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Kapheim KM, Pan H, Li C, Salzberg SL, Puiu D, Magoc T, Robertson HM, Hudson ME, Venkat A, Fischman BJ, Hernandez A, Yandell M, Ence D, Holt C, Yocum GD, Kemp WP, Bosch J, Waterhouse RM, Zdobnov EM, Stolle E, Kraus FB, Helbing S, Moritz RFA, Glastad KM, Hunt BG, Goodisman MAD, Hauser F, Grimmelikhuijzen CJP, Pinheiro DG, Nunes FMF, Soares MPM, Tanaka ÉD, Simões ZLP, Hartfelder K, Evans JD, Barribeau SM, Johnson RM, Massey JH, Southey BR, Hasselmann M, Hamacher D, Biewer M, Kent CF, Zayed A, Blatti C, Sinha S, Johnston JS, Hanrahan SJ, Kocher SD, Wang J, Robinson GE, Zhang G. Social evolution. Genomic signatures of evolutionary transitions from solitary to group living. Science 2015; 348:1139-43. [PMID: 25977371 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa4788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of eusociality is one of the major transitions in evolution, but the underlying genomic changes are unknown. We compared the genomes of 10 bee species that vary in social complexity, representing multiple independent transitions in social evolution, and report three major findings. First, many important genes show evidence of neutral evolution as a consequence of relaxed selection with increasing social complexity. Second, there is no single road map to eusociality; independent evolutionary transitions in sociality have independent genetic underpinnings. Third, though clearly independent in detail, these transitions do have similar general features, including an increase in constrained protein evolution accompanied by increases in the potential for gene regulation and decreases in diversity and abundance of transposable elements. Eusociality may arise through different mechanisms each time, but would likely always involve an increase in the complexity of gene networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen M Kapheim
- Carl R. WoeseInstitute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA.
| | - Hailin Pan
- China National GeneBank, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083, China
| | - Cai Li
- China National GeneBank, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083, China. Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1350, Denmark
| | - Steven L Salzberg
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Computer Science, and Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA. Center for Computational Biology, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Daniela Puiu
- Center for Computational Biology, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Tanja Magoc
- Center for Computational Biology, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Hugh M Robertson
- Carl R. WoeseInstitute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Matthew E Hudson
- Carl R. WoeseInstitute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Aarti Venkat
- Carl R. WoeseInstitute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Brielle J Fischman
- Carl R. WoeseInstitute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Biology, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY 14456, USA
| | - Alvaro Hernandez
- Roy J. Carver Biotechnology Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Mark Yandell
- Department of Human Genetics, Eccles Institute of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA. USTAR Center for Genetic Discovery, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Daniel Ence
- Department of Human Genetics, Eccles Institute of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Carson Holt
- Department of Human Genetics, Eccles Institute of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA. USTAR Center for Genetic Discovery, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - George D Yocum
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) Red River Valley Agricultural Research Center, Biosciences Research Laboratory, Fargo, ND 58102, USA
| | - William P Kemp
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) Red River Valley Agricultural Research Center, Biosciences Research Laboratory, Fargo, ND 58102, USA
| | - Jordi Bosch
- Center for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications (CREAF), Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Robert M Waterhouse
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, University of Geneva Medical School, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland. Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland. Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA 02139, USA. The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Evgeny M Zdobnov
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, University of Geneva Medical School, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland. Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Eckart Stolle
- Institute of Biology, Department Zoology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Hoher Weg 4, D-06099 Halle (Saale), Germany. Queen Mary University of London, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences Organismal Biology Research Group, London E1 4NS, UK
| | - F Bernhard Kraus
- Institute of Biology, Department Zoology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Hoher Weg 4, D-06099 Halle (Saale), Germany. Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Halle, Ernst Grube Strasse 40, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Sophie Helbing
- Institute of Biology, Department Zoology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Hoher Weg 4, D-06099 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Robin F A Moritz
- Institute of Biology, Department Zoology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Hoher Weg 4, D-06099 Halle (Saale), Germany. German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), Halle-Jena-Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Karl M Glastad
- School of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Brendan G Hunt
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA 30223, USA
| | | | - Frank Hauser
- Center for Functional and Comparative Insect Genomics, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Cornelis J P Grimmelikhuijzen
- Center for Functional and Comparative Insect Genomics, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Daniel Guariz Pinheiro
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil. Departamento de Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 14884-900 Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Francis Morais Franco Nunes
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, 13565-905 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Michelle Prioli Miranda Soares
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Érica Donato Tanaka
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Zilá Luz Paulino Simões
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Klaus Hartfelder
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Jay D Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Lab, Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Seth M Barribeau
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Reed M Johnson
- Department of Entomology, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
| | - Jonathan H Massey
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Bruce R Southey
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Martin Hasselmann
- Department of Population Genomics, Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Breeding, University of Hohenheim, Germany
| | - Daniel Hamacher
- Department of Population Genomics, Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Breeding, University of Hohenheim, Germany
| | - Matthias Biewer
- Department of Population Genomics, Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Breeding, University of Hohenheim, Germany
| | - Clement F Kent
- Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada. Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institue, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Amro Zayed
- Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Charles Blatti
- Carl R. WoeseInstitute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Saurabh Sinha
- Carl R. WoeseInstitute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - J Spencer Johnston
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Shawn J Hanrahan
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Sarah D Kocher
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Jun Wang
- China National GeneBank, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083, China. Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark. Princess Al Jawhara Center of Excellence in the Research of Hereditary Disorders, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia. Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai long, Taipa, Macau 999078, China. Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
| | - Gene E Robinson
- Carl R. WoeseInstitute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. Center for Advanced Study Professor in Entomology and Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
| | - Guojie Zhang
- China National GeneBank, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083, China. Centre for Social Evolution, Department of Biology, Universitetsparken 15, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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102
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Guo J, Wu J, Chen Y, Evans JD, Dai R, Luo W, Li J. Characterization of gut bacteria at different developmental stages of Asian honey bees, Apis cerana. J Invertebr Pathol 2015; 127:110-4. [PMID: 25805518 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2015.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 03/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Previous surveys have shown that adult workers of the Asian honey bee Apis cerana harbor four major gut microbes (Bifidobacterium, Snodgrassella alvi, Gilliamella apicola, and Lactobacillus). Using quantitative PCR we characterized gut bacterial communities across the life cycle of A. cerana from larvae to workers. Our results indicate that the presence and quantity of these four bacteria were low on day 1, increased rapidly after day 5, and then peaked during days 10-20. They stabilized from days 20-25 or days 25-30, then dropped to a low level at day 30. In addition, the larvae infected by Sacbrood virus or European foulbrood had significantly lower copies of 16S rRNA genes than healthy individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Guo
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100093, China; Institute of Economic Animals, Chongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, Chongqing 402460, China
| | - Jie Wu
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100093, China.
| | - Yanping Chen
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Jay D Evans
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Rongguo Dai
- Institute of Economic Animals, Chongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, Chongqing 402460, China
| | - Wenhua Luo
- Institute of Economic Animals, Chongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, Chongqing 402460, China
| | - Jilian Li
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100093, China.
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103
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Schwarz RS, Bauchan GR, Murphy CA, Ravoet J, de Graaf DC, Evans JD. Characterization of Two Species of Trypanosomatidae from the Honey Bee Apis mellifera: Crithidia mellificae Langridge and McGhee, and Lotmaria passim n. gen., n. sp. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2015; 62:567-83. [PMID: 25712037 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2014] [Revised: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 12/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosomatids are increasingly recognized as prevalent in European honey bees (Apis mellifera) and by default are attributed to one recognized species, Crithidia mellificae Langridge and McGhee, 1967. We provide reference genetic and ultrastructural data for type isolates of C. mellificae (ATCC 30254 and 30862) in comparison with two recent isolates from A. mellifera (BRL and SF). Phylogenetics unambiguously identify strains BRL/SF as a novel taxonomic unit distinct from C. mellificae strains 30254/30862 and assign all four strains as lineages of a novel clade within the subfamily Leishmaniinae. In vivo analyses show strains BRL/SF preferably colonize the hindgut, lining the lumen as adherent spheroids in a manner identical to previous descriptions from C. mellificae. Microscopy images show motile forms of C. mellificae are distinct from strains BRL/SF. We propose the binomial Lotmaria passim n. gen., n. sp. for this previously undescribed taxon. Analyses of new and previously accessioned genetic data show C. mellificae is still extant in bee populations, however, L. passim n. gen., n. sp. is currently the predominant trypanosomatid in A. mellifera globally. Our findings require that previous reports of C. mellificae be reconsidered and that subsequent trypanosomatid species designations from Hymenoptera provide genetic support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S Schwarz
- Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center - East, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bldg 306, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Gary R Bauchan
- Electron and Confocal Microscopy Unit, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center - West, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bldg 012, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Charles A Murphy
- Electron and Confocal Microscopy Unit, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center - West, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bldg 012, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Jorgen Ravoet
- Laboratory of Zoophysiology, Faculty of Science, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Dirk C de Graaf
- Laboratory of Zoophysiology, Faculty of Science, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jay D Evans
- Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center - East, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bldg 306, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
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104
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Abstract
Honey bees face numerous biotic threats from viruses to bacteria, fungi, protists, and mites. Here we describe a thorough analysis of microbes harbored by worker honey bees collected from field colonies in geographically distinct regions of Turkey. Turkey is one of the World's most important centers of apiculture, harboring five subspecies of Apis mellifera L., approximately 20% of the honey bee subspecies in the world. We use deep ILLUMINA-based RNA sequencing to capture RNA species for the honey bee and a sampling of all non-endogenous species carried by bees. After trimming and mapping these reads to the honey bee genome, approximately 10% of the sequences (9–10 million reads per library) remained. These were then mapped to a curated set of public sequences containing ca. Sixty megabase-pairs of sequence representing known microbial species associated with honey bees. Levels of key honey bee pathogens were confirmed using quantitative PCR screens. We contrast microbial matches across different sites in Turkey, showing new country recordings of Lake Sinai virus, two Spiroplasma bacterium species, symbionts Candidatus Schmidhempelia bombi, Frischella perrara, Snodgrassella alvi, Gilliamella apicola, Lactobacillus spp.), neogregarines, and a trypanosome species. By using metagenomic analysis, this study also reveals deep molecular evidence for the presence of bacterial pathogens (Melissococcus plutonius, Paenibacillus larvae), Varroa destructor-1 virus, Sacbrood virus, and fungi. Despite this effort we did not detect KBV, SBPV, Tobacco ringspot virus, VdMLV (Varroa Macula like virus), Acarapis spp., Tropilaeleps spp. and Apocephalus (phorid fly). We discuss possible impacts of management practices and honey bee subspecies on microbial retinues. The described workflow and curated microbial database will be generally useful for microbial surveys of healthy and declining honey bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cansu Ö Tozkar
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University Ankara, Turkey
| | - Meral Kence
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University Ankara, Turkey
| | - Aykut Kence
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University Ankara, Turkey
| | - Qiang Huang
- Bee Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Jay D Evans
- Bee Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service Beltsville, MD, USA
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105
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Jacob R, Branton SL, Evans JD, Leigh SA, Peebles ED. Effects of different vaccine combinations against Mycoplasma gallisepticum on the internal egg and eggshell characteristics of commercial layer chickens 1,2,3. Poult Sci 2015; 94:912-7. [PMID: 25701207 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pev060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Live F-strain Mycoplasma gallisepticum (FMG) vaccines are presently being used to help control field-strain MG outbreaks. However, they may exert some adverse effects on egg production. Live strains of MG of lesser virulence as well as killed vaccines have little or no effect on egg production, but afford lower levels of protection. This has led to research investigating their use in combination with a subsequent overlay vaccination of FMG given later in the production cycle. In the present study, 2 trials were conducted to investigate the effects of prelay vaccinations of live and killed MG vaccines or their combination, in conjunction with an FMG vaccine overlay after peak production, on the egg characteristics of commercial layers. The following vaccination treatments were administered at 10 wk of age (woa): 1) unvaccinated (Control), 2) MG-Bacterin (MGBac) vaccine, 3) ts-11 strain MG (ts11MG) vaccine, and 4) MGBac and ts11MG combination (MGBac + ts11MG). At 45 woa, half of the birds were overlaid with an FMG vaccine. In each trial, internal egg and eggshell parameters including egg weight (EW), Haugh unit score (HU), eggshell breaking strength (EBS), percentage yolk weight (PYW), percentage albumen weight (PAW), percentage eggshell weight (PSW), eggshell weight per unit surface area (SWUSA), percentage yolk moisture (PYM), and percent total lipids (PYL) were determined at various time periods between 21 and 52 woa. At 28 woa, SWUSA was lower in the ts11MG and MGBac + ts11MG groups compared to the Control group. Conversely, at 43 woa, SWUSA was higher in the ts11MG than in the MGBac group. Between 23 and 43 woa, PYL was higher in the MGBac and ts11MG groups in comparison to the Control group. In conclusion, vaccination with MGBac alone or in combination with ts11MG at 10 woa with or without an FMG vaccine overlay at 45 woa does not adversely affect the internal egg or eggshell quality of commercial layers throughout lay.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Jacob
- Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State 39762
| | - S L Branton
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Poultry Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762
| | - J D Evans
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Poultry Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762
| | - S A Leigh
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Poultry Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762
| | - E D Peebles
- Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State 39762
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106
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Chen YP, Pettis JS, Corona M, Chen WP, Li CJ, Spivak M, Visscher PK, DeGrandi-Hoffman G, Boncristiani H, Zhao Y, vanEngelsdorp D, Delaplane K, Solter L, Drummond F, Kramer M, Lipkin WI, Palacios G, Hamilton MC, Smith B, Huang SK, Zheng HQ, Li JL, Zhang X, Zhou AF, Wu LY, Zhou JZ, Lee ML, Teixeira EW, Li ZG, Evans JD. Israeli acute paralysis virus: epidemiology, pathogenesis and implications for honey bee health. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004261. [PMID: 25079600 PMCID: PMC4117608 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) is a widespread RNA virus of honey bees that has been linked with colony losses. Here we describe the transmission, prevalence, and genetic traits of this virus, along with host transcriptional responses to infections. Further, we present RNAi-based strategies for limiting an important mechanism used by IAPV to subvert host defenses. Our study shows that IAPV is established as a persistent infection in honey bee populations, likely enabled by both horizontal and vertical transmission pathways. The phenotypic differences in pathology among different strains of IAPV found globally may be due to high levels of standing genetic variation. Microarray profiles of host responses to IAPV infection revealed that mitochondrial function is the most significantly affected biological process, suggesting that viral infection causes significant disturbance in energy-related host processes. The expression of genes involved in immune pathways in adult bees indicates that IAPV infection triggers active immune responses. The evidence that silencing an IAPV-encoded putative suppressor of RNAi reduces IAPV replication suggests a functional assignment for a particular genomic region of IAPV and closely related viruses from the Family Dicistroviridae, and indicates a novel therapeutic strategy for limiting multiple honey bee viruses simultaneously and reducing colony losses due to viral diseases. We believe that the knowledge and insights gained from this study will provide a new platform for continuing studies of the IAPV–host interactions and have positive implications for disease management that will lead to mitigation of escalating honey bee colony losses worldwide. The mysterious outbreak of honey bee Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in the US in 2006–2007 has attracted massive media attention and created great concerns over the effects of various risk factors on bee health. Understanding the factors that are linked to the honey bee colony declines may provide insights for managing similar incidents in the future. We conducted this study to elucidate traits of a key honey bee virus, Israeli acute paralysis virus. We then developed an innovative strategy to control virus levels. The knowledge and insights gained from this study will have positive implications for bee disease management, helping to mitigate worldwide colony losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Ping Chen
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, BARC-East Building, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jeffery S. Pettis
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, BARC-East Building, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Miguel Corona
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, BARC-East Building, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Wei Ping Chen
- Microarray Core Facility, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Cong Jun Li
- USDA-ARS Bovine Functional Genomic Laboratory, BARC-East Building, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Marla Spivak
- Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - P. Kirk Visscher
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | | | - Humberto Boncristiani
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Yan Zhao
- USDA-ARS Molecular Plant Pathology Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Dennis vanEngelsdorp
- Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Keith Delaplane
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Leellen Solter
- Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Francis Drummond
- School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, United States of America
| | - Matthew Kramer
- USDA-ARS Biometrical Consulting Services, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - W. Ian Lipkin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Gustavo Palacios
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Disease, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Michele C. Hamilton
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, BARC-East Building, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Barton Smith
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, BARC-East Building, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shao Kang Huang
- College of Bee Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People‚s Republic of China
| | - Huo Qing Zheng
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People‚s Republic of China
| | - Ji Lian Li
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, People‚s Republic of China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Eastern Bee Research Institute, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, People‚s Republic of China
| | - Ai Fen Zhou
- Institute for Environmental Genomics (IEG), University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Li You Wu
- Institute for Environmental Genomics (IEG), University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Ji Zhong Zhou
- Institute for Environmental Genomics (IEG), University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Myeong-L. Lee
- Sericulture and Apiculture Department, National Academy of Agricultural Science, RDA Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Erica W. Teixeira
- Agência Paulista de Tecnologia dos Agronegócios/SAA-SP, Pindamonhangaba, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Zhi Guo Li
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People‚s Republic of China
| | - Jay D. Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, BARC-East Building, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
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Jacob R, Branton SL, Evans JD, Leigh SA, Peebles ED. Effects of live and killed vaccines against Mycoplasma gallisepticum on the performance characteristics of commercial layer chickens. Poult Sci 2014; 93:1403-9. [PMID: 24879690 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2013-03748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Different vaccine strains of Mycoplasma gallisepticum have been used on multiple-age commercial layer farms in an effort to protect birds against virulent field-strain infections. Use of the F-strain of M. gallisepticum (FMG), as an overlay vaccine during lay, may be necessary because of the lower level of protection afforded by M. gallisepticum vaccines of low virulence given before lay. Two replicate trials were conducted to investigate effects of live and killed M. gallisepticum vaccines administered individually and in combination before lay, in conjunction with an FMG vaccine overlay after peak egg production (EP), on the performance characteristics of commercial layers. The following treatments were utilized at 10 wk of age (woa): 1) control (no vaccinations); 2) ts11 strain M. gallisepticum (ts11MG) vaccine; 3) M. gallisepticum-Bacterin vaccine (MG-Bacterin); and 4) ts11MG and MG-Bacterin vaccines combination. At 45 woa, half of the birds were overlaid with an FMG vaccine. Hen mortality, BW, egg weight, percentage hen-day EP, egg blood spots, and egg meat spots were determined at various time periods between 18 and 52 woa. The data from each trial were pooled. Treatment did not affect performance in interval I (23 to 45 woa). However, during interval II (46 to 52 woa), the EP of control and MG-Bacterin-vaccinated birds that later received an FMG vaccine overlay was lower than that in the other treatment groups. Furthermore, treatment application reduced bird BW during interval II. Despite the effects on BW and EP, no differences were observed for egg blood or meat spots among the various treatments. It is suggested that the vaccination of commercial layers before lay with ts11MG, but not MG-Bacterin, may reduce the negative impacts of an FMG overlay vaccination given during lay. These results establish that the vaccination of pullets with ts11MG in combination with the vaccination of hens with an FMG overlay, for continual protection against field-strain M. gallisepticum infections, may be used without suppressing performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Jacob
- Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State 39762
| | - S L Branton
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Poultry Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762
| | - J D Evans
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Poultry Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762
| | - S A Leigh
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Poultry Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762
| | - E D Peebles
- Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State 39762
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Schwarz RS, Teixeira ÉW, Tauber JP, Birke JM, Martins MF, Fonseca I, Evans JD. Honey bee colonies act as reservoirs for two Spiroplasma facultative symbionts and incur complex, multiyear infection dynamics. Microbiologyopen 2014; 3:341-55. [PMID: 24771723 PMCID: PMC4082708 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Two species of Spiroplasma (Mollicutes) bacteria were isolated from and described as pathogens of the European honey bee, Apis mellifera, ~30 years ago but recent information on them is lacking despite global concern to understand bee population declines. Here we provide a comprehensive survey for the prevalence of these two Spiroplasma species in current populations of honey bees using improved molecular diagnostic techniques to assay multiyear colony samples from North America (U.S.A.) and South America (Brazil). Significant annual and seasonal fluctuations of Spiroplasma apis and Spiroplasma melliferum prevalence in colonies from the U.S.A. (n = 616) and Brazil (n = 139) occurred during surveys from 2011 through 2013. Overall, 33% of U.S.A. colonies and 54% of Brazil colonies were infected by Spiroplasma spp., where S. melliferum predominated over S. apis in both countries (25% vs. 14% and 44% vs. 38% frequency, respectively). Colonies were co-infected by both species more frequently than expected in both countries and at a much higher rate in Brazil (52%) compared to the U.S.A. (16.5%). U.S.A. samples showed that both species were prevalent not only during spring, as expected from prior research, but also during other seasons. These findings demonstrate that the model of honey bee spiroplasmas as springtime-restricted pathogens needs to be broadened and their role as occasional pathogens considered in current contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S Schwarz
- Bee Research Lab, U.S. Department of Agriculture, BARC-East Bldg. 306, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, Maryland, 20705
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Cabrera AR, Shirk PD, Teal PEA, Grozinger CM, Evans JD. Examining the role of foraging and malvolio in host-finding behavior in the honey bee parasite, Varroa destructor (Anderson & Trueman). Arch Insect Biochem Physiol 2014; 85:61-75. [PMID: 24375502 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
When a female varroa mite, Varroa destructor (Anderson & Trueman), invades a honey bee brood cell, the physiology rapidly changes from feeding phoretic to reproductive. Changes in foraging and malvolio transcript levels in the brain have been associated with modulated intra-specific food searching behaviors in insects and other invertebrates. Transcription profiles for both genes were examined during and immediately following brood cell invasion to assess their role as potential control elements. Vdfor and Vdmvl transcripts were found in all organs of varroa mites with the highest Vdfor transcript levels in ovary-lyrate organs and the highest Vdmvl in Malpighian tubules. Changes in transcript levels of Vdfor and Vdmvl in synganglia were not associated with the cell invasion process, remaining comparable between early reproductive mites (collected from the pre-capping brood cells) and phoretic mites. However, Vdfor and Vdmvl transcript levels were lowered by 37 and 53%, respectively, in synganglia from reproductive mites compared to early reproductive mites, but not significantly different to levels in synganglia from phoretic mites. On the other hand, in whole body preparations the Vdfor and Vdmvl had significantly higher levels of transcript in reproductive mites compared to phoretic and early reproductive, mainly due to the presence of both transcripts accumulating in the eggs carried by the ovipositing mite. Varroa mites are a critical component for honey bee population decline and finding varroa mite genes associated with brood cell invasion, reproduction, ion balance and other physiological processes will facilitate development of novel control avenues for this honey bee parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana R Cabrera
- University of Florida, Entomology and Nematology Department, Gainesville, Florida
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110
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Huang SK, Csaki T, Doublet V, Dussaubat C, Evans JD, Gajda AM, Gregorc A, Hamilton MC, Kamler M, Lecocq A, Muz MN, Neumann P, Ozkirim A, Schiesser A, Sohr AR, Tanner G, Tozkar CO, Williams GR, Wu L, Zheng H, Chen YP. Evaluation of cage designs and feeding regimes for honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) laboratory experiments. J Econ Entomol 2014; 107:54-62. [PMID: 24665684 DOI: 10.1603/ec13213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to improve cage systems for maintaining adult honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) workers under in vitro laboratory conditions. To achieve this goal, we experimentally evaluated the impact of different cages, developed by scientists of the international research network COLOSS (Prevention of honey bee COlony LOSSes), on the physiology and survival of honey bees. We identified three cages that promoted good survival of honey bees. The bees from cages that exhibited greater survival had relatively lower titers of deformed wing virus, suggesting that deformed wing virus is a significant marker reflecting stress level and health status of the host. We also determined that a leak- and drip-proof feeder was an integral part of a cage system and a feeder modified from a 20-ml plastic syringe displayed the best result in providing steady food supply to bees. Finally, we also demonstrated that the addition of protein to the bees' diet could significantly increase the level ofvitellogenin gene expression and improve bees' survival. This international collaborative study represents a critical step toward improvement of cage designs and feeding regimes for honey bee laboratory experiments.
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111
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Wheeler DE, Buck NA, Evans JD. Expression of insulin/insulin-like signalling and TOR pathway genes in honey bee caste determination. Insect Mol Biol 2014; 23:113-121. [PMID: 24224645 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The development of queen and worker castes in honey bees is induced by differential nutrition, with future queens and workers receiving diets that are qualitatively and quantitatively different. We monitored the gene expression of 14 genes for components of the insulin/insulin-like signalling and TOR pathways in honey bee larvae from 40-88 h after hatching. We compared normally fed queen and normally fed worker larvae and found that three genes showed expression differences in 40-h-old larvae. Genes that show such early differences in expression may be part of the mechanism that transduces nutrition level into a hormone signal. We then compared changes in expression after shifts in diet with those in normally developing queens and workers. Following a shift to the worker diet, the expression of 9/14 genes was upregulated in comparison with queens. Following a shift to the queen diet, expression of only one gene changed. The honey bee responses may function together as a homeostatic mechanism buffering larvae from caste-disrupting variation in nutrition. The different responses would be part of the canalization of both the queen and worker developmental pathways, and as such, a signature of advanced sociality.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Wheeler
- Department of Entomology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Elsik CG, Worley KC, Bennett AK, Beye M, Camara F, Childers CP, de Graaf DC, Debyser G, Deng J, Devreese B, Elhaik E, Evans JD, Foster LJ, Graur D, Guigo R, Hoff KJ, Holder ME, Hudson ME, Hunt GJ, Jiang H, Joshi V, Khetani RS, Kosarev P, Kovar CL, Ma J, Maleszka R, Moritz RFA, Munoz-Torres MC, Murphy TD, Muzny DM, Newsham IF, Reese JT, Robertson HM, Robinson GE, Rueppell O, Solovyev V, Stanke M, Stolle E, Tsuruda JM, Vaerenbergh MV, Waterhouse RM, Weaver DB, Whitfield CW, Wu Y, Zdobnov EM, Zhang L, Zhu D, Gibbs RA. Finding the missing honey bee genes: lessons learned from a genome upgrade. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:86. [PMID: 24479613 PMCID: PMC4028053 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The first generation of genome sequence assemblies and annotations have had a significant impact upon our understanding of the biology of the sequenced species, the phylogenetic relationships among species, the study of populations within and across species, and have informed the biology of humans. As only a few Metazoan genomes are approaching finished quality (human, mouse, fly and worm), there is room for improvement of most genome assemblies. The honey bee (Apis mellifera) genome, published in 2006, was noted for its bimodal GC content distribution that affected the quality of the assembly in some regions and for fewer genes in the initial gene set (OGSv1.0) compared to what would be expected based on other sequenced insect genomes. Results Here, we report an improved honey bee genome assembly (Amel_4.5) with a new gene annotation set (OGSv3.2), and show that the honey bee genome contains a number of genes similar to that of other insect genomes, contrary to what was suggested in OGSv1.0. The new genome assembly is more contiguous and complete and the new gene set includes ~5000 more protein-coding genes, 50% more than previously reported. About 1/6 of the additional genes were due to improvements to the assembly, and the remaining were inferred based on new RNAseq and protein data. Conclusions Lessons learned from this genome upgrade have important implications for future genome sequencing projects. Furthermore, the improvements significantly enhance genomic resources for the honey bee, a key model for social behavior and essential to global ecology through pollination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine G Elsik
- Division of Animal Sciences, Division of Plant Sciences, and MU Informatics Institute, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
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Cabrera AR, Shirk PD, Duehl AJ, Donohue KV, Grozinger CM, Evans JD, Teal PEA. Genomic organization and reproductive regulation of a large lipid transfer protein in the varroa mite, Varroa destructor (Anderson & Trueman). Insect Mol Biol 2013; 22:505-522. [PMID: 23834736 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The complete genomic region and corresponding transcript of the most abundant protein in phoretic varroa mites, Varroa destructor (Anderson & Trueman), were sequenced and have homology with acarine hemelipoglycoproteins and the large lipid transfer protein (LLTP) super family. The genomic sequence of VdLLTP included 14 introns and the mature transcript coded for a predicted polypeptide of 1575 amino acid residues. VdLLTP shared a minimum of 25% sequence identity with acarine LLTPs. Phylogenetic assessment showed VdLLTP was most closely related to Metaseiulus occidentalis vitellogenin and LLTP proteins of ticks; however, no heme binding by VdLLTP was detected. Analysis of lipids associated with VdLLTP showed that it was a carrier for free and esterified C12 -C22 fatty acids from triglycerides, diacylglycerides and monoacylglycerides. Additionally, cholesterol and β-sitosterol were found as cholesterol esters linked to common fatty acids. Transcript levels of VdLLTP were 42 and 310 times higher in phoretic female mites when compared with males and quiescent deutonymphs, respectively. Coincident with initiation of the reproductive phase, VdLLTP transcript levels declined to a third of those in phoretic female mites. VdLLTP functions as an important lipid transporter and should provide a significant RNA interference target for assessing the control of varroa mites.
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114
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Boncristiani HF, Evans JD, Chen Y, Pettis J, Murphy C, Lopez DL, Simone-Finstrom M, Strand M, Tarpy DR, Rueppell O. In vitro infection of pupae with Israeli acute paralysis virus suggests disturbance of transcriptional homeostasis in honey bees (Apis mellifera). PLoS One 2013; 8:e73429. [PMID: 24039938 PMCID: PMC3764161 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The ongoing decline of honey bee health worldwide is a serious economic and ecological concern. One major contributor to the decline are pathogens, including several honey bee viruses. However, information is limited on the biology of bee viruses and molecular interactions with their hosts. An experimental protocol to test these systems was developed, using injections of Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus (IAPV) into honey bee pupae reared ex-situ under laboratory conditions. The infected pupae developed pronounced but variable patterns of disease. Symptoms varied from complete cessation of development with no visual evidence of disease to rapid darkening of a part or the entire body. Considerable differences in IAPV titer dynamics were observed, suggesting significant variation in resistance to IAPV among and possibly within honey bee colonies. Thus, selective breeding for virus resistance should be possible. Gene expression analyses of three separate experiments suggest IAPV disruption of transcriptional homeostasis of several fundamental cellular functions, including an up-regulation of the ribosomal biogenesis pathway. These results provide first insights into the mechanisms of IAPV pathogenicity. They mirror a transcriptional survey of honey bees afflicted with Colony Collapse Disorder and thus support the hypothesis that viruses play a critical role in declining honey bee health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto F. Boncristiani
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jay D. Evans
- Bee Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yanping Chen
- Bee Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jeff Pettis
- Bee Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Charles Murphy
- Soybean Genomics and Improvement, Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Dawn L. Lopez
- Bee Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Michael Simone-Finstrom
- Department of Entomology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Micheline Strand
- United States Army Research Office, Division of Life Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - David R. Tarpy
- Department of Entomology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Olav Rueppell
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America
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Schwarz RS, Evans JD. Single and mixed-species trypanosome and microsporidia infections elicit distinct, ephemeral cellular and humoral immune responses in honey bees. Dev Comp Immunol 2013; 40:300-310. [PMID: 23529010 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2013] [Revised: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/16/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Frequently encountered parasite species impart strong selective pressures on host immune system evolution and are more apt to concurrently infect the same host, yet molecular impacts in light of this are often overlooked. We have contrasted immune responses in honey bees to two common eukaryotic endoparasites by establishing single and mixed-species infections using the long-associated parasite Crithidia mellificae and the emergent parasite Nosema ceranae. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to screen host immune gene expression at 9 time points post inoculation. Systemic responses in abdomens during early stages of parasite establishment revealed conserved receptor (Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule, Dscam and nimrod C1, nimC1), signaling (MyD88 and Imd) and antimicrobial peptide (AMP) effector (Defensin 2) responses. Late, established infections were distinct with a refined 2 AMP response to C. mellificae that contrasted starkly with a 5 AMP response to N. ceranae. Mixed species infections induced a moderate 3 AMPs. Transcription in gut tissues highlighted important local roles for Dscam toward both parasites and Imd signaling toward N. ceranae. At both systemic and local levels Dscam, MyD88 and Imd transcription was consistently correlated based on clustering analysis. Significant gene suppression occurred in two cases from midgut to ileum tissue: Dscam was lowered during mixed infections compared to N. ceranae infections and both C. mellificae and mixed infections had reduced nimC1 transcription compared to uninfected controls. We show that honey bees rapidly mount complex immune responses to both Nosema and Crithidia that are dynamic over time and that mixed-species infections significantly alter local and systemic immune gene transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S Schwarz
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Services, Bee Research Lab, BARC-East Bldg. 306, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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Cornman RS, Lopez D, Evans JD. Transcriptional response of honey bee larvae infected with the bacterial pathogen Paenibacillus larvae. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65424. [PMID: 23762370 PMCID: PMC3675105 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
American foulbrood disease of honey bees is caused by the bacterium Paenibacillus larvae. Infection occurs per os in larvae and systemic infection requires a breaching of the host peritrophic matrix and midgut epithelium. Genetic variation exists for both bacterial virulence and host resistance, and a general immunity is achieved by larvae as they age, the basis of which has not been identified. To quickly identify a pool of candidate genes responsive to P. larvae infection, we sequenced transcripts from larvae inoculated with P. larvae at 12 hours post-emergence and incubated for 72 hours, and compared expression levels to a control cohort. We identified 75 genes with significantly higher expression and six genes with significantly lower expression. In addition to several antimicrobial peptides, two genes encoding peritrophic-matrix domains were also up-regulated. Extracellular matrix proteins, proteases/protease inhibitors, and members of the Osiris gene family were prevalent among differentially regulated genes. However, analysis of Drosophila homologs of differentially expressed genes revealed spatial and temporal patterns consistent with developmental asynchrony as a likely confounder of our results. We therefore used qPCR to measure the consistency of gene expression changes for a subset of differentially expressed genes. A replicate experiment sampled at both 48 and 72 hours post infection allowed further discrimination of genes likely to be involved in host response. The consistently responsive genes in our test set included a hymenopteran-specific protein tyrosine kinase, a hymenopteran specific serine endopeptidase, a cytochrome P450 (CYP9Q1), and a homolog of trynity, a zona pellucida domain protein. Of the known honey bee antimicrobial peptides, apidaecin was responsive at both time-points studied whereas hymenoptaecin was more consistent in its level of change between biological replicates and had the greatest increase in expression by RNA-seq analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Scott Cornman
- Bee Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America.
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117
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Cornman RS, Boncristiani H, Dainat B, Chen Y, vanEngelsdorp D, Weaver D, Evans JD. Population-genomic variation within RNA viruses of the Western honey bee, Apis mellifera, inferred from deep sequencing. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:154. [PMID: 23497218 PMCID: PMC3599929 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Deep sequencing of viruses isolated from infected hosts is an efficient way to measure population-genetic variation and can reveal patterns of dispersal and natural selection. In this study, we mined existing Illumina sequence reads to investigate single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within two RNA viruses of the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera), deformed wing virus (DWV) and Israel acute paralysis virus (IAPV). All viral RNA was extracted from North American samples of honey bees or, in one case, the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor. Results Coverage depth was generally lower for IAPV than DWV, and marked gaps in coverage occurred in several narrow regions (< 50 bp) of IAPV. These coverage gaps occurred across sequencing runs and were virtually unchanged when reads were re-mapped with greater permissiveness (up to 8% divergence), suggesting a recurrent sequencing artifact rather than strain divergence. Consensus sequences of DWV for each sample showed little phylogenetic divergence, low nucleotide diversity, and strongly negative values of Fu and Li’s D statistic, suggesting a recent population bottleneck and/or purifying selection. The Kakugo strain of DWV fell outside of all other DWV sequences at 100% bootstrap support. IAPV consensus sequences supported the existence of multiple clades as had been previously reported, and Fu and Li’s D was closer to neutral expectation overall, although a sliding-window analysis identified a significantly positive D within the protease region, suggesting selection maintains diversity in that region. Within-sample mean diversity was comparable between the two viruses on average, although for both viruses there was substantial variation among samples in mean diversity at third codon positions and in the number of high-diversity sites. FST values were bimodal for DWV, likely reflecting neutral divergence in two low-diversity populations, whereas IAPV had several sites that were strong outliers with very low FST. Conclusions This initial survey of genetic variation within honey bee RNA viruses suggests future directions for studies examining the underlying causes of population-genetic structure in these economically important pathogens.
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Chaimanee V, Pettis JS, Chen Y, Evans JD, Khongphinitbunjong K, Chantawannakul P. Susceptibility of four different honey bee species to Nosema ceranae. Vet Parasitol 2013; 193:260-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2012] [Revised: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 12/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Cabrera Cordon AR, Shirk PD, Duehl AJ, Evans JD, Teal PEA. Variable induction of vitellogenin genes in the varroa mite, Varroa destructor (Anderson & Trueman), by the honeybee, Apis mellifera L, host and its environment. Insect Mol Biol 2013; 22:88-103. [PMID: 23331492 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Transcript levels of vitellogenins (Vgs) in the varroa mite, Varroa destructor (Anderson & Trueman), were variably induced by interactions between the developing honeybee, Apis mellifera L, as a food source and the capped honeybee cell environment. Transcripts for two Vgs of varroa mites were sequenced and putative Vg protein products characterized. Sequence analysis of VdVg1 and VdVg2 proteins showed that each had greater similarity with Vg1 and Vg2 proteins from ticks, respectively, than between themselves and were grouped separately by phylogenetic analyses. This suggests there was a duplication of the ancestral acarine Vg gene prior to the divergence of the mites and ticks. Low levels of transcript were detected in immature mites, males and phoretic females. Following cell invasion by phoretic females, VdVg1 and VdVg2 transcript levels were up-regulated after cell capping to a maximum at the time of partial cocoon formation by the honeybee. During oviposition the two transcripts were differentially expressed with higher levels of VdVg2 being observed. A bioassay based on assessing the transcript levels was established. Increases in VdVg1 and VdVg2 transcripts were induced experimentally in phoretic females when they were placed inside a cell containing an early metamorphosing last instar bee but not when exposed to the metamorphosing bee alone. The variable response of Vg expression to the food source as well as environmental cues within the capped cell demonstrates that perturbation of host-parasite interactions may provide avenues to disrupt the reproductive cycle of the varroa mites and prevent varroasis.
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Li J, Qin H, Wu J, Sadd BM, Wang X, Evans JD, Peng W, Chen Y. The prevalence of parasites and pathogens in Asian honeybees Apis cerana in China. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47955. [PMID: 23144838 PMCID: PMC3492380 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogens and parasites represent significant threats to the health and well-being of honeybee species that are key pollinators of agricultural crops and flowers worldwide. We conducted a nationwide survey to determine the occurrence and prevalence of pathogens and parasites in Asian honeybees, Apis cerana, in China. Our study provides evidence of infections of A. cerana by pathogenic Deformed wing virus (DWV), Black queen cell virus (BQCV), Nosema ceranae, and C. bombi species that have been linked to population declines of European honeybees, A. mellifera, and bumble bees. However, the prevalence of DWV, a virus that causes widespread infection in A. mellifera, was low, arguably a result of the greater ability of A. cerana to resist the ectoprasitic mite Varroa destructor, an efficient vector of DWV. Analyses of microbial communities from the A. cerana digestive tract showed that Nosema infection could have detrimental effects on the gut microbiota. Workers infected by N. ceranae tended to have lower bacterial quantities, with these differences being significant for the Bifidobacterium and Pasteurellaceae bacteria groups. The results of this nationwide screen show that parasites and pathogens that have caused serious problems in European honeybees can be found in native honeybee species kept in Asia. Environmental changes due to new agricultural practices and globalization may facilitate the spread of pathogens into new geographic areas. The foraging behavior of pollinators that are in close geographic proximity likely have played an important role in spreading of parasites and pathogens over to new hosts. Phylogenetic analyses provide insights into the movement and population structure of these parasites, suggesting a bidirectional flow of parasites among pollinators. The presence of these parasites and pathogens may have considerable implications for an observed population decline of Asian honeybees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jilian Li
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China
| | - Haoran Qin
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Wu
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China
| | - Ben M. Sadd
- Experimental Ecology, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich Universitätstrasse, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Xiuhong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China
| | - Jay D. Evans
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) – Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Wenjun Peng
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (WP); (YC)
| | - Yanping Chen
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) – Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (WP); (YC)
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Chaimanee V, Chantawannakul P, Chen Y, Evans JD, Pettis JS. Differential expression of immune genes of adult honey bee (Apis mellifera) after inoculated by Nosema ceranae. J Insect Physiol 2012; 58:1090-1095. [PMID: 22609362 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2012.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2012] [Revised: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 04/27/2012] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Nosema ceranae is a microsporidium parasite infecting adult honey bees (Apis mellifera) and is known to affects at both the individual and colony level. In this study, the expression levels were measured for four antimicrobial peptide encoding genes that are associated with bee humoral immunity (defensin, abaecin, apidaecin, and hymenoptaecin), eater gene which is a transmembrane protein involved cellular immunity and gene encoding female-specific protein (vitellogenin) in honey bees when inoculated by N. ceranae. The results showed that four of these genes, defensin, abaecin, apidaecin and hymenoptaecin were significantly down-regulated 3 and 6days after inoculations. Additionally, antimicrobial peptide expressions did not significantly differ between control and inoculated bees after 12days post inoculation. Moreover, our results revealed that the mRNA levels of eater and vitellogenin did not differ significantly following N. ceranae inoculation. Therefore, in this study we reaffirmed that N. ceranae infection induces host immunosuppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veeranan Chaimanee
- Bee Protection Center, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Gregorc A, Evans JD, Scharf M, Ellis JD. Gene expression in honey bee (Apis mellifera) larvae exposed to pesticides and Varroa mites (Varroa destructor). J Insect Physiol 2012; 58:1042-1049. [PMID: 22497859 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2012.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Revised: 03/26/2012] [Accepted: 03/27/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Honey bee (Apis mellifera) larvae reared in vitro were exposed to one of nine pesticides and/or were challenged with the parasitic mite, Varroa destructor. Total RNA was extracted from individual larvae and first strand cDNAs were generated. Gene-expression changes in larvae were measured using quantitative PCR (qPCR) targeting transcripts for pathogens and genes involved in physiological processes, bee health, immunity, and/or xenobiotic detoxification. Transcript levels for Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein (PGRPSC), a pathogen recognition gene, increased in larvae exposed to Varroa mites (P<0.001) and were not changed in pesticide treated larvae. As expected, Varroa-parasitized brood had higher transcripts of Deformed Wing Virus than did control larvae (P<0.001). Varroa parasitism, arguably coupled with virus infection, resulted in significantly higher transcript abundances for the antimicrobial peptides abaecin, hymenoptaecin, and defensin1. Transcript levels for Prophenoloxidase-activating enzyme (PPOact), an immune end product, were elevated in larvae treated with myclobutanil and chlorothalonil (both are fungicides) (P<0.001). Transcript levels for Hexameric storage protein (Hsp70) were significantly upregulated in imidacloprid, fluvalinate, coumaphos, myclobutanil, and amitraz treated larvae. Definitive impacts of pesticides and Varroa parasitism on honey bee larval gene expression were demonstrated. Interactions between larval treatments and gene expression for the targeted genes are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleš Gregorc
- Honey Bee Research and Extension Laboratory, Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Natural Area Drive, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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Cornman RS, Bennett AK, Murray KD, Evans JD, Elsik CG, Aronstein K. Transcriptome analysis of the honey bee fungal pathogen, Ascosphaera apis: implications for host pathogenesis. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:285. [PMID: 22747707 PMCID: PMC3425160 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2011] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background We present a comprehensive transcriptome analysis of the fungus Ascosphaera apis, an economically important pathogen of the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) that causes chalkbrood disease. Our goals were to further annotate the A. apis reference genome and to identify genes that are candidates for being differentially expressed during host infection versus axenic culture. Results We compared A. apis transcriptome sequence from mycelia grown on liquid or solid media with that dissected from host-infected tissue. 454 pyrosequencing provided 252 Mb of filtered sequence reads from both culture types that were assembled into 10,087 contigs. Transcript contigs, protein sequences from multiple fungal species, and ab initio gene predictions were included as evidence sources in the Maker gene prediction pipeline, resulting in 6,992 consensus gene models. A phylogeny based on 12 of these protein-coding loci further supported the taxonomic placement of Ascosphaera as sister to the core Onygenales. Several common protein domains were less abundant in A. apis compared with related ascomycete genomes, particularly cytochrome p450 and protein kinase domains. A novel gene family was identified that has expanded in some ascomycete lineages, but not others. We manually annotated genes with homologs in other fungal genomes that have known relevance to fungal virulence and life history. Functional categories of interest included genes involved in mating-type specification, intracellular signal transduction, and stress response. Computational and manual annotations have been made publicly available on the Bee Pests and Pathogens website. Conclusions This comprehensive transcriptome analysis substantially enhances our understanding of the A. apis genome and its expression during infection of honey bee larvae. It also provides resources for future molecular studies of chalkbrood disease and ultimately improved disease management.
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Boncristiani H, Underwood R, Schwarz R, Evans JD, Pettis J, vanEngelsdorp D. Direct effect of acaricides on pathogen loads and gene expression levels in honey bees Apis mellifera. J Insect Physiol 2012; 58:613-20. [PMID: 22212860 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2011.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 12/21/2011] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The effect of using acaricides to control varroa mites has long been a concern to the beekeeping industry due to unintended negative impacts on honey bee health. Irregular ontogenesis, suppression of immune defenses, and impairment of normal behavior have been linked to pesticide use. External stressors, including parasites and the pathogens they vector, can confound studies on the effects of pesticides on the metabolism of honey bees. This is the case of Varroa destructor, a mite that negatively affects honey bee health on many levels, from direct parasitism, which diminishes honey bee productivity, to vectoring and/or activating other pathogens, including many viruses. Here we present a gene expression profile comprising genes acting on diverse metabolic levels (detoxification, immunity, and development) in a honey bee population that lacks the influence of varroa mites. We present data for hives treated with five different acaricides; Apiguard (thymol), Apistan (tau-fluvalinate), Checkmite (coumaphos), Miteaway (formic acid) and ApiVar (amitraz). The results indicate that thymol, coumaphos and formic acid are able to alter some metabolic responses. These include detoxification gene expression pathways, components of the immune system responsible for cellular response and the c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, and developmental genes. These could potentially interfere with the health of individual honey bees and entire colonies.
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Abstract
Across the Northern hemisphere, managed honey bee colonies, Apis mellifera, are currently affected by abrupt depopulation during winter and many factors are suspected to be involved, either alone or in combination. Parasites and pathogens are considered as principal actors, in particular the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor, associated viruses and the microsporidian Nosema ceranae. Here we used long term monitoring of colonies and screening for eleven disease agents and genes involved in bee immunity and physiology to identify predictive markers of honeybee colony losses during winter. The data show that DWV, Nosema ceranae, Varroa destructor and Vitellogenin can be predictive markers for winter colony losses, but their predictive power strongly depends on the season. In particular, the data support that V. destructor is a key player for losses, arguably in line with its specific impact on the health of individual bees and colonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Dainat
- Swiss Bee Research Centre, Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux Research Station ALP, Bern, Switzerland.
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Di Prisco G, Zhang X, Pennacchio F, Caprio E, Li J, Evans JD, DeGrandi-Hoffman G, Hamilton M, Chen YP. Dynamics of persistent and acute deformed wing virus infections in honey bees, Apis mellifera. Viruses 2011; 3:2425-2441. [PMID: 22355447 PMCID: PMC3280512 DOI: 10.3390/v3122425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2011] [Revised: 11/28/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The dynamics of viruses are critical to our understanding of disease pathogenesis. Using honey bee Deformed wing virus (DWV) as a model, we conducted field and laboratory studies to investigate the roles of abiotic and biotic stress factors as well as host health conditions in dynamics of virus replication in honey bees. The results showed that temperature decline could lead to not only significant decrease in the rate for pupae to emerge as adult bees, but also an increased severity of the virus infection in emerged bees, partly explaining the high levels of winter losses of managed honey bees, Apis mellifera, around the world. By experimentally exposing adult bees with variable levels of parasitic mite Varroa destructor, we showed that the severity of DWV infection was positively correlated with the density and time period of Varroa mite infestation, confirming the role of Varroa mites in virus transmission and activation in honey bees. Further, we showed that host conditions have a significant impact on the outcome of DWV infection as bees that originate from strong colonies resist DWV infection and replication significantly better than bee originating from weak colonies. The information obtained from this study has important implications for enhancing our understanding of host‑pathogen interactions and can be used to develop effective disease control strategies for honey bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gennaro Di Prisco
- Dipartimento di Entomologia e Zoologia Agraria “Filippo Silvestri”, Universita’ degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Via Universita’ n.100, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy; (G.D.P.); (F.P.); (E.C.)
| | - Xuan Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Yunnan Agricultural University, Yunnan 650201, China;
| | - Francesco Pennacchio
- Dipartimento di Entomologia e Zoologia Agraria “Filippo Silvestri”, Universita’ degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Via Universita’ n.100, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy; (G.D.P.); (F.P.); (E.C.)
| | - Emilio Caprio
- Dipartimento di Entomologia e Zoologia Agraria “Filippo Silvestri”, Universita’ degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Via Universita’ n.100, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy; (G.D.P.); (F.P.); (E.C.)
| | - Jilian Li
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xiangshan, Beijing 100093, China;
| | - Jay D. Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (J.D.E.); (M.H.)
| | | | - Michele Hamilton
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (J.D.E.); (M.H.)
| | - Yan Ping Chen
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (J.D.E.); (M.H.)
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Evans JD, Schwarz RS. Bees brought to their knees: microbes affecting honey bee health. Trends Microbiol 2011; 19:614-20. [PMID: 22032828 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2011.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2011] [Revised: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/23/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
The biology and health of the honey bee Apis mellifera has been of interest to human societies for centuries. Research on honey bee health is surging, in part due to new tools and the arrival of colony-collapse disorder (CCD), an unsolved decline in bees from parts of the United States, Europe, and Asia. Although a clear understanding of what causes CCD has yet to emerge, these efforts have led to new microbial discoveries and avenues to improve our understanding of bees and the challenges they face. Here we review the known honey bee microbes and highlight areas of both active and lagging research. Detailed studies of honey bee-pathogen dynamics will help efforts to keep this important pollinator healthy and will give general insights into both beneficial and harmful microbes confronting insect colonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay D Evans
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)-Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center (BARC) East Building 476, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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Purswell JL, Evans JD, Branton SL. Serologic response of roosters to gradient dosage levels of a commercially available live F strain-derived Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccine over time. Avian Dis 2011; 55:490-4. [PMID: 22017053 DOI: 10.1637/9673-013111-resnote.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Spray application is a commonly used, time- and labor-efficient means to deliver live Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) vaccine to laying hens in commercial production facilities. The dosage of vaccine received by spray-vaccinated birds can vary due to variation in the spray plume and the vaccine suspension droplet trajectory. In this study, a total of 48 Hy-Line W-36 males were placed individually in isolation units following eye-drop application of gradient levels (1 x, 10(-1) x, 10(-2) x, 10(-3) x, 10(-4) x, 10(-5) x, 10(-6) x, and unvaccinated control) of the MG vaccine. The determined titer associated with a 1 x dose was 2 x 10(6) colony-forming units/dose. Serologic response was assessed weekly following vaccination via serum plate agglutination (SPA) for weeks one through seven postvaccination (p.v.). In addition, immunologic response was assessed at 5, 6, and 7 wk p.v. via MG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). As indicated by SPA analyses, a 1 x dose of vaccine resulted in 100% seroconversion, and dose levels of 10(-1) x and 10(-2) x resulted in 75% and 37.5% seroconversion, respectively, at 6 wk p.v. The MG ELISA results at 6 wk p.v. demonstrated immunologic responses in 100%, 57.1%, and 28.6% of the 1 x, 10(-1) x, and 10(-2) x dosed birds, respectively. The lower dosage levels of 10(-3) x, 10(-4) x, 10(-5) x, and 10(-6) x did not elicit a response from any bird at 6 wk p.v. Utilizing the SPA data, a logistic regression model was used to determine the relationship between dosage level and seroconversion rate (R2 = 0.999 with a standard error of prediction of 1.6%). The model predicted a required effective dosage of 0.26 x for 90% seroconversion at 6 wk p.v. under test conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Purswell
- USDA-ARS Poultry Research Unit, P.O. Box 5367, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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Chan QWT, Cornman RS, Birol I, Liao NY, Chan SK, Docking TR, Jackman SD, Taylor GA, Jones SJM, de Graaf DC, Evans JD, Foster LJ. Updated genome assembly and annotation of Paenibacillus larvae, the agent of American foulbrood disease of honey bees. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:450. [PMID: 21923906 PMCID: PMC3188533 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract Results We used the Illumina GAIIx platform and conventional Sanger sequencing to generate a 182-fold sequence coverage of the P. larvae genome, and assembled the data using ABySS into a total of 388 contigs spanning 4.5 Mbp. Comparative genomics analysis against fully-sequenced soil bacteria P. JDR2 and P. vortex showed that regions of poor conservation may contain putative virulence factors. We used GLIMMER to predict 3568 gene models, and named them based on homology revealed by BLAST searches; proteases, hemolytic factors, toxins, and antibiotic resistance enzymes were identified in this way. Finally, mass spectrometry was used to provide experimental evidence that at least 35% of the genes are expressed at the protein level. Conclusions This update on the genome of P. larvae and annotation represents an immense advancement from what we had previously known about this species. We provide here a reliable resource that can be used to elucidate the mechanism of infection, and by extension, more effective methods to control and cure this widespread honey bee disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Queenie W T Chan
- Department of Biochemistry Ž Molecular Biology, Centre for High-throughput Biology, University of British Columbia, 2125 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4 Canada
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Chen YP, Evans JD, Murphy C, Gutell R, Zuker M, Gundensen-Rindal D, Pettis JS. Morphological, molecular, and phylogenetic characterization of Nosema ceranae, a microsporidian parasite isolated from the European honey bee, Apis mellifera. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2011; 56:142-7. [PMID: 19457054 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2008.00374.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Nosema ceranae, a microsporidian parasite originally described from Apis cerana, has been found to infect Apis melllifera and is highly pathogenic to its new host. In the present study, data on the ultrastructure of N. ceranae, presence of N. ceranae-specific nucleic acid in host tissues, and phylogenetic relationships with other microsporidia species are described. The ultrastructural features indicate that N. ceranae possesses all of the characteristics of the genus Nosema. Spores of N. ceranae measured approximately 4.4 x 2.2 μm on fresh smears. The number of coils of the polar filament inside spores was 18-21. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) signals specific for N. ceranae were detected not only in the primary infection site, the midgut, but also in the tissues of hypopharyngeal glands, salivary glands, Malpighian tubules, and fat body. The detection rate and intensity of PCR signals in the fat body were relatively low compared with other examined tissues. Maximum parsimony analysis of the small subunit rRNA gene sequences showed that N. ceranae appeared to be more closely related to the wasp parasite, Nosema vespula, than to N. apis, a parasite infecting the same host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping P Chen
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA.
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131
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Robinson GE, Hackett KJ, Purcell-Miramontes M, Brown SJ, Evans JD, Goldsmith MR, Lawson D, Okamuro J, Robertson HM, Schneider DJ. Creating a buzz about insect genomes. Science 2011; 331:1386. [PMID: 21415334 DOI: 10.1126/science.331.6023.1386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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132
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Cornman SR, Schatz MC, Johnston SJ, Chen YP, Pettis J, Hunt G, Bourgeois L, Elsik C, Anderson D, Grozinger CM, Evans JD. Genomic survey of the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor, a major pest of the honey bee Apis mellifera. BMC Genomics 2010; 11:602. [PMID: 20973996 PMCID: PMC3091747 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor has emerged as the primary pest of domestic honey bees (Apis mellifera). Here we present an initial survey of the V. destructor genome carried out to advance our understanding of Varroa biology and to identify new avenues for mite control. This sequence survey provides immediate resources for molecular and population-genetic analyses of Varroa-Apis interactions and defines the challenges ahead for a comprehensive Varroa genome project. RESULTS The genome size was estimated by flow cytometry to be 565 Mbp, larger than most sequenced insects but modest relative to some other Acari. Genomic DNA pooled from ~1,000 mites was sequenced to 4.3× coverage with 454 pyrosequencing. The 2.4 Gbp of sequencing reads were assembled into 184,094 contigs with an N50 of 2,262 bp, totaling 294 Mbp of sequence after filtering. Genic sequences with homology to other eukaryotic genomes were identified on 13,031 of these contigs, totaling 31.3 Mbp. Alignment of protein sequence blocks conserved among V. destructor and four other arthropod genomes indicated a higher level of sequence divergence within this mite lineage relative to the tick Ixodes scapularis. A number of microbes potentially associated with V. destructor were identified in the sequence survey, including ~300 Kbp of sequence deriving from one or more bacterial species of the Actinomycetales. The presence of this bacterium was confirmed in individual mites by PCR assay, but varied significantly by age and sex of mites. Fragments of a novel virus related to the Baculoviridae were also identified in the survey. The rate of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the pooled mites was estimated to be 6.2 × 10-5 per bp, a low rate consistent with the historical demography and life history of the species. CONCLUSIONS This survey has provided general tools for the research community and novel directions for investigating the biology and control of Varroa mites. Ongoing development of Varroa genomic resources will be a boon for comparative genomics of under-represented arthropods, and will further enhance the honey bee and its associated pathogens as a model system for studying host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott R Cornman
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Michael C Schatz
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
| | - Spencer J Johnston
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - Yan-Ping Chen
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Jeff Pettis
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Greg Hunt
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Lanie Bourgeois
- USDA-ARS, Honey Bee Research Laboratory, 1157 Ben Hur Rd., Baton Rouge, LA 70820 USA
| | - Chris Elsik
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, 37th and O Streets, NW, Washington, DC 20057 USA
| | - Denis Anderson
- CSIRO Entomology, Black Mountain Laboratories, Clunies Ross Street, Black Mountain ACT 2601, Australia
| | | | - Jay D Evans
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
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Branton SL, Leigh SA, Purswell JL, Evans JD, Collier SD, Olanrewaju HA, Pharr GT. A chronicle of serologic response in commercial layer chickens to vaccination with commercial F strain Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccine. Avian Dis 2010; 54:1108-11. [PMID: 20945798 DOI: 10.1637/9173-112409-case.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination of multi-age layer operations, wherein one million plus commercial layer chickens are housed, has been spurious until the development of a self-propelled, constant-speed spray vaccinator. Still, even with its use, live Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) vaccinations have been questionable in terms of seroconversion. Using the vaccinator as a research tool over the past 5 yr, factors have been elucidated which impact seroconversion to one live MG vaccine in particular, the F strain of MG (FMG). These factors include the type of nozzle used to spray the vaccine, the temperature of the water used to rehydrate and administer the vaccine, and the pH and osmolarity of the fluid used to apply the vaccine. In the present study, one farm was monitored for its seroconversion rates over 4 1/2 yr, during which time the FMG vaccination protocol was amended as factors were identified that enhanced seroconversion rates. The results of this study showed that implementation and inclusion of the optimized factors into the vaccination protocol for FMG enhanced seroconversion rates because they went from an initial 50%-55% positive seroconversion rate to a consistent 100% positive seroconversion rate over the 56-mo study period.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Branton
- AUSDA-ARS-South Central Poultry Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 5367, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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Di Prisco G, Pennacchio F, Caprio E, Boncristiani HF, Evans JD, Chen Y. Varroa destructor is an effective vector of Israeli acute paralysis virus in the honeybee, Apis mellifera. J Gen Virol 2010; 92:151-5. [PMID: 20926637 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.023853-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) is a significant marker of honeybee colony collapse disorder (CCD). In the present work, we provide the first evidence that Varroa destructor is IAPV replication-competent and capable of vectoring IAPV in honeybees. The honeybees became infected with IAPV after exposure to Varroa mites that carried the virus. The copy number of IAPV in bees was positively correlated with the density of Varroa mites and time period of exposure to Varroa mites. Further, we showed that the mite-virus association could possibly reduce host immunity and therefore promote elevated levels of virus replication. This study defines an active role of Varroa mites in IAPV transmission and sheds light on the epidemiology of IAPV infection in honeybees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gennaro Di Prisco
- Dipartimento di Entomologia e Zoologia Agraria Filippo Silvestri, Universita' degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Universita' n.100, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy
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VanEngelsdorp D, Speybroeck N, Evans JD, Nguyen BK, Mullin C, Frazier M, Frazier J, Cox-Foster D, Chen Y, Tarpy DR, Haubruge E, Pettis JS, Saegerman C. Weighing risk factors associated with bee colony collapse disorder by classification and regression tree analysis. J Econ Entomol 2010; 103:1517-23. [PMID: 21061948 DOI: 10.1603/ec09429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Colony collapse disorder (CCD), a syndrome whose defining trait is the rapid loss of adult worker honey bees, Apis mellifera L., is thought to be responsible for a minority of the large overwintering losses experienced by U.S. beekeepers since the winter 2006-2007. Using the same data set developed to perform a monofactorial analysis (PloS ONE 4: e6481, 2009), we conducted a classification and regression tree (CART) analysis in an attempt to better understand the relative importance and interrelations among different risk variables in explaining CCD. Fifty-five exploratory variables were used to construct two CART models: one model with and one model without a cost of misclassifying a CCD-diagnosed colony as a non-CCD colony. The resulting model tree that permitted for misclassification had a sensitivity and specificity of 85 and 74%, respectively. Although factors measuring colony stress (e.g., adult bee physiological measures, such as fluctuating asymmetry or mass of head) were important discriminating values, six of the 19 variables having the greatest discriminatory value were pesticide levels in different hive matrices. Notably, coumaphos levels in brood (a miticide commonly used by beekeepers) had the highest discriminatory value and were highest in control (healthy) colonies. Our CART analysis provides evidence that CCD is probably the result of several factors acting in concert, making afflicted colonies more susceptible to disease. This analysis highlights several areas that warrant further attention, including the effect of sublethal pesticide exposure on pathogen prevalence and the role of variability in bee tolerance to pesticides on colony survivorship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis VanEngelsdorp
- Bureau of Plant Industry, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, 2301 North Cameron St., Harrisburg PA 17110, USA
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Evans JD, Weaver DB. Beenome soon: honey bees as a model 'non-model' system for comparative genomics. Comp Funct Genomics 2010; 4:351-2. [PMID: 18629288 PMCID: PMC2448453 DOI: 10.1002/cfg.288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2003] [Revised: 02/20/2003] [Accepted: 02/20/2003] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jay D Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, BARC-East Building 476, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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Antúnez K, Anido M, Arredondo D, Evans JD, Zunino P. Paenibacillus larvae enolase as a virulence factor in honeybee larvae infection. Vet Microbiol 2010; 147:83-9. [PMID: 20609532 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2010] [Revised: 06/02/2010] [Accepted: 06/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Paenibacillus larvae is a gram-positive spore-forming bacteria, causative agent of American Foulbrood (AFB), a severe disease affecting larvae of the honeybee Apis mellifera. In an attempt to detect potential virulence factors secreted by P. larvae, we identified an enolase among different secreted proteins. Although this protein is a cytosolic enzyme involved in glycolytic pathways, it has been related to virulence. The aim of the present work was to evaluate its role during the infection of honeybee larvae. Toxicity assays showed that enolase was highly toxic and immunogenic to honeybee larvae. Its production was detected inside P. larvae vegetative cells, on the surface of P. larvae spores and secreted to the external growth medium. P. larvae enolase production was also confirmed in vivo, during the infection of honeybee larvae. This protein was able to hydrolyze milk proteins as described for P. larvae, suggesting that could be involved in larval degradation, maybe through the plasmin(ogen) system. These results suggest that P. larvae enolase may have a role in virulence and could contribute to a general insight about insect-pathogen interaction mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Antúnez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Avda. Italia 3318, C.P. 11600, Montevideo, Uruguay.
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Antúnez K, Anido M, Evans JD, Zunino P. Secreted and immunogenic proteins produced by the honeybee bacterial pathogen, Paenibacillus larvae. Vet Microbiol 2010; 141:385-9. [PMID: 19781868 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2009] [Revised: 08/13/2009] [Accepted: 09/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karina Antúnez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Avda. Italia 3318, C.P.11600 Montevideo, Uruguay.
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139
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Gerardo NM, Altincicek B, Anselme C, Atamian H, Barribeau SM, de Vos M, Duncan EJ, Evans JD, Gabaldón T, Ghanim M, Heddi A, Kaloshian I, Latorre A, Moya A, Nakabachi A, Parker BJ, Pérez-Brocal V, Pignatelli M, Rahbé Y, Ramsey JS, Spragg CJ, Tamames J, Tamarit D, Tamborindeguy C, Vincent-Monegat C, Vilcinskas A. Immunity and other defenses in pea aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum. Genome Biol 2010; 11:R21. [PMID: 20178569 PMCID: PMC2872881 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2010-11-2-r21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 304] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2009] [Revised: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 02/23/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent genomic analyses of arthropod defense mechanisms suggest conservation of key elements underlying responses to pathogens, parasites and stresses. At the center of pathogen-induced immune responses are signaling pathways triggered by the recognition of fungal, bacterial and viral signatures. These pathways result in the production of response molecules, such as antimicrobial peptides and lysozymes, which degrade or destroy invaders. Using the recently sequenced genome of the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum), we conducted the first extensive annotation of the immune and stress gene repertoire of a hemipterous insect, which is phylogenetically distantly related to previously characterized insects models. RESULTS Strikingly, pea aphids appear to be missing genes present in insect genomes characterized to date and thought critical for recognition, signaling and killing of microbes. In line with results of gene annotation, experimental analyses designed to characterize immune response through the isolation of RNA transcripts and proteins from immune-challenged pea aphids uncovered few immune-related products. Gene expression studies, however, indicated some expression of immune and stress-related genes. CONCLUSIONS The absence of genes suspected to be essential for the insect immune response suggests that the traditional view of insect immunity may not be as broadly applicable as once thought. The limitations of the aphid immune system may be representative of a broad range of insects, or may be aphid specific. We suggest that several aspects of the aphid life style, such as their association with microbial symbionts, could facilitate survival without strong immune protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Gerardo
- Department of Biology, Emory University, O Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 E. Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Boran Altincicek
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Caroline Anselme
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
- UMR Interactions Biotiques et Santé Végétale, INRA 1301-CNRS 6243-Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, 400 routes des Chappe, F-06903 Sophia-Antipolis cedex, France
| | - Hagop Atamian
- Department of Nematology, Graduate Program in Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Seth M Barribeau
- Department of Biology, Emory University, O Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 E. Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Martin de Vos
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Duncan
- Genetics Otago and The Laboratory for Evolution and Development, Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Jay D Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Lab, BARC-East Bldg 476, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Toni Gabaldón
- Bioinformatics and Genomics Programme, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), Doctor Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Murad Ghanim
- Department of Entomology, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
| | - Adelaziz Heddi
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Isgouhi Kaloshian
- Department of Nematology, Graduate Program in Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Amparo Latorre
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Andres Moya
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Atsushi Nakabachi
- Advanced Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Benjamin J Parker
- Department of Biology, Emory University, O Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 E. Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Vincente Pérez-Brocal
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Miguel Pignatelli
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Yvan Rahbé
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
| | - John S Ramsey
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Chelsea J Spragg
- Department of Biology, Emory University, O Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 E. Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Javier Tamames
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Daniel Tamarit
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Avenida Blasco Ibañez 13, 46071 València, Spain
- CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBEResp) and Centro Superior de Investigación en Salud Pública (CSISP), Conselleria de Sanidad (Generalitat Valenciana), Avenida de Cataluña 21, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Cecilia Tamborindeguy
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Department, Cornell University, Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA
| | - Caroline Vincent-Monegat
- Université de Lyon, INRA, INSA-Lyon, IFR41 BioEnvironnement et Santé, UMR203 BF2I, Biologie Fonctionnelle Insectes et Interactions, Bat. Louis-Pasteur 20 ave Albert-Einstein, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
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Evans JD. Host-parasite interactions: resist or tolerate but never stop running. Biol Lett 2009; 5:721-2. [PMID: 19605387 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2009.0444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A conference exploring 'The impact of the environment on innate immunity: the threat of diseases' was held on 4-9 May 2009 in Obergurgl, Austria, thanks to the support from the European Science Foundation, Innsbruck University and the Austrian Science Foundation. The goals of the conference were to explore how the outcomes of host-parasite interactions depend on variation across individuals, their parasites and the environment in which they both find themselves. Central themes were the inherent costs of mounting an immune response, the ability of some organisms to pre-empt infection by 'priming' their immune systems, the fact that parasites learn to evade immune responses over time and the use of theory to predict when diseases will get out of hand. Many of the systems presented had clear impacts on human health, agriculture or the maintenance of complex ecosystems. There was common ground throughout in developing methodologies and embracing what one of the organizers termed the 'interactome' between hosts and those which would exploit them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay D Evans
- Bee Research Laboratory, US Department of Agriculture-ARS, BARC-E Building 476, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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141
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Peyretaillade E, Gonçalves O, Terrat S, Dugat-Bony E, Wincker P, Cornman RS, Evans JD, Delbac F, Peyret P. Identification of transcriptional signals in Encephalitozoon cuniculi widespread among Microsporidia phylum: support for accurate structural genome annotation. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:607. [PMID: 20003517 PMCID: PMC2803860 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microsporidia are obligate intracellular eukaryotic parasites with genomes ranging in size from 2.3 Mbp to more than 20 Mbp. The extremely small (2.9 Mbp) and highly compact (~1 gene/kb) genome of the human parasite Encephalitozoon cuniculi has been fully sequenced. The aim of this study was to characterize noncoding motifs that could be involved in regulation of gene expression in E. cuniculi and to show whether these motifs are conserved among the phylum Microsporidia. Results To identify such signals, 5' and 3'RACE-PCR experiments were performed on different E. cuniculi mRNAs. This analysis confirmed that transcription overrun occurs in E. cuniculi and may result from stochastic recognition of the AAUAAA polyadenylation signal. Such experiments also showed highly reduced 5'UTR's (<7 nts). Most of the E. cuniculi genes presented a CCC-like motif immediately upstream from the coding start. To characterize other signals involved in differential transcriptional regulation, we then focused our attention on the gene family coding for ribosomal proteins. An AAATTT-like signal was identified upstream from the CCC-like motif. In rare cases the cytosine triplet was shown to be substituted by a GGG-like motif. Comparative genomic studies confirmed that these different signals are also located upstream from genes encoding ribosomal proteins in other microsporidian species including Antonospora locustae, Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Anncaliia algerae (syn. Brachiola algerae) and Nosema ceranae. Based on these results a systematic analysis of the ~2000 E. cuniculi coding DNA sequences was then performed and brings to highlight that 364 translation initiation codons (18.29% of total CDSs) had been badly predicted. Conclusion We identified various signals involved in the maturation of E. cuniculi mRNAs. Presence of such signals, in phylogenetically distant microsporidian species, suggests that a common regulatory mechanism exists among the microsporidia. Furthermore, 5'UTRs being strongly reduced, these signals can be used to ensure the accurate prediction of translation initiation codons for microsporidian genes and to improve microsporidian genome annotation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Peyretaillade
- Clermont Université, Université d'Auvergne, Laboratoire: Microorganismes Génome et Environnement, BP 10448, F-63000 CLERMONT-FERRAND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Genersch
- Institute for Bee Research, Friedrich-Engels-Str. 32, 16540 Hohen Neuendorf, Germany.
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Evans JD, Spivak M. Socialized medicine: individual and communal disease barriers in honey bees. J Invertebr Pathol 2009; 103 Suppl 1:S62-72. [PMID: 19909975 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2009.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2009] [Accepted: 06/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Honey bees are attacked by numerous parasites and pathogens toward which they present a variety of individual and group-level defenses. In this review, we briefly introduce the many pathogens and parasites afflicting honey bees, highlighting the biology of specific taxonomic groups mainly as they relate to virulence and possible defenses. Second, we describe physiological, immunological, and behavioral responses of individual bees toward pathogens and parasites. Third, bees also show behavioral mechanisms for reducing the disease risk of their nestmates. Accordingly, we discuss the dynamics of hygienic behavior and other group-level behaviors that can limit disease. Finally, we conclude with several avenues of research that seem especially promising for understanding host-parasite relationships in bees and for developing breeding or management strategies for enhancing honey bee health. We discuss how human efforts to maintain healthy colonies intersect with similar efforts by the bees, and how bee management and breeding protocols can affect disease traits in the short and long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay D Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Lab, BARC-East Bldg. 476, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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Evans JD, Branton SL, Leigh SA. Effect of dosage and vaccination route on transmission of a live attenuated Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccine: a broiler model. Avian Dis 2009; 53:416-20. [PMID: 19848082 DOI: 10.1637/8621-012309-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is an economically significant pathogen of poultry species. Among the table egg sector of the poultry industry, live attenuated strains of MG are commonly used to limit production losses associated with MG-induced disease. These vaccines, however, may be problematic to broiler- and turkey-related industries because of associated virulence; therefore, an understanding of the transmissibility of the live MG vaccines is of particular importance. In the present study, a broiler model addresses the effect of vaccine application route and dosage on the transmission of the MG vaccine FVAX-MG to commingled unvaccinated subjects for 7 wk postvaccination. Vaccinations occurred at 2 wk of age via eyedrop or spray application at 1 x (4 x 10(6) colony-forming units [cfu]), 10(-3) x (4 x 10(3) cfu), or 10(-6) x (4 cfu) of the manufacturer's recommended dosage, and subsequent transmission to unvaccinated subjects was measured. The serologic response to MG antigen and the presence of MG DNA indicated FVAX-MG transmission only within the 1 x FVAX-MG eyedrop treatment. Among no other treatment was transmission of FVAX-MG detected. The results of the present study demonstrate that the dosage and vaccination route may have direct implications on subsequent transmission of FVAX-MG.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Evans
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Poultry Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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Jordan S, Emery S, Watkins A, Evans JD, Storey M, Morgan G. Associations of drugs routinely given in labour with breastfeeding at 48 hours: analysis of the Cardiff Births Survey. BJOG 2009; 116:1622-9; discussion 1630-2. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2009.02256.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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vanEngelsdorp D, Evans JD, Saegerman C, Mullin C, Haubruge E, Nguyen BK, Frazier M, Frazier J, Cox-Foster D, Chen Y, Underwood R, Tarpy DR, Pettis JS. Colony collapse disorder: a descriptive study. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6481. [PMID: 19649264 PMCID: PMC2715894 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 588] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2009] [Accepted: 06/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Over the last two winters, there have been large-scale, unexplained losses of managed honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies in the United States. In the absence of a known cause, this syndrome was named Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) because the main trait was a rapid loss of adult worker bees. We initiated a descriptive epizootiological study in order to better characterize CCD and compare risk factor exposure between populations afflicted by and not afflicted by CCD. Methods and Principal Findings Of 61 quantified variables (including adult bee physiology, pathogen loads, and pesticide levels), no single measure emerged as a most-likely cause of CCD. Bees in CCD colonies had higher pathogen loads and were co-infected with a greater number of pathogens than control populations, suggesting either an increased exposure to pathogens or a reduced resistance of bees toward pathogens. Levels of the synthetic acaricide coumaphos (used by beekeepers to control the parasitic mite Varroa destructor) were higher in control colonies than CCD-affected colonies. Conclusions/Significance This is the first comprehensive survey of CCD-affected bee populations that suggests CCD involves an interaction between pathogens and other stress factors. We present evidence that this condition is contagious or the result of exposure to a common risk factor. Potentially important areas for future hypothesis-driven research, including the possible legacy effect of mite parasitism and the role of honey bee resistance to pesticides, are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis vanEngelsdorp
- Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jay D. Evans
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) – Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Claude Saegerman
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Epidemiology and Risk analysis applied to the Veterinary Sciences, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Chris Mullin
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Eric Haubruge
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Entomology, Gembloux Agricultural University, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Bach Kim Nguyen
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Entomology, Gembloux Agricultural University, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Maryann Frazier
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jim Frazier
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Diana Cox-Foster
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Yanping Chen
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) – Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robyn Underwood
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - David R. Tarpy
- Department of Entomology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Jeffery S. Pettis
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) – Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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147
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Abstract
Diverse animals have evolved an ability to collect antimicrobial compounds from the environment as a means of reducing infection risk. Honey bees battle an extensive assemblage of pathogens with both individual and "social" defenses. We determined if the collection of resins, complex plant secretions with diverse antimicrobial properties, acts as a colony-level immune defense by honey bees. Exposure to extracts from two sources of honey bee propolis (a mixture of resins and wax) led to a significantly lowered expression of two honey bee immune-related genes (hymenoptaecin and AmEater in Brazilian and Minnesota propolis, respectively) and to lowered bacterial loads in the Minnesota (MN) propolis treated colonies. Differences in immune expression were also found across age groups (third-instar larvae, 1-day-old and 7-day-old adults) irrespective of resin treatment. The finding that resins within the nest decrease investment in immune function of 7-day-old bees may have implications for colony health and productivity. This is the first direct evidence that the honey bee nest environment affects immune-gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Simone
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA.
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148
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Cornman RS, Chen YP, Schatz MC, Street C, Zhao Y, Desany B, Egholm M, Hutchison S, Pettis JS, Lipkin WI, Evans JD. Genomic analyses of the microsporidian Nosema ceranae, an emergent pathogen of honey bees. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000466. [PMID: 19503607 PMCID: PMC2685015 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2009] [Accepted: 05/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent steep declines in honey bee health have severely impacted the beekeeping industry, presenting new risks for agricultural commodities that depend on insect pollination. Honey bee declines could reflect increased pressures from parasites and pathogens. The incidence of the microsporidian pathogen Nosema ceranae has increased significantly in the past decade. Here we present a draft assembly (7.86 MB) of the N. ceranae genome derived from pyrosequence data, including initial gene models and genomic comparisons with other members of this highly derived fungal lineage. N. ceranae has a strongly AT-biased genome (74% A+T) and a diversity of repetitive elements, complicating the assembly. Of 2,614 predicted protein-coding sequences, we conservatively estimate that 1,366 have homologs in the microsporidian Encephalitozoon cuniculi, the most closely related published genome sequence. We identify genes conserved among microsporidia that lack clear homology outside this group, which are of special interest as potential virulence factors in this group of obligate parasites. A substantial fraction of the diminutive N. ceranae proteome consists of novel and transposable-element proteins. For a majority of well-supported gene models, a conserved sense-strand motif can be found within 15 bases upstream of the start codon; a previously uncharacterized version of this motif is also present in E. cuniculi. These comparisons provide insight into the architecture, regulation, and evolution of microsporidian genomes, and will drive investigations into honey bee–Nosema interactions. Honey bee colonies are in decline in many parts of the world, in part due to pressures from a diverse assemblage of parasites and pathogens. The range and prevalence of the microsporidian pathogen Nosema ceranae has increased significantly in the past decade. Here we describe the N. ceranae genome, presenting genome traits, gene models and regulatory motifs. N. ceranae has an extremely reduced and AT-biased genome, yet one with substantial numbers of repetitive elements. We identify novel genes that appear to be conserved among microsporidia but undetected outside this phylum, which are of special interest as potential virulence factors for these obligate pathogens. A previously unrecognized motif is found upstream of many start codons and likely plays a role in gene regulation across the microsporidia. These and other comparisons provide insight into the architecture, regulation, and evolution of microsporidian genomes, and provide the first genetic tools for understanding how this pathogen interacts with honey bee hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Scott Cornman
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Lab, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yan Ping Chen
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Lab, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Michael C. Schatz
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Craig Street
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Yan Zhao
- USDA-ARS Molecular Plant Pathology Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Brian Desany
- 454 Life Sciences/Roche Applied Sciences, Branford, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Michael Egholm
- 454 Life Sciences/Roche Applied Sciences, Branford, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Stephen Hutchison
- 454 Life Sciences/Roche Applied Sciences, Branford, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Jeffery S. Pettis
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Lab, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - W. Ian Lipkin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jay D. Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Lab, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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149
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Chen Y, Evans JD, Zhou L, Boncristiani H, Kimura K, Xiao T, Litkowski AM, Pettis JS. Asymmetrical coexistence of Nosema ceranae and Nosema apis in honey bees. J Invertebr Pathol 2009; 101:204-9. [PMID: 19467238 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2009.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Revised: 05/11/2009] [Accepted: 05/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Globalization has provided opportunities for parasites/pathogens to cross geographic boundaries and expand to new hosts. Recent studies showed that Nosema ceranae, originally considered a microsporidian parasite of Eastern honey bees, Apis cerana, is a disease agent of nosemosis in European honey bees, Apis mellifera, along with the resident species, Nosema apis. Further studies indicated that disease caused by N. ceranae in European honey bees is far more prevalent than that caused by N. apis. In order to gain more insight into the epidemiology of Nosema parasitism in honey bees, we conducted studies to investigate infection of Nosema in its original host, Eastern honey bees, using conventional PCR and duplex real time quantitative PCR methods. Our results showed that A. cerana was infected not only with N. ceranae as previously reported [Fries, I., Feng, F., Silva, A.D., Slemenda, S.B., Pieniazek, N.J., 1996. Nosema ceranae n. sp. (Microspora, Nosematidae), morphological and molecular characterization of a microsporidian parasite of the Asian honey bee Apis cerana (Hymenoptera, Apidae). Eur. J. Protistol. 32, 356-365], but also with N. apis. Both microsporidia produced single and mixed infections. Overall and at each location alone, the prevalence of N. ceranae was higher than that of N. apis. In all cases of mixed infections, the number of N. ceranae gene copies (corresponding to the parasite load) significantly out numbered those of N. apis. Phylogenetic analysis based on a variable region of small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSUrRNA) showed four distinct clades of N. apis and five clades of N. ceranae and that geographical distance does not appear to influence the genetic diversity of Nosema populations. The results from this study demonstrated that duplex real-time qPCR assay developed in this study is a valuable tool for quantitative measurement of Nosema and can be used to monitor the progression of microsprodian infections of honey bees in a timely and cost efficient manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Chen
- USDA-ARS, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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150
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vanEngelsdorp D, Evans JD, Donovall L, Mullin C, Frazier M, Frazier J, Tarpy DR, Hayes J, Pettis JS. "Entombed Pollen": A new condition in honey bee colonies associated with increased risk of colony mortality. J Invertebr Pathol 2009; 101:147-9. [PMID: 19361513 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2009.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2008] [Revised: 03/14/2009] [Accepted: 03/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Here we describe a new phenomenon, entombed pollen, which is highly associated with increased colony mortality. Entombed pollen is sunken, capped cells amidst "normal", uncapped cells of stored pollen, and some of the pollen contained within these cells is brick red in color. There appears to be a lack of microbial agents in the pollen, and larvae and adult bees do not have an increased rate of mortality when they are fed diets supplemented with entombed pollen in vitro, suggesting that the pollen itself is not directly responsible for increased colony mortality. However, the increased incidence of entombed pollen in reused wax comb suggests that there is a transmittable factor common to the phenomenon and colony mortality. In addition, there were elevated pesticide levels, notably of the fungicide chlorothalonil, in entombed pollen. Additional studies are needed to determine if there is a causal relationship between entombed pollen, chemical residues, and colony mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis vanEngelsdorp
- Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Penn State University, Harrisburg, 17074, United States.
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