From catalepsy to psychical research: The itinerary of Timothée Puel (1812-1890)

The physician and botanist Timothée Puel (1812-1890) lived through a pivotal period of psychology (1848-1878), between the academic prohibition of the study of animal magnetism to its disjointed recovery in hypnotism and psychical research. One of his cases of "catalepsy complicated with somnambulism" triggered a lively debate on "extraordinary neuroses" within the young Société médico-psychologique [Medico-psychological Society]. In 1874, Puel founded the Revue de psychologie expérimentale [Journal of Experimental Psychology], the first of its kind in French, which he intended as the vehicle of international interest in psychical research, the scholarly and institutionalized study of "psychism" that prepared the way for the recognition of academic psychology. Puel circulated between these different currents by taking advantage of the polysemy of concepts like "sleep," "experimental psychology," and "psychism." This article discusses his role in the context of emerging French psychology in the mid- to late 19th century. (PsycINFO Database Record

Ameliorative effect of Sida cordifolia in rotenone induced oxidative stress model of Parkinson's disease

Present study focused on the evaluation of aqueous extract of Sida cordifolia (AESC), and its different fractions; hexane (HFSC), chloroform (CFSC) and aqueous (AFSC), against rotenone induced biochemical, neurochemical, histopathological and behavioral alterations in a rat model of Parkinson's disease (PD). An estimation of the level of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), glutathione (GSH) and catalase (CAT) along with superoxide anion generation (SAG) in different brain regions (cortex, midbrain and cerebellum) was carried out to assess biochemical changes. Behavioral evaluation tests (catalepsy, rearing behavior and posture instability) and neurochemical estimations (norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin level) along with histopathological evaluations of different brain regions were also performed. The varying doses (50, 100, 250mg/kg; p.o.) of different test treatments (AESC, HFSC, CFSC and AFSC) were co-administered along with rotenone (2mg/kg; s.c.), for a period of 35 days to rats of various groups and compared with rotenone per se (negative control) and l-deprenyl (positive control; 10mg/kg; p.o.) treated groups for the above mentioned parameters. The increase in catalepsy and posture instability along with decrease in rearing behavior observed due to rotenone treatment was significantly attenuated by co-treatment with varying doses of AESC and AFSC. Results of the histopathological studies of different brain regions of rats showed eosinophilic lesions in the mid brain region due to rotenone treatment. The eosinophilic lesions were significantly attenuated in co-treated groups of AESC-100mg/kg and AFSC-100mg/kg. Rotenone induced oxidative damage, revealed by increased level of TBARS, SAG and decreased level of GSH and CAT in mid brain region of rats, was attenuated by the co-treatment of AESC and AFSC. The rotenone induced decrease of dopamine level in the midbrain region of rats was also attenuated by co-treatment of AESC-100mg/kg and AFSC-100mg/kg. The maximum effect in all the above activities was observed in AFSC (100mg/kg) treated group, which was comparable to l-deprenyl treated group. The HFSC and CFSC co-treatment failed to show significant attenuation of rotenone induced damage. These results indicate the possible therapeutic potential of most polar fraction of AESC i.e. AFSC in PD by virtue of its antioxidative actions.

[Effects of stress on corticosterone level, expression of c-Fos gene and serotonin turnover in brain in mice with genetic predisposition to catalepsy]

Freezing or catalepsy is a passive-defensive reaction to stress. The participation of brain serotonin (5-HT) in the regulation of catalepsy was shown. The major gene of predisposition to catalepsy in CBA strain was localized in a 59-70 cM fragment of chromosome 13. This fragment was transferred from the CBA strain to genome of AKR non-cataleptic strain and created AKR. CBA-D13Mit76 (D13) congenic strain. The aim of the study was to compare the effects of acute stress (restriction, 1 h) on corticosterone level in plasma, the expression of c-Fos gene (neuromarker of stress) and serotonin metabolism in the brain in AKR catalepsy-resistant strain and congenic D13 catalepsy-prone strain. The level of corticosterone was significantly lower (p < 0.001) in the stressed D13 mice compared with the stressed AKR mice. Acute stress led to increased expression of c-Fos gene in the hypothalamus and midbrain in mice of both strains. Stress increased (p < 0.05) serotonin turnover in midbrain in D13 mice, but not in AKR. Thus, the fragment of chromosome 13, containing the major gene of catalepsy, participates in the regulation of hormonal response and serotonin turnover to acute stress.

[Pinch-induced catalepsy in rats of various genetic groups with different predisposition to audiogenic epilepsy]

Proportion of animals which developed pinch-induced catalepsy and the duration of this state were analyzed in rats of several genotypes which differed in audiogenic epilepsy proneness and compared with "audiogenic" catalepsy after a sound-induced seizure fit. The following genotypes were studied: Wistar, KM (Krushinsky-Molodkina) strain and substrains "4" and "0" (selected from KM and Wistar hybrid population for high "4" and low "0" audiogenic epilepsy proneness). Adult KM and substrain "4" rats developed the most intense pinch induced catalepsy, whereas Wistar and 2-month-old KM showed practically no catalepsy. After a single sound exposure pinch-induced catalepsy developed in all animals which demonstrated an audiogenic seizure fit--in KM, substrain "4", part of Wistar rats and several animals of substrain "0", latency of the fit onset in all rats being shorter than initially. After sound exposure pinch-induced catalepsy was revealed even in those substrain "0" rats, which demonstrated no audiogenic fits. It is suggested that despite the phenomenological similarity between cataleptic states of different origin (pinch-induced, "audiogenic") their neurophysiologic substrates overlap only partially. The findings are considered as presenting genetic model for further analysis of catalepsy.

[Effects of subchronic introduction of phenamine and haloperidol on development of spontaneous catalepsy in mice]

The development of spontaneous and haloperidol-provoked catalepsy was investigated in more than 200 mice. It was found that spontaneous and haloperidolic catalepsies have the same mechanism of development. Injections of amphetamine followed by injections of haloperidol led to persistent changes of cateleptogenic behavior in mice. Less duration of spontaneous catalepsy may reflect functional condition of catecholaminergic brain systems similar to that of patients with psychotic disorder.

Chronic administration of imipramine decreases freezing time in rats genetically predisposed to catalepsy

The effects of acute and chronic imipramine treatment on the degree of catalepsy were compared in GC rats genetically predisposed to catalepsy. We recorded the time over which the rats remained in a vertical position they were placed. As differentiated from acute treatment, chronic administration of imipramine dose-dependently decreased the time of freezing in GC rats.

Effect of M2Muscarinic Receptor Blockade in Rats with Haloperidol-Produced Catatonic Syndrome

We studied the functional role of individual subtypes of muscarinic cholinoceptors in the pathogenesis of neuroleptic parkinsonism in rats. Blockade of M4 receptors prevented the development of extrapyramidal disorders, which was abolished by simultaneous blockade of M2 receptors. The data suggest that various subtypes of muscarinic receptors are involved in the regulation of dopamine concentration.

[Does the catalepsy phenomenon reflect the functional dopaminergic activity in pharmacological investigations?]

The dynamics of spontaneous and haloperidol-induced catalepsy in mice has been studied. It is established that the degree of manifestation of the spontaneous catalepsy is directly related to the number of manipulations (mice standings in the "lector position"). At the same time, the intensity of catalepsy (both spontaneous and haloperidol-induced) was not related to the mice response to apomorphine injections. It is concluded that spontaneous catalepsy rather insignificantly influences the results of pharmacological tests, but this factor has to be taken into account in the study of physiological mechanisms. The absence of correlations between catalepsy manifestations and the apomorphine test results is indicative of complexity of the mechanism of this disorder and cannot be attributed entirely to the violation of dopaminergic processes in CNS.

High frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus has beneficial antiparkinsonian effects on motor functions in rats, but less efficiency in a choice reaction time task

Chronic subthalamic nucleus high frequency stimulation (STN HFS) improves motor function in Parkinson's disease. However, its efficacy on cognitive function and the mechanisms involved are less known. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of STN HFS in hemiparkinsonian awake rats performing different specific motor tests and a cognitive operant task. Unilateral STN HFS applied in unilaterally DA-depleted rats decreased the apomorphine-induced circling behaviour and reduced catalepsy induced by the neuroleptic haloperidol. DA-depleted rats exhibited severe deficits in the operant task, among which the inability to perform the task was not alleviated by STN HFS. However, in a few animals showing less impairment, STN HFS significantly reduced the contralateral neglect induced by the lesion. These results are the first to demonstrate a beneficial effect of STN HFS applied in awake rats on basic motor functions. However, STN HFS appears to be less effective on impaired cognitive functions.

Neuropsychiatric interpretations of postencephalitic movement disorders

This study reviews the impact of encephalitis lethargica (EL) on concepts of behaviour and movement during the 1920s and 1930s. Clinicopathological correlations were imprecise but supported the role of subcortical structures in complex patterns of motor behaviour. This possibility challenged the widely assumed hegemony of the cerebral cortex. There was a perceived link between involuntary movements and reduced impulse control and also between parkinsonism and a defect in volition. Contemporary observers interpreted postencephalitic phenomena such as oculogyria in psychodynamic as well as in neurophysiological terms. EL also gave some support to the idea that neuroses such as obsessional neurosis and hysteria might have an organic basis. These speculations recently have acquired more credibility. The large amount of literature on EL and its sequelae could perhaps make further contributions to understanding the pathology of voluntary movement and action.

Effects of the dopamine antagonist PD 152255 on juvenile rats' responses to dorsal stimulation, the transport response, and related behaviors

The authors gave 23- and 40-day-old rats doses of the dopamine D3 antagonist PD 152255 and tested them on transport response intensity, vertical cling catalepsy duration, and dorsal immobility duration. Administration of PD 152255 resulted in dose-dependent increases in transport response intensity in 40-day-old rats but was without effect in 23-day-old rats. Administration of PD 152255 caused increases in dorsal immobility durations in both 23- and 40-day-old subjects. The drug was without effect on vertical cling catalepsy. Results are discussed with respect to the role of D3 receptors in the transport response and the nature of D2-D3 receptor interactions.

[Acquired stuttering as an early symptom in a patient with progressive supranuclear palsy]

We report a 57-year-old man with progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) showing acquired stuttering (AS) as an early symptom. He had noticed micrographia at age 48, and thereafter he began to suffer from progressive speech disturbance at age 49. Neurological examination at age 57 revealed prominent acquired stuttering, supranuclear vertical gaze palsy, axial rigidity, disturbance of postural reflex, motor perseveration, and catalepsy, but no aphasia. A brain MRI study demonstrated atrophy of the midbrain tegmentum and dilatation of the third ventricle with a few lacunar infarcts in the basal ganglia. Anti-parkinsonian drugs were ineffective. We diagnosed his illness as PSP. His speech was characterized by repetition of sounds and syllables. It was more dominant at repetition of sentences than at that of words, and was improved with rhythmic stimulation. Although pathophysiology underlying AS remains unknown, the AS in this patient seems to be closely related to his motor perseveration and catalepsy. These symptoms may be caused by the disturbance of dopaminergic system from midbrain to limbic system and frontal cortex as reported in PSP. In conclusion, As can be an early and prominent symptom which may be related to characteristic impairment of the dopaminergic system.

Effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on forced swimming test

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and electroconvulsive shock (ECS) have been shown to affect mood in health and disease. Evidence to date has demonstrated an antidepressant potential for rTMS and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). The present experiment, aimed at comparing the effects of ECS and rTMS in rats, employed one test used for screening of antidepressant activity: the forced swimming test (FST). In this study, the authors investigated whether chronic rTMS influenced active behavior in the rat FST, similar to ECS. Male Wistar rats received rTMS treatment daily, for 10 days as is commonly used for ECT treatment. Control rats received sham treatment by placing the stimulation coil in a perpendicular position to the rat's head. Passing a current through earclip electrodes for 1 s induced ECS. The control animals were treated identically, but current was not applied. The FST was carried out 24 h after the last rTMS or ECS. The immobility time in the FST was not significantly affected by rTMS and ECS for 1 day. The immobility time in the FST was significantly shortened at rTMS and ECS for 10 days. Chronic treatment with rTMS, similar to chronic treatment with ECS, decreased the immobility time in the FST. These results indicate that chronic treatment with rTMS might have antidepressant effect similar to chronic treatment with ECS.

Cataleptic postures in thalamic hemorrhage: case report

We report a case of catalepsy associated with thalamic hemorrhage. A 72 year-old hypertensive woman had acute onset of right-sided weakness and speech disturbances. She was on anticoagulants because of aortic valve replacement. When postures were imposed, the patient maintained the left upper limb raised for several minutes, even in uncomfortable or bizarre positions. A CT scan of the head revealed a left thalamic hemorrhage. Cataleptic postures have been reported in few cases with acute stroke.

Thyroid hormone deficiency determines predisposition to catalepsy in rats

The role of thyroid hormones in predisposition to cataleptic reaction was investigated. GC rats with genetic predisposition to catalepsy were characterized by decreased serum thyroxin content in comparison with Wistar rats. Thyroidectomy even more reduced the blood concentration of thyroxin in GC rats 30 days postoperation and augmented predisposition to catalepsy in both rat strains.

[New perspectives in the diagnosis and therapy of narcolepsy]

Narcolepsy syndrome is a common, although often misdiagnosed, neurological disorder, whose clinical features are excessive daytime somnolence with sleep attacks, caplexy, sleep paralysis and hypnagogic hallucinations. The clinical manifestation have been interpreted as the expression of a sudden intrusion of dissociated REM phenomena in wakefulness. Sometimes the clinical manifestations may include only some of the symptoms: in particular, the cases in which the only symptom is excessive daytime somnolence may be difficult to diagnose. The etiopathogenesis of narcolepsy syndrome is still poorly understood. Recent experimental evidences suggest that a protein, called "orexin", which is supposed to play a role in the control mechanisms of both sleep and eating behaviour, is involved in its pathogenesis. The treatment of narcolepsy has been, up to now, exclusively symptomatic, and in some way empirical and unsatisfactory, especially regarding to daytime sleepiness. Recently, new pharmacological agents, acting on the serotoninergic and/or noradrenergic systems, allow a better control of the cataplectic attacks. The recent development of modafinil, a central nervous system stimulant, devoid of the serious side effects of amphetamines and other compounds, allows to hope in a better control of daytime somnolence and sleep attacks. The aim of the paper is to describe the recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of narcolepsy.

Behavioral characteristics of olanzapine: an atypical neuroleptic

AIM

To assess the atypical neuroleptic properties of a novel antipsychotic agent, olanzapine (Ola).

METHODS

The action of Ola on apomorpine (Apo)-induced climbing behavior, 5-hydroxy-dl-tryptophan (5-HTP)-induced head twitch response, oxotremorine-induced tremor, and the conditioned avoidance behavior in mice were observed. The catalepsy of mice induced by Ola was also investigated. The single unit extracellular recording technique was used to compare the spontaneous firing rate changes of dopamine (DA) cells in the ventral tegmental area (VTA, A10) and the substantia nigra pars compact (SNC, A9) in rats after i.v. Ola.

RESULTS

Ola antagonized the climbing behavior (ED50 1.8 mg.kg-1, p.o.), head twitch behavior (ED50 0.3 mg.kg-1, p.o.), and tremor (ED50 5.2 mg.kg-1, p.o.) in mice. In a conditioned avoidance paradigm in mice, Ola inhibited the avoidance response with an ED50 of 2.72 mg.kg-1 (p.o.). However, the catalepsy was not induced by Ola in mice even under a very high dose of 100 mg.kg-1 (p.o.). Ola selectively increased the firing rate of DA cells in the VTA, but failed to affect that of SNC DA cells.

CONCLUSION

Ola distinguished itself from the typical neuroleptic (e.g. haloperidol, Hal) and took resemblance of the atypical neuroleptic (e.g. clozapine, Clo) in 3 aspects: 1) the multiple receptor pharmacodynamics involving D1/D2, 5-HT2 and M-ACh receptors; 2) dose-response separation between the block of conditioned avoidance response and catalepsy induction; and 3) the specificity of action sites of firing rates upon acute drug challenge.

Catalepsy after stroke

Catalepsy denotes a tendency to maintain postures. We prospectively looked for catalepsy in 216 acute stroke patients. We found five patients with cataleptic postures. They were seen on the nonparetic side in all cases. Other movement abnormalities seen in the catatonic syndrome were absent. CT scans of the head showed ischemic infarctions in the middle cerebral artery territory in the five cases. Cataleptic postures associated with hemispheric lesions due to stroke may be a more common phenomenon than is believed, and their mechanism remains to be elucidated.

Serotonin modulation of catalepsy induced by N(G)-nitro-L-arginine in mice

N(G)-(Nitro-L-arginine (L-NOARG), an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, induces catalepsy in mice. The objective of the present work was to investigate if serotonergic drugs are able to modulate this effect. Results showed that the cataleptogenic effect of L-NOARG (40 mg/kg) in male albino-Swiss mice was enhanced by pre-treatment with (+)-N-tert-butyl-3-(4-[2-methoxyphenyl]piperazin-1-yl)-2-phenylpro panamide ((+)-WAY-100135, 5 or 10 mg/kg), a 5-HT1A-selective receptor antagonist, and by ketanserin (5 or 10 mg/kg), a 5-HT2A receptor and alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonist. Prazosin (3 or 5 mg/kg), an alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonist, and endo-N-(8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]oct-3yl)-2,3-dihydro-3,3-dimet hyl-indole-1-carboxamide HCl (BRL-46470A, 0.05 or 0.5 mg/kg), a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, did not interfere with L-NOARG-induced catalepsy. Ritanserin (3 or 10 mg/kg), a 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor antagonist, tended to enhance the effect of L-NOARG. These results confirm that interference with the formation of nitric oxide induces catalepsy in mice, and suggest that this effect is modulated by 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors.

Central administration of vitamin B12 aggravates cataplexy in canine narcolepsy

Experimental evidence in canine narcolepsy suggests that central cholinergic systems are critically involved in the regulation of cataplexy, an abnormal manifestation of REM sleep atonia. In the current study, we found that intracerebroventricular perfusion of methyl-B12, (10(-5)-10(-2) M), significantly aggravated cataplexy and enhanced REM sleep in narcoleptic dogs. Choline, a direct precursor of acetylcholine, was also found to aggravate cataplexy, while cyano-B12, a vitamin B12 analog without methyl donating abilities, had no effect on cataplexy. Since both methyl-B12 and choline are reported to enhance acetylcholine synthesis, enhancement of the biosynthesis of acetylcholine may be involved in the effects observed in canine narcolepsy. Our results suggest that central administration of methyl-B12 has the potential to modulate both normal and pathological REM sleep.

[Neurophysiology and analysis of the phenomenon of catalepsy]

Neurophysiological mechanisms of the photogenic catalepsy (the "animal hypnosis"), genetic catalepsy, and cataplexy are discussed. The data obtained demonstrates a significance of the brainstem structures suppressing motor activity and the muscle tone in these conditions. Motor disorders associated with the general immobility are discussed from the standpoint of the evolutionary theory.

Functional correlates of dopamine D3 receptor activation in the rat in vivo and their modulation by the selective antagonist, (+)-S 14297: 1. Activation of postsynaptic D3 receptors mediates hypothermia, whereas blockade of D2 receptors elicits prolactin secretion and catalepsy

Using [125I]-iodosulpride as a radioligand, the novel naphthofurane, (+/-)-S 11566 [(+/-)-[7-(N,N-dipropylamino)-5,6,7,8-tetra-hydro- naphtho(2,3b)dihydro,2,3-furane]) showed a marked preference for human, recombinant D3 as compared with D2 receptors stably transfected into Chinese hamster ovary cells (Kis = 24/529 nM). This activity resided in its (+)-eutomer, (+)-S 14297 (13/297 nM) as compared with its (-)-distomer, (-)-S 17777 (406/3544 nM). In contrast, (+)-AJ 76 manifested only a mild 2-fold preference for D3 sites (70/154 nM), whereas haloperidol and six additional antagonists showed a mild (2-7-fold) preference for D2 sites. As concerns agonists, (+)-7-OH-DPAT, (+/-)-CGS 15855A, quinelorane, (-)-quinpirole and N-0434 displayed a preference (6-40-fold) for D3 receptors, whereas piribedil showed a slight, 2-fold, preference for D2 sites (243/126 nM). (+)-S 14297 showed low (> 1.0 microM) affinity at rat D1 and D2 sites and at cloned, human D4 and D5 receptors and only low affinity (145 to > 10,000 nM) at all other sites examined. In vivo, administered s.c., (+)-7-OH-DPAT, CGS 15855A, quinelorane, (-)-quinpirole and N-0434 potently evoked hypothermia. Across all (8) agonists tested, potency correlated significantly with affinity at D3 sites (r = .84, P < .001) but not D2 sites (r = .50, P > .05). (+)-S 14297 (0.16-1.25 mg/kg, s.c.) blocked the induction of hypothermia by (+)-7-OH-DPAT, CGS 15855A and (-)-quinpirole, but not by the alpha 2-adrenergic agonist, clonidine, without influencing core temperature alone. In contrast, (-)-S 17777 (10.0 mg/kg, s.c.) was only partially active. Across all (9) antagonists, potency for inhibition of (+)-7-OH-DPAT-induced hypothermia correlated more strongly with affinity at D3 (r = .96, P < .001) than D2 (r = .75, P < .02) sites. Whereas haloperidol and the other antagonists provoked prolactin secretion and elicited catalepsy, (+)-S 14297 and (+/-)-S 11566 at doses of up to 10.0 and 40.0 mg/kg, s.c., respectively, were not significantly effective (P > .05). Across all antagonists, potency for eliciting prolactin secretion and catalepsy correlated better with affinity at D2 (r = .95 and .96) than D3 (r = .76 and .91) sites. In conclusion, these data demonstrate that the novel naphtofurane, (+)-S 14297, is a selective ligand (antagonist) at dopamine D3 receptors and suggest that their activation mediates hypothermia in the rat.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Correlation between tryptophan hydroxylase activity in the brain and predisposition to pinch-induced catalepsy in mice

Pinch-induced catalepsy and activity of the rate-limiting enzyme of serotonin biosynthesis, tryptophan hydroxylase, in brain structures have been studied in mice of six inbred strains. A pronounced predisposition to catalepsy was found in the CBA mouse strain. It was shown that the CBA mice had the highest tryptophan hydroxylase activity in the neostriatum compared to mice of other noncataleptic strains. The experience of repeated victories in intermale encounters producing highly aggressive CBA mice resulted in the inhibition of the genetically determined predisposition to pinch-induced catalepsy and in the simultaneous decrease of tryptophan hydroxylase activity in the neostriatum down to the level found in noncataleptic mice. The inhibitor of tryptophan hydroxylase, p-chloromethamphetamine, significantly decreased the enzyme activity in the neostriatum of CBA mice and completely inhibited their genetically determined predisposition to catalepsy. These findings indicate the key role of the striatal serotonergic system in the catalepsy-inducing mechanism.

Influence of median raphe nucleus lesions on neuroleptic-induced catalepsy and on the anticataleptic effect of buspirone

Catalepsy induced by neuroleptics in rats can be modified by 5-hydroxytryptaminergic (5-HTergic) manipulation. For example, buspirone (BUS) and other central 5-HT1A receptor ligands reduce neuroleptic-induced catalepsy (NIC). The dorsal (DRN) and median (MRN) raphe nuclei are reported to be important sources of 5-HTergic projections to the basal ganglia, the site of action of neuroleptics in producing NIC. A previous study showed that lesion of DRN did not affect NIC or the anticataleptic effect of BUS. The present study was designed to evaluate the participation of MRN in NIC and in the anti-NIC effect of BUS. Twenty-four male Wistar rats (N = 6/group) weighing 220-250 g were used. Electrolytic lesion of MRN was carried out in anesthetized rats along with sham operations (electrode inserted but no current applied). Ten days later, the rats were injected with BUS (5 mg/kg, ip) or saline (1 ml, ip). Catalepsy was induced 20 min later with haloperidol (H; 1 mg/kg, ip) and measured at 30-min intervals by means of a bar test. The Costall & Naylor method of scoring (range 0-5 points) was used. Saline-injected MRN-lesioned rats displayed significantly lower catalepsy scores than sham-lesioned rats (1.5 +/- 0.2 vs 3.8 +/- 0.3 at 90 min after H). In sham-lesioned rats, BUS significantly reduced the catalepsy scores in comparison with saline-treated animals (1.3 +/- 0.2 vs 3.8 +/- 0.3 at 90 min after H). However, BUS was not able to further reduce NIC in the MRN-lesioned animals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

One brief exposure to a psychological stressor induces long-lasting, time-dependent sensitization of both the cataleptic and neurochemical responses to haloperidol

Rats were exposed for 10 minutes to one of several enclosures graded in novelty. In one experiment they were then simply sacrificed and plasma corticosterone determinations made in order to obtain an index of the relative stressfulness of these enclosures. In a second experiment the animals received haloperidol and were tested for catalepsy, 2 hours or two weeks following the novel experience. The most novel experience, exposure to a black box, resulted in the highest corticosterone levels and was the only one of our pre-treatments to induce significant enhancement of catalepsy as well as alteration of nucleus accumbens dopamine levels, 2 weeks--but not 2 hours--later. These findings indicate that brief exposure of adult animals to a psychological stressor can induce a long-term alteration in both behavioral and neurochemical responses to a drug and that this effect requires a minimum level of stress to get started and once triggered gets stronger with the passage of time.

Dissociation of haloperidol-induced "anhedonia" and catalepsy by lesions of the dorsal raphe nucleus

Electrolytic lesions of the dorsal raphe nucleus were found to attenuate haloperidol-induced catalepsy, but did not alter haloperidol's ability to suppress the intake of a highly palatable saccharin/glucose mixture by nondeprived rats. These results suggest that neuroleptic-induced suppression of the drinking of palatable fluids is not secondary to the types of motor deficits that result in catalepsy.

Investigation of the different types of opioid receptor involved in electroconvulsive shock-induced antinociception and catalepsy in the rat

The effects of novel opioid antagonists on the behavioural syndrome induced by electroconvulsive shock (ECS) in rats have been examined and compared with those of the established agent naloxone. A single ECS produced catalepsy and significantly increased tail immersion response times during the 15 min following the seizure. These responses were inhibited by a low dose of naloxone (1 mg kg-1, i.p.) and also by RX8008M (16-methylcyprenorphine; 1 mg kg-1, i.p.) which blocks mu- and delta- but not kappa-opioid receptor function. In comparison, the antinociception and catalepsy induced by ECS was not attenuated by the selective delta-receptor antagonist naltrindole (1 mg kg-1, i.p.). These results suggest that ECS-induced antinociception and catalepsy may be mediated by endogenous opioids acting at mu-opioid receptors and are consistent with biochemical studies showing the release of beta-endorphin in both animals and man following this procedure.

Dorsal pressure potentiates the duration of tonic immobility and catalepsy in rats

This study tested the generalizations that cutaneous pressure will elicit immobility, that there is a relationship between the intensity of cutaneous pressure and the duration of immobility, and that the localization or body surfaces, particularly the upper dorsal area or the nape of the neck, is more susceptible to immobility. Immobility was measured by the duration in sec of tonic immobility, bar grasp and vertical cling behaviors or catalepsy. It was shown in the first experiment that dorsal pressure immobility can be elicited in the adult rat. The application of a 9-kg pressure elicited a significant potentiation of the duration of tonic immobility and the bar grasp catalepsy and both 5 and 9 kg of pressure potentiated the duration of vertical cling catalepsy. In the second experiment, only pressure applied to the midline of the dorsal surface at the nape of the neck significantly potentiated the duration of these measures. These results were compared with other experimentally and naturally occurring immobilities.

[The relation of tryptophan hydroxylase activity in the brain and the manifestation of catalepsy in mice]

Pinch-induced catalepsy and thyptophan hydroxylase (TPH) activity in striatum and midbrain were determined in male mice of 6 inbred strains. Pronounced catalepsy was found in the only mice strain--CBA. TPH activity in midbrain and especially in striatum of CBA mice was higher than in the strains, which did not display catalepsy. The experimental situation, which promotes the development of highly aggressive CBA males, caused a decrease in TPH activity in striatum and these mice did not express genetic predisposition to catalepsy. The results indicate that TPH activity in striatum is involved in the mechanism of catalepsy in mice.

[Neurochemical mechanisms of regulation in cataleptiform states in animals]

Influence of serotonin- and GABA-ergic systems on cataleptic responses to electrical stimulation of the medial parabrachial nucleus, cuneiform nucleus, median and magnus raphe nuclei, was investigated in chronic experiments on rats. The brainstem structures seem to form a morphofunctional inhibitory system participating in catalepsy.

Radiation-induced increases in sensitivity of cataleptic behavior to haloperidol: possible involvement of prostaglandins

The effects of radiation exposure on haloperidol-induced catalepsy were examined in order to determine whether elevated prostaglandins, through an action on dopaminergic autoreceptors, could be involved in the radiation-induced increase in the potency of this neuroleptic. Cataleptic behavior was examined in animals irradiated with various doses of gamma photons (1-150 Gy) and pretreated with a subthreshold dose of haloperidol (0.1 mg/kg). This approach was chosen to maximize any synergistic effects of radiation and haloperidol. After irradiation with doses less than or equal to 30 Gy, the combined treatment of haloperidol and radiation produced catalepsy, whereas neither treatment alone had an effect. This observed catalepsy could be blocked with prior administration of indomethacin, a prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor. Animals exposed to doses of radiation less than or equal to 50 Gy and no haloperidol, however, displayed apparent catalepsy. This effect was also antagonized by indomethacin. Prostaglandins can induce catalepsy and when administered in subthreshold doses along with subthreshold doses of haloperidol, catalepsy was observed. In order to assess a possible action of prostaglandins and radiation on dopaminergic activity, the functioning of striatal dopaminergic autoreceptors was examined by determining the effects of varying concentrations of haloperidol on the K+-evoked release of dopamine from striatal slices obtained from parallel groups of animals treated as above. Results indicated that sensitivity to haloperidol increased (higher K+-evoked dopamine release) in slices from irradiated or prostaglandin-treated animals and that this increase in sensitivity was blocked by indomethacin. Results from both experiments suggest that radiation-induced increases in endogenous neuronal mediators, such as prostaglandins, can induce catalepsy through an action on dopaminergic autoreceptors.

D-1 and D-2 receptor blockade have additive cataleptic effects in mice, but receptor effects may interact in opposite ways

The dopaminergic role of D-1 and D-2 receptors in catalepsy was evaluated using drugs with preferential receptor affinities. The D-1 antagonist, SCH 23390, caused distinct catalepsy in mice at 1, 2, and 10 mg/kg, IP, but not at two lower doses. The selective D-1 blocker, molindone, also caused catalepsy at 5 and 10 mg/kg; and blockade of both receptor types produced additive cataleptogenic effects. Apomorphine (4 mg/kg), which is an agonist for both receptors, potentiated SCH 23390-induced catalepsy much more than it did the catalepsy induced by molindone; the potentiation was produced by higher, not lower, doses of apomorphine. To determine if the apomorphine potentiation was mediated by D-1 or D-2 receptors, we tested selective agonists in mice that were concurrently injected with selective blockers. SCH 23390-induced catalepsy was potentiated by a large dose of the D-2 agonist, bromocriptine. The catalepsy of D-2 blockade with molindone was not potentiated by the D-1 agonist, SKF 38393, which slightly disrupted the catalepsy of D-2 blockade. We conclude that catalepsy is not a simple D-2 blockade phenomenon and that preferential antagonism of either receptor type can cause catalepsy. Catalepsy is most profound when both receptor types are blocked. Dopamine agonists, in large concentrations, are known to promote movements, and thus it is not surprising that they tend to disrupt catalepsy.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Central responses to cholinergic drugs of REM sleep deprived rats

The present work studied the effects of REM sleep deprivation on the responses to cholinomimetic drugs in rats. Cataleptic behavior induced by pilocarpine, oxotremorine and eserine was not modified by previous REM sleep deprivation. On the other hand, the intensity of oxotremorine- and eserine-induced tremors, but not that of pilocarpine, was clearly augmented in the REMd rats and latency to the first tremor was shorter. REM sleep deprivation also potentiated the convulsions induced by nicotine. Two hypothetical mechanisms through which REM sleep deprivation could lead to the described hyperresponsiveness to cholinomimetic drugs are discussed.

Single and repeated electroconvulsive shock differentially affects the prodynorphin and pro-opiomelanocortin system in the rat

The effects of single and repeated maximal electroconvulsive shock (ECS, 150 mA, 50 Hz, 0.5 s) on the immunoreactive (ir-) dynorphin and beta-endorphin level in the rat brain, spinal cord and pituitary were studied. A single ECS induced a transient decrease in the hypothalamic ir-dynorphin, but did not influence the peptide content in the spinal cord, hippocampus and neurointermediate lobe of the pituitary. In contrast, the single ECS only slightly decreased the ir-beta-endorphin level in the hypothalamus, but caused a considerable fall in the peptide content in both lobes of the pituitary. A repeated ECS (every day for 9 days and 3 times a week for 3 weeks) markedly increased the ir-dynorphin content in the hypothalamus by 28 and 56%, respectively. Irrespective of the paradigm used, the repeated ECS strongly influenced spinal dynorphin neurons. At the beginning of our experiment (ECS applied 3 times) a fall in the peptide levels could be observed, but a longer treatment (ECS applied 9 times) led to its enhancement. The repeated ECS also induced a gradual decrease in the hippocampal ir-dynorphin level, followed by a long-term, rebound increase. In contrast to those numerous changes evoked in the dynorphin system, the repeated ECS did not evoke any changes in the hypothalamic and pituitary ir-beta-endorphin levels. As shown in the behavioral experiment, an acute ECS treatment resulted in a moderate increase in the pain threshold, measured by tail-flick and hot-plate tests. A prolonged ECS administration (3, 6 and 9 times) markedly enhanced the ECS-induced analgesia and catalepsy.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Head displacement and bracing in haloperidol-treated rats compared to rats with lateral hypothalamic damage

A characteristic of catecholamine-depletion-induced catalepsy is that such animals resist horizontal displacement, forward, backward or sideward, by bracing, i.e., pushing against the displacing force rather than stepping away as do normal animals. In this report the bracing responses of two cataleptic preparations were compared: (1) intact rats given haloperidol, a dopamine antagonist, and (2) rats with large lesions of the lateral hypothalamus (LH). Although both preparations exhibited exaggerated bracing responses when pushed, the LH rats acted in a non-cataleptic manner when pushed backward by the head; they retreated backward. The backward walking was a head-elicited response, because pushing the body backwards by the shoulders elicited bracing, not walking. Other forms of head displacement elicited body bracing if the body's stability was challenged: as when the head (and thus the body) was pulled forward; or no strong bracing responses if the head was displaced without affecting the body's stability, i.e., when as the head was pushed laterally. Therefore, retreating rather than bracing was elicited by one specific form of head displacement: backward. In contrast, haloperidol-treated rats braced whenever the body's stability was challenged, including when the head was pushed backward.

Endogenous opioids mediate ECS-induced catalepsy at supraspinal levels

Several lines of evidence point to the involvement of endogenous opioids in the mediation of electroconvulsive shock (ECS)-induced catalepsy. Although the site of action of these agents has not yet been determined, the spinal cord has been a likely candidate. Using intrathecal and systemic administrations of morphine and naltrexone, the present experiments were designed to test this possibility directly. The data obtained were consistent with the involvement of endogenous opioids in mediating ECS-induced catalepsy, but it was clearly evident that the site of action of these agents was at supraspinal, not spinal levels.

A biphasic influence of globus pallidus lesions: spontaneous catalepsy followed by anticataleptic effect

The behavioural and histological effects of unilateral or bilateral lesions induced by kainic acid injections into the globus pallidus were investigated in rats. Both lesions provoked a behavioural syndrome similar to those seen in animals treated systemically with neuroleptics or opiates. Animals displayed akinesia, ptosis, catalepsy, hypothermia and muscular rigidity. Also a marked hypersensitivity to touch, and a sensory neglect to touch and pain limited to hindlegs, adipsia, aphagia and high mortality of lesioned rats were observed. These symptoms were much stronger and lasted longer (catalepsy lasted over 15 days) in bilaterally lesioned animals. Subcutaneous injections of apomorphine in bilaterally lesioned rats abolished akinesia and catalepsy while rigidity and ptosis were unaffected. In unilaterally lesioned rats in which the lesion-induced spontaneous catalepsy already disappeared the spiperone-induced catalepsy was suppressed while in bilaterally lesioned animals which showed still pronounced lesion-induced catalepsy the spiperone-induced catalepsy was unchanged when compared to the sham-operated rats. Our results and the literature data suggest that the lesions of the globus pallidus produce biphasic effects: spontaneous catalepsy and unchanged neuroleptic catalepsy in the first phase and suppression of the neuroleptic catalepsy in the second phase. The role of the globus pallidus as a distal link (for neostriatum and n. accumbens) in neuronal chain forming a matrix of central patterns of catalepsy, akinesia and rigidity is discussed.

Experimental catalepsy: influences of cholinergic transmission in restraint-induced catalepsy

Possible cholinergic mechanisms in experimental catalepsy were evaluated by using the 'pinch-induced' model in mice. In control, saline-injected mice, the median number of attempts needed to achieve a criterion level of catalepsy was 6. All 3 dose levels of physostigmine reduced this median to about 2 trials; neostigmine did not significantly reduce the number of trials. Opposite effects were obtained with atropine, with which all 3 doses tested increased the number of trials needed to cause catalepsy, and at the higher doses (5 and 10 mg/kg) most of the mice (80%) became insusceptible: atropine methyl bromide had no such effects. Thus, this kind of catalepsy may be mediated by cholinergic mechanisms that are central and not peripheral.

Effect of restraint stress on cannabis-induced catalepsy in rats

The effect of restraint stress (1, 2 and 4 hr) on cannabis-induced catalepsy, was investigated in rats. Restraint stress produced a time-related-potentiation of the cataleptic effect of a sub-cataleptic dose of cannabis. Stress (4 hr)-induced potentiation of cannabis catalepsy was attenuated after pretreatment of the animals with drugs known to decrease central 5-HT and prostaglandin activity, but was unaffected by metyrapone, an inhibitor of endogenous corticoid synthesis. The results suggest the involvement of 5-HT and prostaglandins in restraint stress-cannabis interaction. The results have been discussed in the light of earlier investigations, from this laboratory, indicating increased rat brain 5-HT and prostaglandin activity, following restraint stress, and possible 5-HT mediation in central effects of prostaglandins. It is suggested that restraint stress first enhances rat brain prostaglandins, which in its proposed role as the first mediator' of stress, activates the serotonergic system in this species. This prostaglandin 5-HT link, thus mediates the observed potentiating effect of restraint stress on cannabis catalepsy.