Trim66's paternal deficiency causes intrauterine overgrowth

The tripartite motif-containing protein 66 (TRIM66, also known as TIF1-delta) is a PHD-Bromo-containing protein primarily expressed in post-meiotic male germ cells known as spermatids. Biophysical assays showed that the TRIM66 PHD-Bromodomain binds to H3 N-terminus only when lysine 4 is unmethylated. We addressed TRIM66's role in reproduction by loss-of-function genetics in the mouse. Males homozygous for Trim66-null mutations produced functional spermatozoa. Round spermatids lacking TRIM66 up-regulated a network of genes involved in histone acetylation and H3K4 methylation. Profiling of H3K4me3 patterns in the sperm produced by the Trim66-null mutant showed minor alterations below statistical significance. Unexpectedly, Trim66-null males, but not females, sired pups overweight at birth, hence revealing that Trim66 mutations cause a paternal effect phenotype.

Paternally Inherited Noonan Syndrome Caused by a PTPN11 Variant May Exhibit Mild Symptoms: A Case Report and Literature Review

BACKGROUND

Noonan syndrome (NS)/Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines (NSML) is commonly characterized by distinct facial features, a short stature, cardiac problems, and a developmental delay of variable degrees. However, as many as 50% of individuals diagnosed with NS/NSML have a mildly affected parent or relative due to variable expressivity and possibly incomplete penetrance of the disorder, and those who are recognized to have NS only after a diagnosis are established in a more obviously affected index case.

METHODS

In order to collect intergenerational data reported from previous studies, electronic journal databases containing information on the molecular genetics of PTPN11 were searched from 2000 to 2022.

RESULTS

We present a case of a proband with a PTPN11 variant (c.1492C > T/p.Arg498Trp) inherited from an asymptomatic father, displaying only mild intellectual disability without classical symptoms of NS. Among our cases and the reported NS cases caused by the PTPN11 p.Arg498Trp variant, cardiac abnormalities (6/11), facial dysmorphism (7/11), skin pigmentation (4/11), growth problems (4/11), and sensorineural hearing loss (2/11) have been observed. NS/NSML patients with the PTPN11 p.Arg498Trp variant tend to exhibit relatively lower frequencies of skin pigmentation, facial dysmorphism and cardiac abnormalities and mild symptoms compared to those carrying any other mutated PTPN11.

CONCLUSIONS

Paternally inherited NS/NSML caused by a PTPN11 p.Arg498Trp variant, including our cases, may exhibit relatively lower frequencies of abnormal features and mild symptoms. This could be ascribed to potential gene-gene interactions, gene-environment interactions, the gender and phenotype of the transmitting parent, or ethnic differences that influence the clinical phenotype.

Sex differences in MEN 2A penetrance and expression according to parental inheritance

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to delineate the age-dependent clinical penetrance and expression of heterozygous rearranged during transfection (RET) missense mutations associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia 2A (MEN2A) according to parental inheritance.

DESIGN

This was an observational study of RET carriers operated for MEN2A-associated tumors between 1985 and 2021.

METHODS

Kaplan-Meier time-to-event and multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were performed on node metastases from medullary thyroid cancer, pheochromocytoma, bilateral pheochromocytoma, and primary hyperparathyroidism.

RESULTS

Some 405 (70.1%) of 578 patients carrying heterozygous MEN2A RET missense mutations had information about the parental inheritance of the trait. On Kaplan-Meier analysis, offspring who inherited the trait from the father developed node metastases (Plog-rank= 0.007), pheochromocytoma (Plog-rank= 0.029), bilateral pheochromocytoma (Plog-rank= 0.002), and primary hyperparathyroidism (Plog-rank= 0.018) at a significantly younger age than offspring who inherited the trait from the mother. On multivariable Cox regression, controlling for index status, offspring sex, and (where feasible) mutational risk, parental inheritance was consistently associated with each MEN2A-associated tumor (hazard ratios (HR) = 1.7-1.8 for the earlier manifestations node metastases and pheochromocytoma vs HR of 2.9-3.4 for the late manifestations bilateral pheochromocytoma and primary hyperparathyroidism). Herein, node metastases were 3.1- and 1.7-fold more closely associated with mutational risk (HR of 5.3 for high and 2.9 for moderate-high risk mutations vs low-moderate risk mutations) than parental inheritance (HR = 1.7).

CONCLUSION

These findings illustrate the importance of considering not just mutational risk but also parental inheritance when it comes to personalization of screening for and early detection of the various components of MEN2A-associated tumors.

Mechanisms of transgenerational immune priming in insects

Parents invest in their offspring by preparing them for defense against pathogens and parasites that only the parents have encountered, a phenomenon known as transgenerational immune priming (TGIP). The priming effect can be passed maternally or paternally to the next generation, thus increasing the survival of offspring exposed to the same pathogen. The scope of the resulting immune response can be narrow (primarily targeting the triggering pathogen) or much more general, depending on the underlying mechanism. Maternal TGIP is often narrowly focused because the major mechanism is the transfer of microbes or fragments thereof, encountered by mothers at the larval stage, to the developing eggs along with the uptake of lipophorins and vitellogenins. This induces the expression of zygotic defense genes, including those encoding antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), comparable to the defenses observed in the larvae and adults. Maternal TGIP does not appear to involve the direct vertical transmission of immunity-related effectors such as AMPs (or the corresponding mRNAs) to the eggs. Parental investment in offspring is also mediated by epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone acetylation and microRNA expression, which can be imprinted on the gametes by either parent without changes in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic inheritance is the only known mechanism of paternal TGIP, and results in a more general fortification of the immune response. This review considers the mechanistic basis of TGIP, its role in evolutionary processes such as the establishment of resistance against pathogens, and the impact of pathogens and parasites on the epigenetic machinery of host insects.

Evaluating the Impact of Sex-Biased Genetic Admixture in the Americas through the Analysis of Haplotype Data

A general imbalance in the proportion of disembarked males and females in the Americas has been documented during the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and the Colonial Era and, although less prominent, more recently. This imbalance may have left a signature on the genomes of modern-day populations characterised by high levels of admixture. The analysis of the uniparental systems and the evaluation of continental proportion ratio of autosomal and X chromosomes revealed a general sex imbalance towards males for European and females for African and Indigenous American ancestries. However, the consistency and degree of this imbalance are variable, suggesting that other factors, such as cultural and social practices, may have played a role in shaping it. Moreover, very few investigations have evaluated the sex imbalance using haplotype data, containing more critical information than genotypes. Here, we analysed genome-wide data for more than 5000 admixed American individuals to assess the presence, direction and magnitude of sex-biased admixture in the Americas. For this purpose, we applied two haplotype-based approaches, ELAI and NNLS, and we compared them with a genotype-based method, ADMIXTURE. In doing so, besides a general agreement between methods, we unravelled that the post-colonial admixture dynamics show higher complexity than previously described.

Bias and Precision of Parameter Estimates from Models Using Polygenic Scores to Estimate Environmental and Genetic Parental Influences

In a companion paper Balbona et al. (Behav Genet, in press), we introduced a series of causal models that use polygenic scores from transmitted and nontransmitted alleles, the offspring trait, and parental traits to estimate the variation due to the environmental influences the parental trait has on the offspring trait (vertical transmission) as well as additive genetic effects. These models also estimate and account for the gene-gene and gene-environment covariation that arises from assortative mating and vertical transmission respectively. In the current study, we simulated polygenic scores and phenotypes of parents and offspring under genetic and vertical transmission scenarios, assuming two types of assortative mating. We instantiated the models from our companion paper in the OpenMx software, and compared the true values of parameters to maximum likelihood estimates from models fitted on the simulated data to quantify the bias and precision of estimates. We show that parameter estimates from these models are unbiased when assumptions are met, but as expected, they are biased to the degree that assumptions are unmet. Standard errors of the estimated variances due to vertical transmission and to genetic effects decrease with increasing sample sizes and with increasing [Formula: see text] values of the polygenic score. Even when the polygenic score explains a modest amount of trait variation ([Formula: see text]), standard errors of these standardized estimates are reasonable ([Formula: see text]) for [Formula: see text] trios, and can even be reasonable for smaller sample sizes (e.g., down to 4K) when the polygenic score is more predictive. These causal models offer a novel approach for understanding how parents influence their offspring, but their use requires polygenic scores on relevant traits that are modestly predictive (e.g., [Formula: see text] as well as datasets with genomic and phenotypic information on parents and offspring. The utility of polygenic scores for elucidating parental influences should thus serve as additional motivation for large genomic biobanks to perform GWAS's on traits that may be relevant to parenting and to oversample close relatives, particularly parents and offspring.

Detection of paternal origin of fetal trisomy 18 in a pregnancy conceived by assisted reproductive technology and in vitro fertilization

OBJECTIVE

We present detection of paternal origin of fetal trisomy 18 in a pregnancy conceived by assisted reproductive technology (ART) and in vitro fertilization (IVF).

CASE REPORT

A 39-year-old woman underwent ART and IVF because of primary infertility. The woman was infertile because of myoma and endometriosis. Her husband was 39 years old, and the sperm analysis was normal. The couple was phenotypically normal. This pregnancy was conceived successfully by IVF. She received non-invasive prenatal testing at 11 weeks of gestation, the result showed a high risk for trisomy 18. She underwent chorionic villus sampling at 12 weeks of gestation, and the result was 47,XY,+18 in 24/24 cultured chorionic villi cells. Prenatal ultrasound findings were unremarkable. She underwent amniocentesis at 17 weeks of gestation, and the result was 47,XY,+18 in 20/20 colonies of cultured amniocytes. The pregnancy was subsequently terminated. Postnatal cytogeneic analysis confirmed the prenatal diagnosis. Polymorphic DNA marker analysis on the DNAs extracted from the umbilical cord and parental bloods showed a paternal origin of the extra chromosome 18, indicating a paternal origin of fetal trisomy 18. Cytogenetic analysis of paternal blood revealed a karyotype of 46,XY.

CONCLUSION

Fetal trisomy 18 in pregnancies conceived by ART may be of paternal origin, and determination of paternal origin by polymorphic DNA marker analysis is useful for genetic counseling under such a circumstance.

Molecular cytogenetic characterization of a de novo chromosome 1q41-q42.11 microdeletion of paternal origin in a 15-year-old boy with mental retardation, developmental delay, autism and congenital heart defects

OBJECTIVE

We present molecular cytogenetic characterization of a de novo chromosome 1q41-q42.11 microdeletion of paternal origin in a mentally retarded child of a family requesting for genetic counseling of the future pregnancy.

CASE REPORT

A 43-year-old, gravida 1, para 1, woman, who had a 15-year-old son with mental retardation, planned to have another normal child and requested for genetic counseling of the future pregnancy. Her husband was 48 years old. The 15-year-old boy had a body height of 148 cm (<3rd centile) and a body weight of 40 Kg (<35th centile). He had facial dysmorphism, mental retardation, scoliosis, abnormal gaits, tetralogy of Fallot, pulmonary stenosis and autism but did not have any history of epilepsy. Cytogenetic analysis of the boy and the parents revealed normal karyotypes. Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) analysis of the family revealed a de novo 2.028-Mb 1q41-q42.11 microdeletion, or arr 1q41q42.11 (222,571,596-224,599,234) × 1.0 [GRCh37 (hg19)], encompassing 13 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) genes including DISP1, SUSD4, FBXO28, TP53BP2 and WDR26 in the child. Quantitative fluorescent polymerase chain reaction analysis confirmed a paternal origin of the deletion. Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis confirmed a 1q41 deletion.

CONCLUSION

Genetic counseling of the parents who have a previous child with mental retardation and who wish to have another normal child in the future pregnancy should include genetic studies, and aCGH is useful under such a circumstance.

Genetic Variation in Parental Effects Contributes to the Evolutionary Potential of Prey Responses to Predation Risk

AbstractDespite the ubiquity of parental effects and their potential effect on evolutionary dynamics, their contribution to the evolution of predator-prey interactions remains poorly understood. Using quantitative genetics, here we demonstrate that parental effects substantially contribute to the evolutionary potential of larval antipredator responses in a leaf beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata). Previous research showed that larger L. decemlineata larvae elicit stronger antipredator responses, and mothers perceiving predators improved offspring responses by increasing intraclutch cannibalism-an extreme form of offspring provisioning. We now report substantial additive genetic variation underlying maternal ability to induce intraclutch cannibalism, indicating the potential of this adaptive maternal effect to evolve by natural selection. We also show that paternal size, a heritable trait, affected larval responses to predation risk but that larval responses themselves had little additive genetic variation. Together, these results demonstrate how larval responses to predation risk can evolve via two types of parental effects, both of which provide indirect sources of genetic variation for offspring traits.

The Transgenerational Transmission of the Paternal Type 2 Diabetes-Induced Subfertility Phenotype

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia and associated with many health complications due to the long-term damage and dysfunction of various organs. A consequential complication of diabetes in men is reproductive dysfunction, reduced fertility, and poor reproductive outcomes. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for diabetic environment-induced sperm damage and overall decreased reproductive outcomes are not fully established. We evaluated the effects of type 2 diabetes exposure on the reproductive system and the reproductive outcomes of males and their male offspring, using a mouse model. We demonstrate that paternal exposure to type 2 diabetes mediates intergenerational and transgenerational effects on the reproductive health of the offspring, especially on sperm quality, and on metabolic characteristics. Given the transgenerational impairment of reproductive and metabolic parameters through two generations, these changes likely take the form of inherited epigenetic marks through the germline. Our results emphasize the importance of improving metabolic health not only in women of reproductive age, but also in potential fathers, in order to reduce the negative impacts of diabetes on subsequent generations.

Paternal epigenetics: Mammalian sperm provide much more than DNA at fertilization

The spermatozoon is a highly differentiated cell with unique characteristics: it is mobile, thanks to its flagellum, and is very compact. The sperm cytoplasm is extremely reduced, containing no ribosomes, and therefore does not allow translation, and its nucleus contains very closed chromatin, preventing transcription. This DNA compaction is linked to the loss of nucleosomes and the replacement of histones by protamines. Based on these characteristics, sperm was considered to simply deliver paternal DNA to the oocyte. However, some parts of the sperm DNA remain organized in a nucleosomal format, and bear epigenetic information. In addition, the nucleus and the cytoplasm contain a multitude of RNAs of different types, including non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) which also carry epigenetic information. For a long time, these RNAs were considered residues of spermatogenesis. After briefly describing the mechanisms of compaction of sperm DNA, we focus this review on the origin and function of the different ncRNAs. We present studies demonstrating the importance of these RNAs in embryonic development and transgenerational adaptation to stress. We also look at other epigenetic marks, such as DNA methylation or post-translational modifications of histones, and show that they are sensitive to environmental stress and transmissible to offspring. The post-fertilization role of certain sperm-borne proteins is also discussed.

Cas9 gene therapy for Angelman syndrome traps Ube3a-ATS long non-coding RNA

Angelman syndrome (AS) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a mutation or deletion of the maternally inherited UBE3A allele. In neurons, the paternally inherited UBE3A allele is silenced in cis by a long non-coding RNA called UBE3A-ATS. Here, as part of a systematic screen, we found that Cas9 can be used to activate ('unsilence') paternal Ube3a in cultured mouse and human neurons when targeted to Snord115 genes, which are small nucleolar RNAs that are clustered in the 3' region of Ube3a-ATS. A short Cas9 variant and guide RNA that target about 75 Snord115 genes were packaged into an adeno-associated virus and administered to a mouse model of AS during the embryonic and early postnatal stages, when the therapeutic benefit of restoring Ube3a is predicted to be greatest1,2. This early treatment unsilenced paternal Ube3a throughout the brain for at least 17 months and rescued anatomical and behavioural phenotypes in AS mice. Genomic integration of the adeno-associated virus vector into Cas9 target sites caused premature termination of Ube3a-ATS at the vector-derived polyA cassette, or when integrated in the reverse orientation, by transcriptional collision with the vector-derived Cas9 transcript. Our study shows that targeted genomic integration of a gene therapy vector can restore the function of paternally inherited UBE3A throughout life, providing a path towards a disease-modifying treatment for a syndromic neurodevelopmental disorder.

Maternal half-sibling families with discordant fathers: a contrastive design assessing cross-generational paternal genetic transmission of alcohol use disorder, drug abuse and major depression

BACKGROUND

We introduce and apply an elegant, contrastive genetic-epidemiological design - Maternal Half-Sibling Families with Discordant Fathers - to clarify cross-generational transmission of genetic risk to alcohol use disorder (AUD), drug abuse (DA) and major depression (MD).

METHOD

Using Swedish national registries, we identified 73 108 eligible pairs of reared together maternal half-siblings and selected those whose biological fathers were discordant for AUD, DA and MD, and had minimal contact with the affected father. We examined differences in outcome in half-siblings with an affected v. unaffected father.

RESULTS

For AUD, DA and MD, the HR (95% confidence intervals) for the offspring of affected v. unaffected fathers were, respectively, 1.72 (1.61; 1.84), 1.55 (1.41; 1.70) and 1.51 (1.40; 1.64). Paternal DA and AUD, but not MD, predicted risk in offspring for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and poor educational performance and attainment. Offspring of affected v. unaffected fathers had poorer pregnancy outcomes, with the effect strongest for DA and weakest for MD. A range of potential biases and confounders were examined and were not found to alter these findings substantially.

CONCLUSION

Reared together maternal half-siblings differ in their paternal genetic endowment, sharing the same mother, family, school and community. They can help clarify the nature of paternal genetic effects and produce results consistent with other designs. Paternal genetic risk for DA and AUD have effects on offspring educational achievement, child and adult psychopathology, and possibly prenatal development. The impact of paternal genetic risk for MD is narrower in scope.

Repetitive DNA Restructuring Across Multiple Nicotiana Allopolyploidisation Events Shows a Lack of Strong Cytoplasmic Bias in Influencing Repeat Turnover

Allopolyploidy is acknowledged as an important force in plant evolution. Frequent allopolyploidy in Nicotiana across different timescales permits the evaluation of genome restructuring and repeat dynamics through time. Here we use a clustering approach on high-throughput sequence reads to identify the main classes of repetitive elements following three allotetraploid events, and how these are inherited from the closest extant relatives of the maternal and paternal subgenome donors. In all three cases, there was a lack of clear maternal, cytoplasmic bias in repeat evolution, i.e., lack of a predicted bias towards maternal subgenome-derived repeats, with roughly equal contributions from both parental subgenomes. Different overall repeat dynamics were found across timescales of <0.5 (N. rustica L.), 4 (N. repanda Willd.) and 6 (N. benthamiana Domin) Ma, with nearly additive, genome upsizing, and genome downsizing, respectively. Lower copy repeats were inherited in similar abundance to the parental subgenomes, whereas higher copy repeats contributed the most to genome size change in N. repanda and N. benthamiana. Genome downsizing post-polyploidisation may be a general long-term trend across angiosperms, but at more recent timescales there is species-specific variance as found in Nicotiana.

Diet-Induced Modification of the Sperm Epigenome Programs Metabolism and Behavior

Globally, obesity has reached epidemic proportions. The rapidly increasing numbers of overweight people can be traced back to overconsumption of energy-dense, poor-quality foods as well as physical inactivity. This development has far-reaching and costly implications. Not only is obesity associated with serious physiological and psychological complications, but mounting evidence also indicates a ripple effect through generations via epigenetic changes. Parental obesity could induce intergenerational and transgenerational changes in metabolic and brain function of the offspring. Most research has focused on maternal epigenetic and gestational effects; however, paternal contributions are likely to be substantial. We focus on the latest advances in understanding the mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance of obesity-evoked metabolic and neurobiological changes through the paternal germline that predict wide-ranging consequences for the following generation(s).

Intergenerational Influences on Child Development: An Epigenetic Perspective

The link between poor maternal nutrition and suboptimal outcomes in offspring is well established, but underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Modifications to the offspring epigenome are a plausible mechanism for the transmission of intergenerational signals that could extend to effects of paternal nutrition mediated by epigenetic modifications in sperm. The epigenome is extensively remodeled in the early embryo. Attention has therefore focused on the periconceptional period as a time when differences in parental nutrition might influence the establishment of epigenetic marks in offspring. So-called "natural experiments" in The Gambia and elsewhere have highlighted loci that may be especially sensitive to periconceptional nutrition, and some are associated with health-related outcomes in later life. There is speculation that some epigenetic signals could be transmitted across multiple generations, although this would require epigenetic marks to evade epigenetic reprogramming events at conception and in primordial germ cells, and evidence for this is lacking in humans. Effects on child development spanning one or more generations could impose an intergenerational "brake" on a child's growth potential, limiting, for example, the rate at which populations can escape from stunting.

Paternal impact on the life course development of obesity and type 2 diabetes in the offspring

The aetiologies of obesity and type 2 diabetes are incredibly complex, but the potential role of paternal influences remains relatively understudied. A better understanding of paternal influences on offspring risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes could have profound implications for public health, clinical practice and society. In this review, we outline potential biological and social mechanisms through which fathers might exert an impact on the health of their offspring. We also present a systematically compiled overview of the current evidence linking paternal factors to offspring development of obesity and type 2 diabetes throughout the life course. Although evidence is accumulating to support paternal associations with offspring outcomes, more high-quality research is needed to overcome specific methodological challenges and provide stronger causal evidence.

The Maternal and Paternal Effects on Clinically and Surgically Defined Osteoarthritis

OBJECTIVE

It is currently unknown whether osteoarthritis (OA) is inherited mainly from the mother, father, or both. This study was undertaken to explore the effect of maternal and paternal factors on hip, knee, and hand OA in offspring.

METHODS

Participants from the Musculoskeletal Pain in Ullensaker Study (MUST) (69% female; mean ± SD age 64 ± 9 years) and a Norwegian OA twin study (Nor-Twin) (56% female; 49 ± 11 years) reported whether their mother and/or father had OA. Using a recurrence risk estimation approach, we calculated whether maternal and paternal OA increased the risk of 1) surgically defined hip and knee OA (i.e., total joint replacement) and 2) clinically defined hip, knee, and hand OA (i.e., the American College of Rheumatology criteria) using logistic regression. Relative risks (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated.

RESULTS

Maternal OA consistently increased the risk of offspring OA across different OA locations and severities. Having a mother with OA increased the risk of any OA in daughters (RR 1.13 [95% CI 1.02-1.25] in the MUST cohort; RR 1.44 [95% CI 1.05-1.97] in the Nor-Twin cohort) but not (or with less certainty) in sons (RR 1.16 [95% CI 0.95-1.43] in the MUST cohort; RR 1.31 [95% CI 0.71-2.41] in the Nor-Twin cohort). Having a father with OA was less likely to increase the risk of any OA in daughters (RR 1.00 [95% CI 0.85-1.16] in the MUST cohort; RR 1.52 [95% CI 0.94-2.46] in the Nor-Twin cohort) and sons (RR 1.08 [95% CI 0.83-1.41] in the MUST cohort; RR 0.93 [95% CI 0.35-2.48] in the Nor-Twin cohort).

CONCLUSION

OA in the mother increased the risk of surgically and clinically defined hip, knee, and hand OA in offspring, particularly in daughters. Our findings imply that heredity of OA may be linked to maternal genes and/or maternal-specific factors such as the fetal environment.

Deficiency of the Fanconi anemia E2 ubiqitin conjugase UBE2T only partially abrogates Alu-mediated recombination in a new model of homology dependent recombination

The primary function of the UBE2T ubiquitin conjugase is in the monoubiquitination of the FANCI-FANCD2 heterodimer, a central step in the Fanconi anemia (FA) pathway. Genetic inactivation of UBE2T is responsible for the phenotypes of FANCT patients; however, a FANCT patient carrying a maternal duplication and a paternal deletion in the UBE2T loci displayed normal peripheral blood counts and UBE2T protein levels in B-lymphoblast cell lines. To test whether reversion by recombination between UBE2T AluYa5 elements could have occurred in the patient's hematopoietic stem cells despite the defects in homologous recombination (HR) in FA cells, we constructed HeLa cell lines containing the UBE2T AluYa5 elements and neighboring intervening sequences flanked by fluorescent reporter genes. Introduction of a DNA double strand break in the model UBE2T locus in vivo promoted single strand annealing (SSA) between proximal Alu elements and deletion of the intervening color marker gene, recapitulating the reversion of the UBE2T duplication in the FA patient. To test whether UBE2T null cells retain HR activity, the UBE2T genes were knocked out in HeLa cells and U2OS cells. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genetic knockout of UBE2T only partially reduced HR, demonstrating that UBE2T-independent pathways can compensate for the recombination defect in UBE2T/FANCT null cells.

Reduced PRC2 function alters male germline epigenetic programming and paternal inheritance

BACKGROUND

Defining the mechanisms that establish and regulate the transmission of epigenetic information from parent to offspring is critical for understanding disease heredity. Currently, the molecular pathways that regulate epigenetic information in the germline and its transmission to offspring are poorly understood.

RESULTS

Here we provide evidence that Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) regulates paternal inheritance. Reduced PRC2 function in mice resulted in male sub-fertility and altered epigenetic and transcriptional control of retrotransposed elements in foetal male germ cells. Males with reduced PRC2 function produced offspring that over-expressed retrotransposed pseudogenes and had altered preimplantation embryo cleavage rates and cell cycle control.

CONCLUSION

This study reveals a novel role for the histone-modifying complex, PRC2, in paternal intergenerational transmission of epigenetic effects on offspring, with important implications for understanding disease inheritance.

Maternal modulation of paternal effects on offspring development

The paternal transmission of environmentally induced phenotypes across generations has been reported to occur following a number of qualitatively different exposures and appear to be driven, at least in part, by epigenetic factors that are inherited via the sperm. However, previous studies of paternal germline transmission have not addressed the role of mothers in the propagation of paternal effects to offspring. We hypothesized that paternal exposure to nutritional restriction would impact male mate quality and subsequent maternal reproductive investment with consequences for the transmission of paternal germline effects. In the current report, using embryo transfer in mice, we demonstrate that sperm factors in adult food restricted males can influence growth rate, hypothalamic gene expression and behaviour in female offspring. However, under natural mating conditions females mated with food restricted males show increased pre- and postnatal care, and phenotypic outcomes observed during embryo transfer conditions are absent or reversed. We demonstrate that these compensatory changes in maternal investment are associated with a reduced mate preference for food restricted males and elevated gene expression within the maternal hypothalamus. Therefore, paternal experience can influence offspring development via germline inheritance, but mothers can serve as a modulating factor in determining the impact of paternal influences on offspring development.

Paternal chromosome loss and metabolic crisis contribute to hybrid inviability in Xenopus

Hybridization of eggs and sperm from closely related species can give rise to genetic diversity, or can lead to embryo inviability owing to incompatibility. Although central to evolution, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying post-zygotic barriers that drive reproductive isolation and speciation remain largely unknown. Species of the African clawed frog Xenopus provide an ideal system to study hybridization and genome evolution. Xenopus laevis is an allotetraploid with 36 chromosomes that arose through interspecific hybridization of diploid progenitors, whereas Xenopus tropicalis is a diploid with 20 chromosomes that diverged from a common ancestor approximately 48 million years ago. Differences in genome size between the two species are accompanied by organism size differences, and size scaling of the egg and subcellular structures such as nuclei and spindles formed in egg extracts. Nevertheless, early development transcriptional programs, gene expression patterns, and protein sequences are generally conserved. Whereas the hybrid produced when X. laevis eggs are fertilized by X. tropicalis sperm is viable, the reverse hybrid dies before gastrulation. Here we apply cell biological tools and high-throughput methods to study the mechanisms underlying hybrid inviability. We reveal that two specific X. laevis chromosomes are incompatible with the X. tropicalis cytoplasm and are mis-segregated during mitosis, leading to unbalanced gene expression at the maternal to zygotic transition, followed by cell-autonomous catastrophic embryo death. These results reveal a cellular mechanism underlying hybrid incompatibility that is driven by genome evolution and contributes to the process by which biological populations become distinct species.

Partitioning Phenotypic Variance Due to Parent-of-Origin Effects Using Genomic Relatedness Matrices

We propose a new method, G-REMLadp, to estimate the phenotypic variance explained by parent-of-origin effects (POEs) across the genome. Our method uses restricted maximum likelihood analysis of genome-wide genetic relatedness matrices based on individuals' phased genotypes. Genome-wide SNP data from parent child duos or trios is required to obtain relatedness matrices indexing the parental origin of offspring alleles, as well as offspring phenotype data to partition the trait variation into variance components. To calibrate the power of G-REMLadp to detect non-null POEs when they are present, we provide an analytic approximation derived from Haseman-Elston regression. We also used simulated data to quantify the power and Type I Error rates of G-REMLadp, as well as the sensitivity of its variance component estimates to violations of underlying assumptions. We subsequently applied G-REMLadp to 36 phenotypes in a sample of individuals from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). We found that the method does not seem to be inherently biased in estimating variance due to POEs, and that substantial correlation between parental genotypes is necessary to generate biased estimates. Our empirical results, power calculations and simulations indicate that sample sizes over 10000 unrelated parent-offspring duos will be necessary to detect POEs explaining < 10% of the variance with moderate power. We conclude that POEs tagged by our genetic relationship matrices are unlikely to explain large proportions of the phenotypic variance (i.e. > 15%) for the 36 traits that we have examined.

Maternal and paternal periconceptional nutrition as an indicator of offspring metabolic syndrome risk in later life through epigenetic imprinting: A systematic review

AIMS

This review examined whether maternal and paternal periconceptional nutrition effects an offspring's likelihood of developing chronic metabolic related conditions due to epigenetic imprinting.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted in multiple science databases and limited to studies published after 2012, in English language and peer reviewed. The data from selected articles were extracted and a qualitative approach was employed due to heterogeneity of results.

RESULTS

Newborns from obese fathers showed altered methylation overall and significant hypomethylation at the Insulin-like Growth Factor 2 (IGF2) gene. High maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) was associated with altered offspring DNA methylation levels and gestational diabetes mellitus induced significantly increased methylation levels in offspring. Gestational weight gain was not associated with differentially methylated cord blood. Birth weight was higher in offspring exposed to famine in early gestation. Offspring born post maternal bariatric surgery showed a lower percentage of body fat and improved fasting insulin levels compared to siblings born pre-maternal bariatric surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

The available evidence suggests that poor maternal and paternal periconceptional nutrition can increase the risk of metabolic syndrome in offspring, through epigenetic imprinting. Potential parents should be advised that maintaining a healthy diet and BMI is likely to reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome in offspring.

Paternity assignment in the polyploid Acipenser dabryanus based on a novel microsatellite marker system

Acipenser dabryanus is listed as a Critical Endangered species in the IUCN Red List and the first class protected animals in China. Fortunately, A. dabryanus specimens are being successfully bred in captivity for conservation. However, for effective ex situ conservation, we should be aware of the genetic diversity and the degree of relatedness of the individuals selected for breeding. In this study, we aimed at the development of novel and reliable microsatellites used for the genetic study of A. dabryanus. A total of 14,321 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were detected by transcriptome sequencing and screening. We selected 20 novel and polymorphic microsatellites (non-dinucleotide) with good repeatability from the 100 tested loci for a subsequent genetic and paternity study. A set of captive broodstock (F1 stock, n = 43) and their offspring (F2 stock, n = 96) were used to examine the efficiency of the 20 SSRs for assigning parentage to offspring, with an allocation success of 91.7%. We also found that only a few families predominantly contributed to the progeny produced by the 43 breeders. In addition, mitochondrial DNA data showed that the captive broodstock (F1 individuals) had an excellent probability of the same lineage, implying that a high level of inbreeding may have occurred in these individuals. Our research provides useful information on genetic diversity and reproductive pattern of A. dabryanus, and the 20 SSRs developed in this study can be applied to the future breeding program to avoid inbreeding for this stock or other related species of Acipenseriformes.

Grand paternal inheritance of X-linked myotubular myopathy due to mosaicism, and identification of necklace fibers in an asymptomatic male

X-linked recessive myotubular myopathy (XLMTM) is a disorder associated with mutations in the myotubularin gene (MTM1) that usually affects boys, with transmission of the mutated allele from the mother. Here we describe a family with unexpected grand paternal transmission of a novel mutation in MTM1 (c.646_648dupGTT; p.Val216dup) identified in a severely affected infant boy with a centronuclear myopathy. We confirmed the carrier status of the mother, but surprisingly we found that her father was a carrier of the mutated MTM1 gene together with wild-type MTM1. A muscle biopsy from the grandfather revealed occasional typical necklace fibers with internalized nucleus, which is typically found in MTM1-associated myopathies. Further analysis of the grandfather revealed equal amounts of DNA with the wild-type sequence and DNA with the c.646_648dupGTT variant in five different tissues examined. In the presence of a normal karyotype (46,XY) in the grandfather and no evidence of intragenic duplication of MTM1, the result was interpreted as postzygotic mosaicism and the mutation had probably occurred at the first mitosis of the zygote. This study demonstrates the importance of considering the possibility of paternal transmission in families with severe X-linked disorders. The muscle biopsy with the finding of typical necklace fibers was important to further establish the pathogenicity of the novel MTM1 mutation.

Paternally Inherited DLK1 Deletion Associated With Familial Central Precocious Puberty

CONTEXT

Central precocious puberty (CPP) results from premature activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Few genetic causes of CPP have been identified, with the most common being mutations in the paternally expressed imprinted gene MKRN3.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the genetic etiology of CPP in a large multigenerational family.

DESIGN

Linkage analysis followed by whole-genome sequencing was performed in a family with five female members with nonsyndromic CPP. Detailed phenotyping was performed at the time of initial diagnosis and long-term follow-up, and circulating levels of Delta-like 1 homolog (DLK1) were measured in affected individuals. Expression of DLK1 was measured in mouse hypothalamus and in kisspeptin-secreting neuronal cell lines in vitro.

SETTING

Endocrine clinic of an academic medical center.

PATIENTS

Patients with familial CPP were studied.

RESULTS

A complex defect of DLK1 (∼14-kb deletion and 269-bp duplication) was identified in this family. This deletion included the 5' untranslated region and the first exon of DLK1, including the translational start site. Only family members who inherited the defect from their father have precocious puberty, consistent with the known imprinting of DLK1. The patients did not demonstrate additional features of the imprinted disorder Temple syndrome except for increased fat mass. Serum DLK1 levels were undetectable in all affected individuals. Dlk1 was expressed in mouse hypothalamus and in kisspeptin neuron-derived cell lines.

CONCLUSION

We identified a genomic defect in DLK1 associated with isolated familial CPP. MKRN3 and DLK1 are both paternally expressed imprinted genes. These findings suggest a role of genomic imprinting in regulating the timing of human puberty.

Single-nucleus Hi-C reveals unique chromatin reorganization at oocyte-to-zygote transition

Chromatin is reprogrammed after fertilization to produce a totipotent zygote with the potential to generate a new organism. The maternal genome inherited from the oocyte and the paternal genome provided by sperm coexist as separate haploid nuclei in the zygote. How these two epigenetically distinct genomes are spatially organized is poorly understood. Existing chromosome conformation capture-based methods are not applicable to oocytes and zygotes owing to a paucity of material. To study three-dimensional chromatin organization in rare cell types, we developed a single-nucleus Hi-C (high-resolution chromosome conformation capture) protocol that provides greater than tenfold more contacts per cell than the previous method. Here we show that chromatin architecture is uniquely reorganized during the oocyte-to-zygote transition in mice and is distinct in paternal and maternal nuclei within single-cell zygotes. Features of genomic organization including compartments, topologically associating domains (TADs) and loops are present in individual oocytes when averaged over the genome, but the presence of each feature at a locus varies between cells. At the sub-megabase level, we observed stochastic clusters of contacts that can occur across TAD boundaries but average into TADs. Notably, we found that TADs and loops, but not compartments, are present in zygotic maternal chromatin, suggesting that these are generated by different mechanisms. Our results demonstrate that the global chromatin organization of zygote nuclei is fundamentally different from that of other interphase cells. An understanding of this zygotic chromatin 'ground state' could potentially provide insights into reprogramming cells to a state of totipotency.

Who's your daddy?: paternal inheritance of metabolic disease risk

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Although the importance of optimizing mothers' health prior to conception and during pregnancy is now well accepted, recent data also implicate health and nutritional status of fathers as contributors to chronic disease risk in their progeny. This brief review will highlight recent epidemiological and experimental studies linking paternal overnutrition, undernutrition, and other forms of stress, to metabolic disease in the offspring.

RECENT FINDINGS

The past 2 years have brought tremendous insights into the mechanisms by which paternal exposures can contribute to disease susceptibility in the next generation. Recent data, both from humans and experimental models, demonstrate that paternal obesity and undernutrition result in epigenetic reprogramming of male germ cells, notably altered DNA methylation, histone retention, and expression of small noncoding RNAs and transfer RNA fragments. Novel mechanisms have also been identified, such as epididymal transport vesicles, seminal fluid hormones and metabolites, and a unique seminal fluid microbiome.

SUMMARY

Paternal nutritional and other perturbations are linked to risk of metabolic disease and obesity in offspring. Germ cell-dependent mechanisms have recently been linked to these intergenerational effects. Nongenetic, paternal inheritance of chronic disease has important implications for public health, and may provide novel opportunities for multigenerational disease prevention.

Maintenance of Xist Imprinting Depends on Chromatin Condensation State and Rnf12 Dosage in Mice

In female mammals, activation of Xist (X-inactive specific transcript) is essential for establishment of X chromosome inactivation. During early embryonic development in mice, paternal Xist is preferentially expressed whereas maternal Xist (Xm-Xist) is silenced. Unlike autosomal imprinted genes, Xist imprinting for Xm-Xist silencing was erased in cloned or parthenogenetic but not fertilized embryos. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the variable nature of Xm-Xist imprinting is poorly understood. Here, we revealed that Xm-Xist silencing depends on chromatin condensation states at the Xist/Tsix genomic region and on Rnf12 expression levels. In early preimplantation, chromatin decondensation via H3K9me3 loss and histone acetylation gain caused Xm-Xist derepression irrespective of embryo type. Although the presence of the paternal genome during pronuclear formation impeded Xm-Xist derepression, Xm-Xist was robustly derepressed when the maternal genome was decondensed before fertilization. Once Xm-Xist was derepressed by chromatin alterations, the derepression was stably maintained and rescued XmXp^Δ lethality, indicating that loss of Xm-Xist imprinting was irreversible. In late preimplantation, Oct4 served as a chromatin opener to create transcriptional permissive states at Xm-Xist/Tsix genomic loci. In parthenogenetic embryos, Rnf12 overdose caused Xm-Xist derepression via Xm-Tsix repression; physiological Rnf12 levels were essential for Xm-Xist silencing maintenance in fertilized embryos. Thus, chromatin condensation and fine-tuning of Rnf12 dosage were crucial for Xist imprint maintenance by silencing Xm-Xist.

X-inactive specific transcript (Xist) is essential a large non-coding RNA for establishment of X chromosome inactivation in female mammals. The aberrant X chromosome inactivation critically affects cellular viability. Therefore, spatiotemporal regulation of Xist expression is required for proper development. In mice, Xist expression is imprinted in early embryonic development and maternal Xist is never expressed during preimplantation phases irrespective of the presence of Xist activator, maternal Rnf12. Generally, parental origin-specific expression pattern of autosomal imprinted genes is maintained in various types of embryos. However, Xist imprinting for transcriptional silencing of maternal Xist was erased in cloned or parthenogenetic but not fertilized embryos. Here, we dissect the molecular mechanism underlying the variable nature of Xist imprinting. We show that in fertilized embryos, chromatin condensation states are essential maternal Xist repression in early preimplantation phases, whereas at late preimplantation stages, pluripotency factor Oct4 serves as a chromatin opener and the maintenance of Xist silencing depends on Rnf12 expression dosage. Although the Oct4 mediated chromatin decondensation also occurs in parthenogetic embryos, Rnf12 overdose causes maternal Xist derepression at late preimplantation phases. Thus these findings reveal that the chromatin regulation by pluripotency factor and Xist activator dose define Xist imprinting state.

Round Spermatid Injection Rescues Female Lethality of a Paternally Inherited Xist Deletion in Mouse

In mouse female preimplantation embryos, the paternal X chromosome (Xp) is silenced by imprinted X chromosome inactivation (iXCI). This requires production of the noncoding Xist RNA in cis, from the Xp. The Xist locus on the maternally inherited X chromosome (Xm) is refractory to activation due to the presence of an imprint. Paternal inheritance of an Xist deletion (XpΔXist) is embryonic lethal to female embryos, due to iXCI abolishment. Here, we circumvented the histone-to-protamine and protamine-to-histone transitions of the paternal genome, by fertilization of oocytes via injection of round spermatids (ROSI). This did not affect initiation of XCI in wild type female embryos. Surprisingly, ROSI using ΔXist round spermatids allowed survival of female embryos. This was accompanied by activation of the intact maternal Xist gene, initiated with delayed kinetics, around the morula stage, resulting in Xm silencing. Maternal Xist gene activation was not observed in ROSI-derived males. In addition, no Xist expression was detected in male and female morulas that developed from oocytes fertilized with mature ΔXist sperm. Finally, the expression of the X-encoded XCI-activator RNF12 was enhanced in both male (wild type) and female (wild type as well as XpΔXist) ROSI derived embryos, compared to in vivo fertilized embryos. Thus, high RNF12 levels may contribute to the specific activation of maternal Xist in XpΔXist female ROSI embryos, but upregulation of additional Xp derived factors and/or the specific epigenetic constitution of the round spermatid-derived Xp are expected to be more critical. These results illustrate the profound impact of a dysregulated paternal epigenome on embryo development, and we propose that mouse ROSI can be used as a model to study the effects of intergenerational inheritance of epigenetic marks.

Paternal High Fat Diet in Rats Leads to Renal Accumulation of Lipid and Tubular Changes in Adult Offspring

Along with diabetes and obesity, chronic kidney disease (CKD) is increasing across the globe. Although some data support an effect of maternal obesity on offspring kidney, the impact of paternal obesity is unknown; thus, we have studied the effect of paternal obesity prior to conception. Male Sprague Dawley rats were fed chow diet or high fat diet (HFD) for 13-14 weeks before mating with chow-fed females. Male offspring were weaned onto chow and killed at 27 weeks for renal gene expression and histology. Fathers on HFD were 30% heavier than Controls at mating. At 27 weeks of age offspring of obese fathers weighed 10% less; kidney triglyceride content was significantly increased (5.35 ± 0.84 vs. 2.99 ± 0.47 μg/mg, p < 0.05, n = 8 litters per group. Histological analysis of the kidney demonstrated signs of tubule damage, with significantly greater loss of brush border, and increased cell sloughing in offspring of obese compared to Control fathers. Acat1, involved in entry of fatty acid for beta-oxidation, was significantly upregulated, possibly to counteract increased triglyceride storage. However other genes involved in lipid metabolism, inflammation and kidney injury showed no changes. Paternal obesity was associated with renal triglyceride accumulation and histological changes in tubules, suggesting a mild renal insult in offspring, who may be at risk of developing CKD.

Parental Origin of Interstitial Duplications at 15q11.2-q13.3 in Schizophrenia and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Duplications at 15q11.2-q13.3 overlapping the Prader-Willi/Angelman syndrome (PWS/AS) region have been associated with developmental delay (DD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia (SZ). Due to presence of imprinted genes within the region, the parental origin of these duplications may be key to the pathogenicity. Duplications of maternal origin are associated with disease, whereas the pathogenicity of paternal ones is unclear. To clarify the role of maternal and paternal duplications, we conducted the largest and most detailed study to date of parental origin of 15q11.2-q13.3 interstitial duplications in DD, ASD and SZ cohorts. We show, for the first time, that paternal duplications lead to an increased risk of developing DD/ASD/multiple congenital anomalies (MCA), but do not appear to increase risk for SZ. The importance of the epigenetic status of 15q11.2-q13.3 duplications was further underlined by analysis of a number of families, in which the duplication was paternally derived in the mother, who was unaffected, whereas her offspring, who inherited a maternally derived duplication, suffered from psychotic illness. Interestingly, the most consistent clinical characteristics of SZ patients with 15q11.2-q13.3 duplications were learning or developmental problems, found in 76% of carriers. Despite their lower pathogenicity, paternal duplications are less frequent in the general population with a general population prevalence of 0.0033% compared to 0.0069% for maternal duplications. This may be due to lower fecundity of male carriers and differential survival of embryos, something echoed in the findings that both types of duplications are de novo in just over 50% of cases. Isodicentric chromosome 15 (idic15) or interstitial triplications were not observed in SZ patients or in controls. Overall, this study refines the distinct roles of maternal and paternal interstitial duplications at 15q11.2-q13.3, underlining the critical importance of maternally expressed imprinted genes in the contribution of Copy Number Variants (CNVs) at this interval to the incidence of psychotic illness. This work will have tangible benefits for patients with 15q11.2-q13.3 duplications by aiding genetic counseling.

The genetic interval 15q11.2-q13.3 on human chromosome 15 contains several so-called “imprinted genes” which are subject to epigenetic marking leading to activity from only one parental copy. This is in contrast to non-imprinted genes, whose activity is independent of their parent-of-origin. Deletions affecting the 15q11.2-q13.3 interval cause Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes (PWS/AS), depending on whether the deletions are paternally or maternally derived respectively. Duplications at the PWS/AS interval region may also lead to neurodevelopmental disorders, including developmental delay (DD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia (SZ). Due to presence of imprinted genes within the region, the parental origin of these duplications may be key to the pathogenicity. We show, for the first time, that paternal duplications lead to an increased risk of developing DD/ASD/multiple congenital anomalies (MCA) but, unlike maternal duplication, do not appear to increase risk for SZ. This study refines the distinct roles of maternal and paternal duplications at 15q11.2-q13.3, underlining the critical importance of maternally active imprinted genes in the contribution to the incidence of psychotic illness. This work will have tangible benefits for patients with 15q11.2-q13.3 duplications by aiding genetic counseling.