PCR, and fur PCR testing of mice naturally infested with Myocoptes musculinus and make recommendations regarding the application of these diagnostic strategies in aged or treated mice. We compared all 3 diagnostic methods in groups of infested and noninfested control mice over time. For fur plucks, we used a scoring system to quantitatively compare mite infestations across ages. Mice that were 4 wk old had higher egg and mite scores than did older mice, with average scores at 4 wk corresponding to 40 to 100 individual fur mites and eggs per sample. Furthermore, 15% and 20% of samples from infested mice at 24 and 28 wk of age, respectively, lacked all fur mites and eggs. Cage PCR results varied as mice grew older. Fur PCR testing was the most sensitive and specific assay in untreated infested mice, particularly when mite densities were low. In addition, we compared fur-pluck and fur PCR tests for evaluating the efficacy of selamectin treatment. Two treatments with selamectin eliminated Myocoptes fur-mite infestations. At 8 wk after treatment, all fur-pluck samples were negative, but one-third of treated infested cages remained positive by fur PCR assay; at 16 wk after treatment, all cages were negative by fur PCR assay. Because offspring of infested mice were invariably heavily infested, breeding of suspected infested mice with subsequent testing of offspring was the definitive testing strategy when fur-pluck and PCR results conflicted.

Three unique Sendai virus antigenic peptides screened from nucleocapsid protein by overlapping peptide array

Sendai virus (SeV) is strictly monitored in laboratory rodents. Currently, complete virions have been used as antigens in SeV serological tests. However, the complexity of SeV virion antigen limits the accuracy of the diagnostic method. In the current study, complete SeV virion antigen was separated on SDS-PAGE and analyzed, with nucleocapsid protein (NP) showing predominant antigenicity. A peptide array containing overlapping 14-mer peptides covering the entire NP was developed. The array used SeV positive serum and resulted in four antigenic linear peptides being identified, which were located in the carboxyl-terminus of NP. The four peptides were coated on ELISA plates and tested with SeV positive and SeV negative sera, and the antigenicity of three peptides, NP413-428, NP473-490 and NP507-524, was confirmed. Mixture of the three peptides showed comparable sensitivity and better specificity in clinical rat sera ELISA tests compared with complete SeV virion antigen. In conclusion, the three peptides, NP413-428, NP473-490 and NP507-524, would be good candidates as linear antigens for SeV detection.

Generalized Taenia crassiceps cysticercosis in a chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera)

Taenia crassiceps is a cestode parasite that uses carnivores as definitive hosts and rodents and rabbits as main intermediate hosts, but other animal species and humans may also get infected. One adult male chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) from an animal shelter in Switzerland presented widespread subcutaneous fluctuant swellings extended over the forehead, nose, face and thoracic regions with a progressive growth over 3 months. The thoracic swelling was surgically resected, and it consisted of numerous 3-4mm small transparent vesicles, mainly confined to the subcutaneous tissue, which were morphologically identified as cysticerci of T. crassiceps. The diagnosis was confirmed by PCR and DNA sequence analysis of fragments of the mitochondrial small subunit rRNA and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 genes. After 1.5 months, due to enlargement of the swollen areas and deterioration of the general health condition, the chinchilla was euthanized and a necropsy was performed. Thousands of small cysticerci were observed widespread in the subcutis, involving underlying musculature of the whole body, in the thoracic cavity, larynx, pharynx and in the retropharyngeal region. Additionally, three larger metacestodes were detected in the liver and morphologically and molecularly identified as Taenia taeniaeformis strobilocerci. The present case represents an indicator of the environmental contamination with Taenia eggs, highlighting the risk of infection for susceptible animals and humans. Besides the clinical relevance for pets, T. crassiceps is a zoonotic parasite and can be also cause of severe cysticercosis in humans.

Ovarian cysts in the guinea pig (Cavia porcellus)

This article reviews ovarian cysts in the guinea pig (Cavia porcellus), a disease commonly associated with symmetric, nonpruritic alopecia of the dorsum and flanks. Relevant anatomy is discussed and current theories of pathogenesis are reviewed. Prevalence, predisposing factors, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis are presented.

Bumblefoot: a comparison of clinical presentation and treatment of pododermatitis in rabbits, rodents, and birds

Pododermatitis, also known as bumblefoot, is a common condition encountered in birds, rabbits, and rodents in clinical practice. This article compares the anatomy and physiology of the foot and the predisposing factors for pododermatitis in each of the species discussed. Clinical presentation, diagnostics, and treatment options, including medical and surgical therapies, are provided. In addition, alternative therapies, including natural remedies, therapeutic laser, and acupuncture, are explored. This article is intended to encourage practitioners to use a multimodal approach for successful management of this disease in all species.

Predictive observation-based endpoint criteria for mice receiving total body irradiation

Total body irradiation of mice is a commonly used research technique; however, humane endpoints have not been clearly identified. This situation has led to the inconsistent use of various endpoints, including death. To address this issue, we refined a cageside observation-based scoring system specifically for mice receiving total body irradiated. Male and female C57BL/6 mice (age, 8 wk) received 1 of 3 doses of radiation from 1 of 2 different radiation sources and were observed for progression of clinical signs. All mice were scored individually by using cageside observations of their body posture (score, 0 to 3), eye appearance (0 to 3), and activity level (0 to 3). Retrospective analysis of the observation score data indicated that death could be predicted accurately with total scores of 7 or greater, and observation scores were consistent between observers. This scoring system can be used to increase the consistent use of endpoint criteria in total body murine irradiation studies and ultimately to improve animal welfare.

A search for the rodent hosts ofLeishmania majorin the Larestan region of southern Iran: demonstration of the parasite inTatera indicaandGerbillussp., by microscopy, culture and PCR

Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) caused by Leishmania major occurs widely in Iran, where several species of rodent serve as the parasite's 'reservoir' hosts. In an attempt to identify the rodent hosts in the Larestan region, which lies in the Fars province of southern Iran (where the incidence of human CL has been rising), 32 rodents (20 Tatera indica, eight Meriones crassus, four Gerbillus sp.) were caught and checked for leishmanial infection. Using two detection methods (the microscopical examination of stained tissue smears and the culture of tissue samples) and a PCR to identify any leishmanial parasites detected, L. major was identified in six of the rodents caught: two male T. indica from Alamarvdasht, two female T. indica from Lamerd, and two females of the genus Gerbillus (one caught in Lamerd and one in Lar). Although the samples were too small to prove that M. crassus is not a significant host of L. major in Larestan, they were large enough to indicate that T. indica and members of the genus Gerbillus serve as reservoir hosts of L. major in the region. Tatera indica appears to be an important host of L. major across much of Iran but this appears to be the first time that the genus Gerbillus has been found to be involved in the epidemiology of CL in the country.

Pathogenicity and genetic variation of 3 strains of Corynebacterium bovis in immunodeficient mice

Corynebacterium bovis has been associated with hyperkeratotic dermatitis and acanthosis in mice. We studied 3 different strains of C. bovis: one previously described to cause hyperkeratotic dermatitis (HAC), one that infected athymic nude mice without leading to the classic clinical signs, and one of bovine origin (ATCC 7715). The 3 strains showed a few biochemical and genetic differences. Immunodeficient nude mice were housed in 3 independent isolators and inoculated with pure cultures of the 3 strains. We studied the transmission of these C. bovis studies to isolator-bedding and contact sentinels housed for 5 to 12 wk in filter-top or wire-top cages in the respective isolators. Using a 16S rRNA-based qPCR assay, we did not find consistent differences in growth and transmission among the 3 C. bovis strains, and neither the incidence nor severity of hyperkeratosis or acanthosis differed between strains. Housing in filter-top compared with wire-top cages did not alter the morbidity associated with any of the strains. Our findings confirmed the variability in the gross and histologic changes associated with C. bovis infection of mice. Although bacteriology was a sensitive method for the detection of Corynebacterium spp., standard algorithms occasionally misidentified C. bovis and several related species. Our study demonstrates that PCR of skin swabs or feces is a sensitive and specific method for the detection of C. bovis infection in mice. An rpoB-based screen of samples from North American vivaria revealed that HAC is the predominant C. bovis strain in laboratory mice.

Update on diseases of chinchillas

Chinchillas have been successfully maintained in captivity for almost a century. They have only recently been recognized as excellent, long-lived, and robust pets. Most of the literature on diseases of chinchillas comes from farmed chinchillas, whereas reports of pet chinchilla diseases continue to be sparse. This review aims to provide information on current, poorly reported disorders of pet chinchillas, such as penile problems, urolithiasis, periodontal disease, otitis media, cardiac disease, pseudomonadal infections, and giardiasis. This review is intended to serve as a complement to current veterinary literature while providing valuable and clinically relevant information for veterinarians treating chinchillas.