The Influence of Colorants, Flavorants and Product Identity on Perceptions of Naturalness

Natural foods are important to consumers, yet frustrating to producers due to the lack of a formal definition of “natural”. Previous work has studied how consumers define naturalness and how they rate the naturalness of various products, but there is a gap in knowledge relating to how color and flavor additives impact perceptions. The objective of this study was to understand how colorants and flavorants on ingredient statements affect perceptions of naturalness. An online survey was launched in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia to determine how consumers perceive products with ingredient statements containing different combinations of artificial and natural colors and flavors when shown with and without the product identity. Results showed that consumers look at the whole product primarily to make decisions about naturalness, but also consider other factors. Products derived from plants and products with natural colors and flavors were perceived to be the most natural. Artificial flavors may be more acceptable than artificial colors due to negative health perceptions and labeling rules associated with colors. Additionally, factors like ingredient familiarity and processing likely influence consumers when making decisions about product naturalness. Males, Millennials, and educated participants have higher naturalness scores than other participants in their respective demographics.

Food additives and microbiota

The use of food additives in food production is inevitable in this modern world. Although only a safe amount of food additives is approved, their safety has always been questioned. To our knowledge, the effects of food additives on microbiota have not been investigated in a detailed manner in the literature so far. In this review, the effects of artificial sweeteners, sugar alcohols, emulsifiers, food colorants, flavor enhancers, thickeners, anticaking agents, and preservatives on microbiota were reviewed. Even though most of the results illustrated negative outcomes, few of them showed positive effects of food additives on the microbiota. Although it is difficult to obtain exact results due to differences in experimental animals and models, said the findings suggest that nonnutritive synthetic sweeteners may lead to glucose intolerance by affecting microbiota and a part of sugar alcohols show similar effects like probiotics.

Consumer Distrust about E-numbers: A Qualitative Study among Food Experts

Food additives (E-numbers) are allowed in foods, but many consumers have a negative perception of them. The objective was to study the opinion of food experts about the causes and ways to reduce consumer distrust about E-numbers. Thirteen food experts from universities, research institutes, the government, food industry organisations, media, a nutrition information organisation, a consumer association and two other non-governmental organisations (NGOs) were interviewed with a semi-structured topic list, based on a model of risk perception. Interviews were transcribed, coded by an open-coding approach and analysed. Results indicated that, according to food experts, consumer distrust of E-numbers arose from negative communication by traditional media, social media and books. Food experts suggested that the information sources and the reliability of E-number information are important for consumers. Food experts also suggested reducing consumer distrust by avoiding negative label claims and making collective agreements with all parties about honest and transparent communication. According to interviewed food experts, food companies need to explain clearly and honestly why they use E-numbers in food. A nutrition information organisation and the government were often mentioned as appropriate parties to undertake action. The interviews suggested that consumers had no confidence in the food industry.

Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Lutein from Scenedesmus almeriensis

Lutein has several benefits for human health, playing an important role in the prevention of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), cataracts, amelioration of the first stages of atherosclerosis, and some types of cancer. In this work, the Scenedesmus almeriensis microalga was used as a natural source for the supercritical fluid (SF) extraction of lutein. For this purpose, the optimization of the main parameters affecting the extraction, such as biomass pre-treatment, temperature, pressure, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) flow rate, was performed. In the first stage, the effect of mechanical pre-treatment (diatomaceous earth (DE) and biomass mixing in the range 0.25-1 DE/biomass; grinding speed varying between 0 and 600 rpm, and pre-treatment time changing from 2.5 to 10 min), was evaluated on lutein extraction efficiency. In the second stage, the influence of SF-CO₂ extraction parameters such as pressure (25-55 MPa), temperature (50 and 65 °C), and CO₂ flow rate (7.24 and 14.48 g/min) on lutein recovery and purity was investigated. The results demonstrated that by increasing temperature, pressure, and CO₂ flow rate lutein recovery and purity were improved. The maximum lutein recovery (~98%) with purity of ~34% was achieved operating at 65 °C and 55 MPa with a CO₂ flow rate of 14.48 g/min. Therefore, optimum conditions could be useful in food industries for lutein supplementation in food products.

Interaction of Caffeic Acid with SDS Micellar Aggregates

Micellar systems consisting of a surfactant and an additive such as an organic salt or an acid usually self-organize as a series of worm-like micelles that ultimately form a micellar network. The nature of the additive influences micellar structure and properties such as aggregate lifetime. For ionic surfactants such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), CMC decreases with increasing temperature to a minimum in the low-temperature region beyond which it exhibits the opposite trend. The presence of additives in a surfactant micellar system also modifies monomer interactions in aggregates, thereby altering CMC and conductance. Because the standard deviation of β was always lower than 10%, its slight decrease with increasing temperature was not significant. However, the absolute value of Gibbs free enthalpy, a thermodynamic potential that can be used to calculate the maximum of reversible work, increased with increasing temperature and caffeic acid concentration. Micellization in the presence of caffeic acid was an endothermic process, which was entropically controlled. The enthalpy and enthropy positive values resulted from melting of "icebergs" or "flickering clusters" around the surfactant, leading to increased packing of hydrocarbon chains within the micellar core in a non-random manner. This can be possibly explained by caffeic acid governing the 3D matrix structure of water around the micellar aggregates. The fact that both enthalpy and entropy were positive testifies to the importance of hydrophobic interactions as a major driving force for micellization. Micellar systems allow the service life of some products to be extended without the need to increase the amounts of post-harvest storage preservatives used. If a surfactant is not an allowed ingredient or food additive, carefully washing it off before the product is consumed can avoid any associated risks. In this work, we examined the influence of temperature and SDS concentration on the properties of SDS⁻caffeic acid micellar systems. Micellar properties can be modified with various additives to develop new uses for micelles. This allows smaller amounts of additives to be used without detracting from their benefits.

Agro-Food Byproducts as a New Source of Natural Food Additives

Nowadays, the agro-food industry generates high amounts of byproducts that may possess added value compounds with high functionality and/or bioactivity. Additionally, consumers' demand for healthier foodstuffs has increased over the last years, and thus the food industry has strived to answer this challenge. Byproducts are generally secondary products derived from primary agro-food production processes and represent an interesting and cheaper source of potentially functional ingredients, such as peptides, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds, thus promoting a circular economy concept. The existing body of work has shown that byproducts and their extracts may be successfully incorporated into foodstuffs, for instance, phenolic compounds from eggplant can be potentially used as a mulfitunctional food additive with antimicrobial, antioxidant, and food colorant properties. As such, the aim of this review is to provide insights into byproducts and their potential as new sources of foodstuffs additives.

Chewing gum consumption in the United States among children, adolescents and adults

Data regarding chewing gum consumption habits and attitudes were collected for 963 children and adolescents (aged 6-14) and 3150 adolescents and adults (aged 13 years+) in the United States (U.S.) using a dedicated online food frequency questionnaire. A total of 79.6% of children/adolescents reported using chewing gum in the last 3 months, whereas 61.8% of adolescents/adults chewed gum in the previous 6 months. The mean and 90th percentile of consumption among children/adolescents aged 6-14 were 1.95 and 4.71 g day^-1, equivalent to 0.75 and 1.78 pieces per day, respectively. Stratification by gender and age brackets revealed that the consumption of chewing gum was more heavily reported in boys compared to girls. Among adolescents/adults aged 13 years and older, the mean and 90th percentile of consumption of chewing gum was estimated to be 2.98 and 7.67 g day^-1, or 1.05 and 3.00 pieces per day, respectively. Stratification by gender and by age brackets in this cohort did not reveal any marked patterns although it was noted that there was a decrease in the percent consuming with age (from 87.0 to 34.5%). The most commonly reported chew frequency among all ages was 'two or three times a week' (23.7 to 26.8%). The average and high-level estimates reported herein provide up-to-date estimates of chewing gum consumption in the U.S. Comparisons of the calculated intake values with those reported from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey dataset suggests that national nutrition surveys may result in an under-reporting of the percent consumers, but similar estimates for the daily intakes in g day^-1.

Extracellular Vesicles as Vehicles for the Delivery of Food Bioactives

The nutritional value of food can be improved by the addition of bioactive compounds. However, most of these favorable food additives demonstrate low bioavailability because of their limited stability, solubility, and structural transformations upon digestion and absorption. One strategy to combat these limitations is to integrate bioactives into nanoparticles, although the mostly used artificial materials may result in immune system activation and fast clearing times. Therefore, novel, more biocompatible delivery systems are required. Extracellular vesicles are communication tools designed by evolution to transfer information between cells, organs, and whole organisms. Hence, these vesicles offer enormous potential for targeted bioactive compound delivery.

Extraction of Bioactive Compounds Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

Microalgae Dunaliella salina contains useful molecules such as β-carotene and fatty acids (FAs), which are considered high value-added compounds. To extract these molecules, supercritical carbon dioxide was used at different operative conditions. The effects of mechanical pre-treatment (grinding speed at 0–600 rpm; pre-treatment time of 2.5–7.5 min) and operating parameters for extraction, such as biomass loading (2.45 and 7.53 g), pressure (100–550 bars), temperature (50–75 °C) and CO₂ flow rate (7.24 and 14.48 g/min) by varying the extraction times (30–110 min) were evaluated. Results showed that the maximum cumulative recovery (25.48%) of β-carotene was achieved at 400 bars and 65 °C with a CO₂ flow rate of 14.48 g/min, while the highest purity for stage (55.40%) was attained at 550 bars and 65 °C with a CO₂ flow rate of 14.48 g/min. The maximum recovery of FAs, equal to 8.47 mg/g, was achieved at 550 bars and 75 °C with a CO₂ flow rate of 14.48 g/min. Moreover, the lowest biomass loading (2.45 g) and the first extraction cycle (30 min) allowed the maximum extraction of β-carotene and FAs.

Synergistic Effects of The Enhancements to Mitochondrial ROS, p53 Activation and Apoptosis Generated by Aspartame and Potassium Sorbate in HepG2 Cells

The safety of food additives has been widely concerned. Using single additives in the provisions of scope is safe, but the combination of additives, may induce additive, synergy, antagonism and other joint effects. This study investigated the cytotoxicity of aspartame (AT) together with potassium sorbate (PS). Thiazolyl Blue Tetrazolium Bromide (MTT) assay indicated that AT and PS had IC50 values of 0.48 g/L and 1.25 g/L at 24 h, respectively. High content analysis (HCA) showed that both AT and PS had a negative effect on mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA damage while the joint group behaved more obviously. The biochemical assays revealed typical cell morphological changes and the activation of cytochrome c and caspase-3 verified apoptosis induced by AT together with PS. With dissipation of MMP and increase of cell membrane permeability (CMP), it indicated AT together with PS-induced apoptosis was mediated by mitochondrial pathway. Meanwhile, p53 were involved in DNA damage, and the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 was increased. Moreover, excessive ROS induced by AT together with PS is a key initiating factor for apoptosis. All these results proved that p53 was involved in apoptosis via mitochondria-mediated pathway and the process was regulated by ROS.

Lack of Awareness of Dietary Sources of Phosphorus Is a Clinical Concern

Hyperphosphatemia is a serious complication in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and is associated with more rapid progression as well as higher risk of mortality, and higher rate of cardiovascular disease accidents. CKD patients are usually advised to adopt a low phosphate diet in addition to phosphate-lowering medications, if necessary. However, there is a lack of awareness of the dietary sources of phosphate, especially hidden phosphate intake from phosphate additives in processed foods and carbonated beverages. Appropriate nutritional education could be an effective solution in reducing phosphate toxicity without introducing an additional pill burden or malnutrition.

Production of Selenomethionine-Enriched Bifidobacterium bifidum BGN4 via Sodium Selenite Biocatalysis

Selenium is a trace element essential for human health that has received considerable attention due to its nutritional value. Selenium’s bioactivity and toxicity are closely related to its chemical form, and several studies have suggested that the organic form of selenium (i.e., selenomethionine) is more bioavailable and less toxic than its inorganic form (i.e., sodium selenite). Probiotics, especially Bifidobacteriium and Lactobacillus spp., have received increasing attention in recent years, due to their intestinal microbial balancing effects and nutraceutical benefits. Recently, the bioconversion (a.k.a biotransformation) of various bioactive molecules (e.g., minerals, primary and secondary metabolites) using probiotics has been investigated to improve substrate biofunctional properties. However, there have been few reports of inorganic selenium conversion into its organic form using Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus spp. Here we report that the biosynthesis of organic selenium was accomplished using the whole cell bioconversion of sodium selenite under controlled Bifidobacterium bifidum BGN4 culture conditions. The total amount of organic and inorganic selenium was quantified using an inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES). The selenium species were separated via anion-exchange chromatography and analyzed with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Our findings indicated that the maximum level of organic selenium was 207.5 µg/g in selenium-enriched B. bifidum BGN4. Selenomethionine was the main organic selenium in selenium-enriched B. bifidum BGN4 (169.6 µg/g). Considering that B. bifidum BGN4 is a commercial probiotic strain used in the functional food industry with clinically proven beneficial effects, selenium-enriched B. bifidum BGN4 has the potential to provide dual healthy functions as a daily supplement of selenium and regulator of intestinal bacteria. This is the first report on the production of organic selenium using B. bifidum spp.

Effects of Food-Additive-Information on Consumers' Willingness to Accept Food with Additives

This study tested whether information on positive food additives and negative food additives had an effect on consumers' risk perception and their willingness to accept (WTA) food with additives. Consumers' WTA was examined via a random nth-price auction of exchanging freshly squeezed orange juice without additives for orange juice with additives. Results show that consumers' WTA differs with the order in which information was provided. Consumers are generally more sensitive to negative than positive information on additives. Female, middle-educated consumers are more susceptible to additive information and their WTA is more likely to change, while postgraduate-educated consumers are less sensitive to additive information. Consumers with higher food-safety satisfaction have lower WTA than those who are not satisfied with food safety. However, their satisfaction is easily affected by the negative-information intervention. Interestingly, consumers with relatively good knowledge of additives had higher WTA than those with no such knowledge. This study provides insight on how to establish effective food-safety-risk communication. Government and non-government agencies need to timely and accurately eliminate food-safety scares through the daily communication and disclosure of food-safety information, as well as prevent the misguidance of negative food safety-risk information.

Production of Food and Feed Additives From Non-food-competing Feedstocks: Valorizing N-acetylmuramic Acid for Amino Acid and Carotenoid Fermentation With Corynebacterium glutamicum

Corynebacterium glutamicum is used for the million-ton-scale production of food and feed amino acids such as L-glutamate and L-lysine and has been engineered for production of carotenoids such as lycopene. These fermentation processes are based on sugars present in molasses and starch hydrolysates. Due to competing uses of starch and sugars in human nutrition, this bacterium has been engineered for utilization of alternative feedstocks, for example, pentose sugars present in lignocellulosic and hexosamines such as glucosamine (GlcN) and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc). This study describes strain engineering and fermentation using N-acetyl-D-muramic acid (MurNAc) as non-food-competing feedstock. To this end, the genes encoding the MurNAc-specific PTS subunits MurP and Crr and the etherase MurQ from Escherichia coli K-12 were expressed in C. glutamicumΔnanR. While MurP and MurQ were required to allow growth of C. glutamicumΔnanR with MurNAc, heterologous Crr was not, but it increased the growth rate in MurNAc minimal medium from 0.15 h-1 to 0.20 h-1. When in addition to murP-murQ-crr the GlcNAc-specific PTS gene nagE from C. glycinophilum was expressed in C. glutamicumΔnanR, the resulting strain could utilize blends of GlcNAc and MurNAc. Fermentative production of the amino acids L-glutamate and L-lysine, the carotenoid lycopene, and the L-lysine derived chemicals 1,5-diaminopentane and L-pipecolic acid either from MurNAc alone or from MurNAc-GlcNAc blends was shown. MurNAc and GlcNAc are the major components of the bacterial cell wall and bacterial biomass is an underutilized side product of large-scale bacterial production of organic acids, amino acids or enzymes. The proof-of-concept for valorization of MurNAc reached here has potential for biorefinery applications to convert non-food-competing feedstocks or side-streams to valuable products such as food and feed additives.

Improved method for the determination of 12 non-nutritive sweeteners and monitoring in various foods using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

An improved and highly sensitive method was developed and validated for the determination of 12 (7 permitted and 5 non-permitted in Korea) non-nutritive sweeteners in various foods using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry. The chromatographic separation was performed on an Xbridge BEH C18 column (3 mm × 100 mm, 2.5 μm) with gradient elution using 10 mM ammonium acetate in water and 10 mM ammonium acetate in methanol. Sample preparation consisted of simple dilution, homogenisation, centrifugation and purification with a C18 cartridge prior to analysis. The relative matrix effect (%ME) was within ±20% for all sweeteners. The method also showed good linearity (R² > 0.99). The limit of detection and limit of quantification values in sample were in the range of 0.02-2.66 and 0.06-8.05 mg kg^-1, respectively. The recoveries at three concentration levels ranged between 80% and 119%, with relative standard deviation values below 10%. In addition, the expanded uncertainties determined for 12 sweeteners in 5 different food matrices were confirmed to be <14%. Finally, the method was successfully applied to the analysis of sweeteners in 681 food samples purchased in Korea, Australia and Turkey. These results demonstrate that the method is suitable for the simultaneous determination of multiple-sweeteners in a variety of foods.

Rebooting the generally recognized as safe (GRAS) approach for food additive safety in the US

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has premarket review authority over food additives, but a food manufacturer may, according to the legislation, intentionally add a substance to human food or animal food without their premarket review or approval if the substance is generally recognized, among qualified experts, to be safe under the conditions of its intended use. Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) implies that the current scientific community agrees on the adequacy of how data is generated. This system has come under public pressure because of doubts as to its efficiency and the FDA's recent GRAS rule is part of the response. The FDA guidance for testing food additives, known as the "Redbook", is about two decades old. Work toward a new "Redbook" is on the way, but the US Grocery Manufacturer Association (GMA) also has initiated the development of an independent standard on how to perform GRAS determinations. This review of the current guidance shows a very rigorous system for higher concern levels, but also many waiving options. Opportunities and challenges for safety evaluations of food additives are discussed. Where scientific progress has allowed improving existing and adapting new methods, these should be adopted to improve product safety and animal welfare. The continuous adaptation of such improved methods is therefore needed. Especially, there are opportunities to embrace developments within the toxicity testing for the 21st century movement and evidence-based toxicology approaches. Also, the growing understanding of the limitations of traditional tests needs to be considered.

Engineered Microorganisms for the Production of Food Additives Approved by the European Union-A Systematic Analysis

In the 1950s, the idea of a single harmonized list of food additives for the European Union arose. Already in 1962, the E-classification system, a robust food safety system intended to protect consumers from possible food-related risks, was introduced. Initially, it was restricted to colorants, but at later stages also preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, stabilizers, thickeners, gelling agents, sweeteners, and flavorings were included. Currently, the list of substances authorized by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (referred to as "E numbers") comprises 316 natural or artificial substances including small organic molecules, metals, salts, but also more complex compounds such as plant extracts and polymers. Low overall concentrations of such compounds in natural producers due to inherent regulation mechanisms or production processes based on non-regenerative carbon sources led to an increasing interest in establishing more reliable and sustainable production platforms. In this context, microorganisms have received significant attention as alternative sources providing access to these compounds. Scientific advancements in the fields of molecular biology and genetic engineering opened the door toward using engineered microorganisms for overproduction of metabolites of their carbon metabolism such as carboxylic acids and amino acids. In addition, entire pathways, e.g., of plant origin, were functionally introduced into microorganisms, which holds the promise to get access to an even broader range of accessible products. The aim of this review article is to give a systematic overview on current efforts during construction and application of microbial cell factories for the production of food additives listed in the EU "E numbers" catalog. The review is focused on metabolic engineering strategies of industrially relevant production hosts also discussing current bottlenecks in the underlying metabolic pathways and how they can be addressed in the future.

A study of enterocyte membranes during activation of apoptotic processes in chronic carrageenan-induced gastroenterocolitis

Aim To investigate the lipid membranes of rat enterocytes in chronic carrageenan-induced gastroenterocolitis accompanied by the activation of apoptotic processes. Methods Steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy: a study by fluorescent probes - by ortho-hydroxy derivatives of 2,5-diaryl-1,3- oxazole. Activity of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase in small intestinal homogenates, blood serum levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and caspase-3 and the level of DNA fragmentation in small intestinal homogenates were determined. Results Biochemical analysis revealed that an activation of apoptotic processes occurred in the intestinal epithelium of rats during chronic carrageenan-induced gastroenterocolitis. The fluorescence probes showed that activation of apoptotic processes in carrageenan-induced gastroenterocolitis was accompanied by changes in polar regions of rat enterocyte membranes, while no changes were revealed in more hydrophobic regions of the membranes. Conclusion The increase in hydration of membranes was attributed to the activation of the apoptosis of enterocytes. It has been shown that a fluorescent probe (2-(2'-hydroxyphenyl)-5-phenyl-1,3-oxazole) can be used for the detection of apoptosis of enterocytes.

Mucus: An Underestimated Gut Target for Environmental Pollutants and Food Additives

Synthetic chemicals (environmental pollutants, food additives) are widely used for many industrial purposes and consumer-related applications, which implies, through manufactured products, diet, and environment, a repeated exposure of the general population with growing concern regarding health disorders. The gastrointestinal tract is the first physical and biological barrier against these compounds, and thus their first target. Mounting evidence indicates that the gut microbiota represents a major player in the toxicity of environmental pollutants and food additives; however, little is known on the toxicological relevance of the mucus/pollutant interplay, even though mucus is increasingly recognized as essential in gut homeostasis. Here, we aimed at describing how environmental pollutants (heavy metals, pesticides, and other persistent organic pollutants) and food additives (emulsifiers, nanomaterials) might interact with mucus and mucus-related microbial species; that is, “mucophilic” bacteria such as mucus degraders. This review highlights that intestinal mucus, either directly or through its crosstalk with the gut microbiota, is a key, yet underestimated gut player that must be considered for better risk assessment and management of environmental pollution.

The Growth and Protein Expression of Inflammatory Bowel Disease-Associated Campylobacter concisus Is Affected by the Derivatives of the Food Additive Fumaric Acid

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal tract with multifactorial etiology. Both dietary factors and the microbe Campylobacter concisus have been found to be associated with the condition. The current study examined the effects of sodium fumarate, a neutralized product of the food additives fumaric acid and monosodium fumarate when in the intestinal environment, on the growth of C. concisus to determine the effects of these food additives on IBD-associated bacterial species. Through culture methods and quantification, it was found that neutralized fumaric acid, neutralized monosodium fumarate, and sodium fumarate increased the growth of C. concisus, with the greatest increase in growth at a concentration of 0.4%. Further examination of 50 C. concisus strains on media with added sodium fumarate showed that greatest growth was also achieved at a concentration of 0.4%. At a concentration of 2% sodium fumarate, all strains examined displayed less growth in comparison with those cultured on media without sodium fumarate. Using mass spectrometry, multiple C. concisus proteins showed significant differential expression when cultured on media with and without 0.4% sodium fumarate. The findings presented suggest that patients with IBD should consider avoiding excessive consumption of foods with fumaric acid or its sodium salts, and that the addition of 0.4% sodium fumarate alone to media may assist in the isolation of C. concisus from clinical samples.

Re-evaluation of carrageenan (E 407) and processed Eucheuma seaweed (E 407a) as food additives

The present opinion deals with the re-evaluation of the safety of food-grade carrageenan (E 407) and processes Eucheuma seaweed (E 407a) used as food additives. Because of the structural similarities, the Panel concluded that processed Eucheuma seaweed can be included in the evaluation of food-grade carrageenan. Poligeenan (average molecular weight 10-20 kDa) has not been authorised as a food additive and is not used in any food applications. In its evaluation of carrageenan (E 407) and processed Eucheuma seaweed (E 407a), the Panel noted that the ADME database was sufficient to conclude that carrageenan was not absorbed intact; in a subchronic toxicity study performed with carrageenan almost complying with the EU specification for E 407 in rats, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) was 3,400-3,900 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day, the highest dose tested; no adverse effects have been detected in chronic toxicity studies with carrageenan in rats up to 7,500 mg/kg bw per day, the highest dose tested; there was no concern with respect to the carcinogenicity of carrageenan; carrageenan and processed Eucheuma seaweed did not raise a concern with respect to genotoxicity; the NOAEL of sodium and calcium carrageenan for prenatal developmental dietary toxicity studies were the highest dose tested; the safety of processed Eucheuma seaweed was sufficiently covered by the toxicological evaluation of carrageenan; data were adequate for a refined exposure assessment for 41 out of 79 food categories. However, the Panel noted uncertainties as regards the chemistry, the exposure assessment and biological and toxicological data. Overall, taking into account the lack of adequate data to address these uncertainties, the Panel concluded that the existing group acceptable daily intake (ADI) for carrageenan (E 407) and processed Eucheuma seaweed (E 407a) of 75 mg/kg bw per day should be considered temporary, while the database should be improved within 5 years after publication of this opinion.

Re-evaluation of sodium, potassium and calcium salts of fatty acids (E 470a) and magnesium salts of fatty acids (E 470b) as food additives

The EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS) provides a scientific opinion re-evaluating the safety of sodium, potassium and calcium salts of fatty acids (E 470a) and magnesium salts of fatty acids (E 470b) when used as food additives. In 1991, the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) established a group acceptable daily intake (ADI) 'not specified' for the fatty acids (myristic-, stearic-, palmitic- and oleic acid) and their salts. The sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids are expected to dissociate in the gastrointestinal tract to fatty acid carboxylates and their corresponding cations. There were no data on subchronic toxicity, chronic toxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity of the salts of fatty acids. There was no concern for mutagenicity of calcium caprylate, potassium oleate and magnesium stearate. From a carcinogenicity study with sodium oleate, a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) could not be identified but the substance was considered not to present a carcinogenic potential. Palmitic- and stearic acid which are the main fatty acids in E 470a and E 470b were already considered of no safety concern in the re-evaluation of the food additive E 570. The fatty acid moieties of E 470a and E 470b contributed maximally for 5% to the overall intake of saturated fatty acids from all dietary sources. Overall, the Panel concluded that there was no need for a numerical ADI and that the food additives sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids (E 470a and E 470b) were of no safety concern at the reported uses and use levels.

Detection and Quantification of 4-Methylimidazole in Cola by Matrix-assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry with Fe2O3 Nanoparticles on Zeolite

Food additives generally used in carbonated drinks, such as 4-methylimidazole (4MI), caffeine (Caf?), citric acid (CA), and aspartame (Apm), were measured by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI MS) using nanometer-sized particles of iron oxide (Fe₂O₃ NPs). The quantification of 4MI in Coca Cola (C-cola) was carried out. In order to improve the reproducibility of the peak intensities, Fe₂O₃ NPs loaded on ZSM5 zeolite were used as the matrix for quantification. By using 2-ethylimidazole (2EI) as the internal standard, the amount of 4MI in C-cola was determined to range from 88 to 65 μg/355 mL. The results agree with the published value (approx. 72 μg/355 mL). It was found that MALDI using Fe₂O₃ was applicable to the quantification of 4MI in C-cola.

Simple Purification of Nicotiana benthamiana-Produced Recombinant Colicins: High-Yield Recovery of Purified Proteins with Minimum Alkaloid Content Supports the Suitability of the Host for Manufacturing Food Additives

Colicins are natural non-antibiotic bacterial proteins with a narrow spectrum but an extremely high antibacterial activity. These proteins are promising food additives for the control of major pathogenic Shiga toxin-producing E. coli serovars in meats and produce. In the USA, colicins produced in edible plants such as spinach and leafy beets have already been accepted by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) as food-processing antibacterials through the GRAS (generally recognized as safe) regulatory review process. Nicotiana benthamiana, a wild relative of tobacco, N. tabacum, has become the preferred production host plant for manufacturing recombinant proteins-including biopharmaceuticals, vaccines, and biomaterials-but the purification procedures that have been employed thus far are highly complex and costly. We describe a simple and inexpensive purification method based on specific acidic extraction followed by one chromatography step. The method provides for a high recovery yield of purified colicins, as well as a drastic reduction of nicotine to levels that could enable the final products to be used on food. The described purification method allows production of the colicin products at a commercially viable cost of goods and might be broadly applicable to other cost-sensitive proteins.

Red Eccrine Chromhidrosis with Review of Literature

A 22-year-old male presented with reddish discoloration of the vest following perspiration for 6 months. He was a habituated consumer of cranberry juice. The peak absorption on spectrophotometric analysis of the extracted sweat coincided approximately with the peak absorption of diluted distillate of the juice. A diagnosis of eccrine chromhidrosis, probably due to the coloring agents in the juice, was considered. This rare case report emphasizes the possible side effect of the various coloring agents used as food additives.

Effects of Food Additives on Immune Cells As Contributors to Body Weight Gain and Immune-Mediated Metabolic Dysregulation

Food additives are compounds used in order to improve food palatability, texture, and shelf life. Despite a significant effort to assure safety of use, toxicological analysis of these substances, generally, rely on their direct toxicity to target organs (liver and kidney) or their genotoxic effects. Much less attention is paid to the effects of these compounds on cells of the immune system. This is of relevance given that metabolic dysregulation and obesity have a strong immune-mediated component. Obese individuals present a state of chronic low-grade inflammation that contributes to the establishment of insulin resistance and other metabolic abnormalities known as the metabolic syndrome. Obesity and metabolic syndrome are currently recognized as worldwide epidemics that pose a profound socioeconomic impact and represent a concern to public health. Cells of the immune system contribute to both the maintenance of "lean homeostasis" and the metabolic dysregulation observed in obese individuals. Although much attention has been drawn in the past decades to obesity and metabolic syndrome as a result of ingesting highly processed food containing large amounts of fat and simple sugars, mounting evidence suggest that food additives may also be important contributors to metabolic derangement. Herein, we review pieces of evidence from the literature showing that food additives have relevant effects on cells of the immune system that could contribute to immune-mediated metabolic dysregulation. Considering their potential to predispose individuals to develop obesity and metabolic syndrome, their use should be taken with caution or maybe revisited.

Approach followed for the refined exposure assessment as part of the safety assessment of food additives under re-evaluation

This statement describes the approach followed by the EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS) for performing refined exposure assessment in the framework of the re-evaluation of already permitted food additives. Estimation of exposure is obtained through combination of different type of data originating from different sources: food additive concentration is obtained from information provided to EFSA on use levels and/or information obtained by means of analytical measurements. In recent years, the use of market research data has also been used. The statement provides also a description of the three different scenarios used for the exposure assessment of food additives under re-evaluation, from the more conservative regulatory maximum level exposure assessment scenario to more refined ones. Lastly, a description is provided on the approach used for the uncertainty analysis which accompanies the exposure assessment.

Impacts of dietary exposure to sodium or potassium salts of nitrate and nitrite on the development of Drosophila melanogaster

The effects of four food additives, namely sodium nitrite (NaNO2), sodium nitrate (NaNO3), potassium nitrite (KNO2), and potassium nitrate (KNO3), on animal development were evaluated by using Drosophila melanogster, a model organism. Adult male and female flies were allowed to breed in culture medium, each containing one of 4 concentrations, i.e.10, 20, 30 or 40 mM of the above mentioned salts. The concentration of 40 mM, NaNO2 and KNO2 completely arrested the development of the flies. Of the different concentrations of the four salts tested, exposure of flies to 30 mM NaNO2 exhibited only significant delays in the initial appearances of third instar larvae, pupae and young adults, along with huge reduction in the number of pupae and young adults compared to controls. Rearrangements like inversions, deletion looping, regional shrinking, as well as highly enlarged puffing, etc. were also observed in the polytene chromosomes of the third instar larvae exposed to 30 mM NaNO2. Developmental outcomes of the flies exposed to varying concentrations of NaNO3 and KNO3 did not differ significantly from the controls. Owing to the extensive genetic homology between Drosophila and human and the successful uses of this fly as models in developmental and toxicological studies, we speculate that the experimental results exhibited by this organism in our study strongly advocate for abstaining from the dietary use of NaNO2 and KNO2 during human pregnancies to avoid possible negative developmental outcomes.

Pharmacokinetics of Rhodamine 110 and Its Organ Distribution in Rats

Rhodamine dyes have been banned as food additives due to their potential tumorigenicity. Rhodamine 110 is illegal as a food additive, although its pharmacokinetics have not been characterized, and no accurate bioanalytical methods are available to quantify rhodamine 110. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a fast, stable, and sensitive method to quantify rhodamine 110 using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) to assess its pharmacokinetics and organ distribution in awake rats. Rhodamine 110 exhibited linear pharmacokinetics and slow elimination after oral administration. Furthermore, its oral bioavailability was approximately 34-35%. The distribution in the liver and kidney suggests that these organs are primarily responsible for rhodamine 110 metabolism and elimination. Our investigation describes the pharmacokinetics and a quantification method for rhodamine 110, improving our understanding of the food safety of rhodamine dyes.

Biological Activities of Three Essential Oils of the Lamiaceae Family

Herbs and spices have been used since ancient times to improve the sensory characteristics of food, to act as preservatives and for their nutritional and healthy properties. Herbs and spices are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and are excellent substitutes for chemical additives. Essential oils are mixtures of volatile compounds obtained, mainly by steam distillation, from medicinal and aromatic plants. They are an alternative to synthetic additives for the food industry, and they have gained attention as potential sources for natural food preservatives due to the growing interest in the development of safe, effective, natural food preservation. Lamiaceae is one of the most important families in the production of essential oils with antioxidants and antimicrobial properties. Aromatic plants are rich in essential oils and are mainly found in the Mediterranean region, where the production of such oils is a profitable source of ecological and economic development. The use of essential oils with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties to increase the shelf life of food is a promising technology, and the essential oils of the Lamiaceae family, such as rosemary, thyme, and sage, have been extensively studied with respect to their use as food preservatives. Regarding the new applications of essential oils, this review gives an overview of the current knowledge and recent trends in the use of these oils from aromatic plants as antimicrobials and antioxidants in foods, as well as their biological activities, future potential, and challenges.

Food additives: Sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, azorubine, and tartrazine modify the expression of NFκB, GADD45α, and MAPK8 genes

It has been reported that some of the food additives may cause sensitization, inflammation of tissues, and potentially risk factors in the development of several chronic diseases. Thus, we hypothesized that expressions of common inflammatory molecules - known to be involved in the development of various inflammatory conditions and cancers - are affected by these food additives. We investigated the effects of commonly used food preservatives and artificial food colorants based on the expressions of NFκB, GADD45α, and MAPK8 (JNK1) from the tissues of liver. RNA was isolated based on Trizol protocol and the activation levels were compared between the treated and the control groups. Tartrazine alone could elicit effects on the expressions of NFκB (p = 0.013) and MAPK8 (p = 0.022). Azorubine also resulted in apoptosis according to MAPK8 expression (p = 0.009). Preservatives were anti-apoptotic in high dose. Sodium benzoate (from low to high doses) dose-dependently silenced MAPK8 expression (p = 0.004 to p = 0.002). Addition of the two preservatives together elicited significantly greater expression of MAPK8 at half-fold dose (p = 0.002) and at fivefold dose (p = 0.008). This study suggests that some of the food preservatives and colorants can contribute to the activation of inflammatory pathways.

Influence of Food Characteristics and Food Additives on the Antimicrobial Effect of Garlic and Oregano Essential Oils

Utilization of essential oils (EOs) as antimicrobial agents against foodborne disease has gained importance, for their use as natural preservatives. Since potential interactions between EOs and food characteristics may affect their antimicrobial properties, the present work studies the influence of fat, protein, pH, aw and food additives on the antimicrobial effect of oregano and garlic EOs against Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes. Results showed that protein, pH, aw, presence of beef extract, sodium lactate and nitrates did not influence their antimicrobial effect. In contrast, the presence of pork fat had a negative effect against both EOs associated with their dilution of the lipid content. The addition of food phosphates also exerts a negative effect against EOs probably associated with their emulsification properties as observed with the addition of fat. The results may help the food industry to select more appropriate challenges to guarantee the food safety of foodstuffs.

Application of Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry To Determine Urinary Concentrations of Five Commonly Used Low-Calorie Sweeteners: A Novel Biomarker Approach for Assessing Recent Intakes?

Although the use of low-calorie sweeteners (LCSs) is widespread, methods of assessing consumption within free-living populations have inherent limitations. Five commonly consumed LCSs, namely, acesulfame-K, saccharin, sucralose, cyclamate, and steviol glycosides, are excreted via the urine, and therefore a urinary biomarker approach may provide more objective LCS intake data. A LC-ESI-MS/MS method of simultaneously determining acesulfame-K, saccharin, sucralose, cyclamate, and the excretory metabolite of steviol glycosides, steviol glucuronide, in human urine was developed and validated. Linearity was observed over a concentration range of 10-1000 ng/mL with coefficients of determination ranging from 0.9969 to 0.9997. Accuracy ranged from 92 to 104%, and intrabatch and interday precisions were within acceptable limits with %CV below 8% for all compounds. A double-blind, randomized crossover dose-response study was conducted to assess the usefulness of urinary LCS excretions (from both fasting spot and a full 24-h urine collection) for investigating recent intakes. Both modes of sampling were useful for distinguishing between the three short-term intakes of acesulfame-K, saccharin, cyclamates, and steviol glycosides (p < 0.001), whereas for sucralose, urinary concentrations were useful for distinguishing between low (0.1% ADI) and high doses (10% ADI) only (p < 0.001). In summary, this biomarker approach may be useful for assessing intakes of five commonly consumed LCSs.

Re-evaluation of konjac gum (E 425 i) and konjac glucomannan (E 425 ii) as food additives

The present opinion deals with the re-evaluation of konjac (E 425), comprising konjac gum (E 425 i) and konjac glucomannan (E 425 ii) when used as food additives. Following the conceptual framework for the risk assessment of certain food additives re-evaluated under Commission Regulation (EU) No 257/2010, the Panel considered that current use of konjac (E 425) was limited in all food categories to maximum permitted level (MPL) of 10 g/kg, and that the calculated indicative refined exposure assessment for all population groups was below 0.1 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day for the general population (mean and high level). Konjac gum and konjac glucomannan were unlikely to be absorbed intact and were significantly fermented by intestinal microbiota. The available database on toxicological studies was considered limited, however, no relevant adverse effects were seen in rats and dogs in 90-day feeding studies according to the SCF, the no-observed-effect level (NOEL) in rats being 1,250 mg konjac glucomannan/kg bw per day. Konjac gum and konjac glucomannan were of no concern with respect to the genotoxicity. After a daily dosage of 3,000 mg in adults for 12 weeks, several individuals experienced abdominal discomfort including diarrhoea or constipation. The Panel concluded that there was no need for a numerical acceptable daily intake (ADI) and that there was no safety concern for the general population at the refined exposure assessment for the reported uses of konjac gum (E 425 i) and konjac glucomannan (E 425 ii) as food additives under the current conditions of use of 10 g/kg. The Panel agreed with the conclusions of the SCF (1997) that the uses of konjac (E 425) as an additive at the levels up to 10 g/kg in food are acceptable, provided that the total intake from all sources stays below 3 g/day.

Eating Habits and Food Additive Intakes Are Associated with Emotional States Based on EEG and HRV in Healthy Korean Children and Adolescents

PURPOSE

Recent study suggests that psychological issues and eating habits are closely related. In this study, we aimed to find the association between eating habits and intakes of artificial sweeteners with emotional states of schoolchildren using quantitatively analyzing objective biosignals.

METHODS

The study was conducted at the National Standard Reference Data Center for Korean EEG as a cross-sectional study. Three hundred eighteen healthy children who have not been diagnosed with neurologic or psychiatric disorders were evaluated (168 girls and 150 boys; mean age of 11.8 ± 3.6 years). Analysis indicators were a dietary intake checklist for children's nutrition-related behavior score (NBS), consisting of 19 items; food frequency questionnaires (FFQs), consisting of 76 items; the Child Depression Inventory (CDI); State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-State (STAI-S); State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait (STAI-T); electroencephalograph (EEG); and heart rate variability (HRV).

RESULTS

Higher scores on the CDI, STAI-S, and STAI-T indicate negative emotions, and these scores were significantly decreased from the first to the fourth quartiles. The HRV results showed that the standard deviation of all normal-to-normal (SDNN) intervals was significantly higher in the first quartile than in the fourth quartile (p < 0.05). The intakes of artificial sweeteners and processed foods such as hamburgers correlate with higher theta/beta ratios, and intakes of natural foods such as legumes and fruits correlate with lower theta/beta ratios (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

From this result we confirmed a link between overall nutritional behavior, food additive intakes, and emotion in apparently healthy children and adolescents.

Preventing necrotizing enterocolitis by food additives in neonates: A network meta-analysis revealing the efficacy and safety

BACKGROUND

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a serious multifactorial gastrointestinal disease which is often discovered in premature infants. Various additives have been used to prevent NEC; yet, their relative efficacy and safety remain disputed. This study aims to compare the efficacy and safety of 5 food additives, namely, probiotics, probiotics + fructo-oligosaccharides, pentoxifylline, arginine, and lactoferrin in preventing NEC in neonates.

METHODS

Embase, PubMed, and Cochrane Library had been searched for all eligible randomized control trials. Odds ratios (ORs) were estimated for dichotomous data and mean differences with 95% credible intervals (CrIs) were estimated for continuous data. Surface under the cumulative ranking curve was used to rank efficacy and safety of the prevention methods on each endpoint.

RESULTS

A total of 27 eligible studies with 4649 preterm infants were included in this network meta-analysis (NMA), and the efficacy and safety of 5 food additives were evaluated. Probiotic and arginine exhibited better preventive efficacy compared with placebo (OR = 0.50, 95% CrIs: 0.32-0.73; OR = 0.30, 95% CrIs: 0.12-0.73, respectively). Only probiotic achieved a considerable decrease in the risk of mortality compared to placebo (OR = 0.68, 95% CrIs: 0.46-0.98). NEC patients with lactoferrin appeared to have lower incidence of sepsis than those of placebo (OR = 0.13, 95% CrIs: 0.03-0.61) or probiotic (OR = 0.18, 95% CrIs: 0.03-0.83).

CONCLUSION

Based on this NMA, probiotics had the potential to be the most preferable additive, since it exhibited a significant superiority for NEC and mortality as well as a relatively balanced performance in safety.

Harnessing the Potential of Blood Proteins as Functional Ingredients: A Review of the State of the Art in Blood Processing

Blood is generated in very large volumes as a by-product in slaughterhouses all around the world. On the one hand, blood generation presents a serious environmental issue because of its high pollutant capacity; however, on the other hand, blood has the potential to be collected and processed to generate high-added-value food ingredients based on its exceptional nutritive value and its excellent functional properties. In this paper, we review the current state of the art for blood processing, from collection to final recovery of protein isolates, the functional properties of blood, impact of processing on functional properties, and potential applications as food ingredients. Furthermore, future challenges are outlined for this underutilized and abundant product from the meat industry.

Simulating real-life exposures to uncover possible risks to human health: A proposed consensus for a novel methodological approach

In real life, consumers are exposed to complex mixtures of chemicals via food, water and commercial products consumption. Since risk assessment usually focuses on individual compounds, the current regulatory approach doesn't assess the overall risk of chemicals present in a mixture. This study will evaluate the cumulative toxicity of mixtures of different classes of pesticides and mixtures of different classes of pesticides together with food additives (FAs) and common consumer product chemicals using realistic doses after long-term exposure. Groups of Sprague Dawley (CD-SD) rats (20 males and 20 females) will be treated with mixtures of pesticides or mixtures of pesticides together with FAs and common consumer product chemicals in 0.0, 0.25 × acceptable daily intake (ADI)/tolerable daily intake (TDI), ADI/TDI and 5 × ADI/TDI doses for 104 weeks. All animals will be examined every day for signs of morbidity and mortality. Clinical chemistry hematological parameters, serum hormone levels, biomarkers of oxidative stress, cardiotoxicity, genotoxicity, urinalysis and echocardiographic tests will be assessed periodically at 6 month intervals. At 3-month intervals, ophthalmological examination, test for sensory reactivity to different types of stimuli, together with assessment of learning abilities and memory performance of the adult and ageing animals will be conducted. After 24 months, animals will be necropsied, and internal organs will be histopathologically examined. If the hypothesis of an increased risk or a new hazard not currently identified from cumulative exposure to multiple chemicals was observed, this will provide further information to public authorities and research communities supporting the need of replacing current single-compound risk assessment by a more robust cumulative risk assessment paradigm.

Antioxidant activity of commercial food grade tannins exemplified in a wine model

Although commercial tannins are widely used in foods and beverages, an improved understanding of the structure and composition of vegetable tannins is needed to promote the exploitation of agri-food by-products and waste and their valorisation in more sustainable industrial applications. This study aims to characterise the phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity of 13 food grade tannins using multiple analytical approaches, including spectrophotometry and HPLC-ECD to determine the amount of targeted polyphenolic compounds. Moreover, the antioxidant activity of tannins was assessed in terms of radical scavenging activity (DPPH• assay), reducing power (FRAP assay), and redox properties (cyclic voltammetry, CV). A statistical univariate and multivariate correlation analysis was performed on 17 parameters including tannin content (range: 0.71-1.62 mM), gallic acid, (+)-catechin, syringic acid and (‒)-epicatechin. The compositional profile of tannins was related to their chemical moiety, antioxidant activity and the botanical origin of the extracts. In particular, the CV signal at 500 mV was highly correlated with DPPH• value due to the catechol ring of flavonoids and trigalloyl moieties of gallic acid-based compounds. Practical examples of tannins application in winemaking are discussed.

Glycolipid biosurfactants: main properties and potential applications in agriculture and food industry

Glycolipids, consisting of a carbohydrate moiety linked to fatty acids, are microbial surface active compounds produced by various microorganisms. They are characterized by high structural diversity and have the ability to decrease the surface and interfacial tension at the surface and interface, respectively. Rhamnolipids, trehalolipids, mannosylerythritol lipids and cellobiose lipids are among the most popular glycolipids. They have received much practical attention as biopesticides for controlling plant diseases and protecting stored products. As a result of their antifungal activity towards phytopathogenic fungi and larvicidal and mosquitocidal potencies, glycolipid biosurfactants permit the preservation of plants and plant crops from pest invasion. Also, as a result of their emulsifying and antibacterial activities, glycolipids have great potential as food additives and food preservatives. Furthermore, the valorization of food byproducts via the production of glycolipid biosurfactant has received much attention because it permits the bioconversion of byproducts on valuable compounds and decreases the cost of production. Generally, the use of glycolipids in many fields requires their retention from fermentation media. Accordingly, different strategies have been developed to extract and purify glycolipids. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Comparison of multiple methods for the determination of sulphite in Allium and Brassica vegetables

Sulphites are a family of additives regulated for use worldwide in food products. They must be declared on the label if they are present in concentrations greater than 10 mg kg^-1, determined as sulphur dioxide (SO₂). The current US regulatory method for sulphites, the optimised Monier-Williams method (OMW), produces false-positive results with vegetables from the Allium (garlic) and Brassica (cabbage) genera due to extraction conditions that are thought to cause endogenous sulphur compounds to release SO₂. Recently, modifications to the OMW method (2x MW) were published that reportedly reduced this false-positive in garlic. However, no other vegetables from these genera have been investigated. In addition, an LC-MS/MS method was developed for sulphite analysis, but it has not yet been tested with these problematic matrices. Ten vegetable species were analysed using these sulphite methods (OMW titration, OMW gravimetric, 2x MW and LC-MS/MS) to determine the false-positive rate. Sulphite concentrations > 10 mg kg^-1 SO₂ were observed with the OMW analyses. The 2x MW method reduced the measured concentration in unsulphited samples to ≤ 10 mg kg^-1 SO₂ for all matrices analysed. The LC-MS/MS method showed concentrations < 10 mg kg^-1 for the Brassica samples, but only displayed a slight reduction in the Allium matrices. Spiked recovery studies were conducted to determine if these methods can detect added sulphite. The 2x MW had recoveries of 17% and 42% for water and fresh garlic, respectively, and the LC-MS/MS had recoveries of 108%, 125%, 116% and 107% for water, fresh garlic, roasted garlic, and hummus, respectively. The low recoveries of the 2x MW may indicate that sulphur compounds cannot be properly quantified with this method. The ability to eliminate false-positives will enable accurate determination of added sulphite to ensure compliance with sulphite labelling requirements.

Production of the natural iron chelator deferriferrichrysin from Aspergillus oryzae and evaluation as a novel food-grade antioxidant

BACKGROUND

Deferriferrichrysin (Dfcy) is a siderophore found in foods fermented by Aspergillus oryzae and is a promising candidate for an antioxidant food additive because of its high binding constant toward iron. However, the Dfcy concentration is typically low in foods and cultures.

RESULTS

We optimised culture conditions to improve Dfcy production to 2800 mg L(-1) from 22.5 mg L(-1) under typical conditions. Then, we evaluated the potential of Dfcy as a food additive by measuring its safety, stability, and antioxidant activity. Dfcy was sufficiently stable that over 90% remained after pasteurisation at 63 °C for 30 min at pH 3-11, or after sterilisation at 120 °C for 4 min at pH 4-6. Dfcy showed high antioxidant activity in an oil-in-water model, where inhibition of lipid oxidation was measured by peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assays. Dfcy decreased PV and TBARS by 83% and 75%, respectively. Antioxidant activity of Dfcy was equal to or higher than that of the synthetic chelator EDTA.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides the first practical method for production of Dfcy. Dfcy can be a novel food-grade antioxidant and the first natural alternative to the synthesised iron chelator EDTA. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of the Food Additives Sodium Citrate and Disodium Phosphate on Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Production of stx-Phages and Shiga toxin

Induction and propagation of bacteriophages along the food production chain can represent a significant risk when bacteriophages carry genes for potent toxins. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different compounds used in the food industry on the growth of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and the production of stx-phage particles and Shiga toxin. We tested the in vitro effect of lactic acid, acetic acid, citric acid, disodium phosphate, and sodium citrate on STEC growth. A bacteriostatic effect was observed in most of treated cultures. The exceptions were those treated with sodium citrate and disodium phosphate in which similar growth curves to the untreated control were observed, but with reduced OD₆₀₀ values. Evaluation of phage production by plaque-based assays showed that cultures treated with sodium citrate and disodium phosphate released phages in similar o lower levels than untreated cultures. However, semi-quantification of Stx revealed higher levels of extracellular Stx in STEC cultures treated with 2.5% sodium citrate than in untreated cultures. Our results reinforce the importance to evaluate if additives and other treatments used to decrease bacterial contamination in food induce stx-phage and Stx production.

Effects of Processing Temperature on Color Properties of Dry-Cured Hams Made without Nitrite

Dry cured hams were investigated for their ability to develop red color even at low temperature (3–4 °C) and in the absence of added nitrites; results were compared with those obtained from nitrite-free hams made at conventional warm maturing temperatures. Colorimetric parameters (L*, a*, b*, and hue) and concentration of the main pigments Zn protoporphyrin IX (ZnPP) and heme were measured at three stages of preparation (six, nine, and 12 months), showing that red color was successfully formed at low temperatures, though at a slower rate and less intensively than under warm conditions. Major differences in the pattern of color development were found with the two processing temperatures. While the typical features of an enzyme-dependent mechanism, with a progressive drop in enzyme activity paralleling the synthesis of Zn protoporphyrin IX, were observed at warm temperatures, the same did not occur in cold-made hams, where the enzyme activity was almost unchanged throughout the process. These results, along with data from a descriptive sensory analysis, are supportive of a non-enzymatic mechanism leading to ZnPP (hence the red color) under cold conditions, with an estimated three-month delay compared with nitrite-free hams manufactured in a warm maturing regimen.

Effect of Various Food Additives on the Levels of 4(5)-Methylimidazole in a Soy Sauce Model System

In this study, the effect of food additives such as iron sulfate, magnesium sulfate, zinc sulfate, citric acid, gallic acid, and ascorbic acid on the reduction of 4(5)-methylimidazole (4(5)-MI) was investigated using a soy sauce model system. The concentration of 4(5)-MI in the soy sauce model system with 5% (v/v) caramel colorant III was 1404.13 μg/L. The reduction rate of 4(5)-MI level with the addition of 0.1M additives followed in order: iron sulfate (81%) > zinc sulfate (61%) > citric acid (40%) > gallic acid (38%) > ascorbic acid (24%) > magnesium sulfate (13%). Correlations between 4(5)-MI levels and the physicochemical properties of soy sauce, including the amount of caramel colorant, pH value, and color differences, were determined. The highest correlations were found between 4(5)-MI levels and the amount of caramel colorant and pH values (r(2) = 0.9712, r(2) = 0.9378). The concentration of caramel colorants in 8 commercial soy sauces were estimated, and ranged from 0.01 to 1.34% (v/v).

Studies of levels of biogenic amines in meat samples in relation to the content of additives

The impact of meat additives on the concentration of biogenic amines and the quality of meat was studied. Fresh white and red meat samples were fortified with the following food additives: citric and lactic acids, disodium diphosphate, sodium nitrite, sodium metabisulphite, potassium sorbate, sodium chloride, ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, propyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate (propyl gallate) and butylated hydroxyanisole. The content of spermine, spermidine, putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, tyramine, tryptamine and 2-phenylethylamine was determined by capillary isotachophoretic methods in meat samples (fresh and fortified) during four days of storage at 4°C. The results were applied to estimate the impact of the tested additives on the formation of biogenic amines in white and red meat. For all tested meats, sodium nitrite, sodium chloride and disodium diphosphate showed the best inhibition. However, cadaverine and putrescine were characterised by the biggest changes in concentration during the storage time of all the additives. Based on the presented data for the content of biogenic amines in meat samples analysed as a function of storage time and additives, we suggest that cadaverine and putrescine have a significant impact on meat quality.

Current and New Insights in the Sustainable and Green Recovery of Nutritionally Valuable Compounds from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni

The South American plant Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a great source of noncaloric sweeteners (steviol glycosides), mainly concentrated in its leaves, but also has important antioxidant compounds (vitamin C, polyphenols, chlorophylls, and carotenoids) and other important macro- and micronutrients such as folic acid and all of the essential amino acids except tryptophan. Traditionally, conventional methods have been used to recover nutritionally valuable compounds from plant food matrices. However, nowadays, the need for obtaining greener, sustainable, and viable processes has led both food industries and food scientists to develop new processes in full correspondence with the green extraction concept. This review focuses on some of the most promising nonconventional and emerging technologies, which may constitute a potential alternative to conventional methods or even could be combined to obtain a synergistic effect, thus reducing extraction time as well as solvent consumption and avoiding the use of toxic solvents.

Magnetic Relaxation Switch Detecting Boric Acid or Borate Ester through One-Pot Synthesized Poly(vinyl alcohol) Functionalized Nanomagnetic Iron Oxide

We developed a highly efficient magnetic relaxation switch (MRS) system based on poly(vinyl alcohol) functionalized nanomagnetic iron oxide (PVA@NMIO) particles for the detection of boric acid or borate ester (BA/BE). It was found that the addition of BA/BE induced the aggregation of PVA@NMIO particles, resulting in a measurable change in the T2 relaxation time in magnetic resonance measurements. The main mechanism was proposed that the electron-deficient boron atoms of BA/BE caused the aggregation of PVA@NMIO particles through covalent binding to the hydroxyl groups of PVA. This novel detection system displayed excellent selectivity, high sensitivity, and rapid detection for BA/BE. Thus, this system may provide a great application prospect for detection of BA/BE.

Development of a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of sulfite in food

Sulfites are widely used food preservatives that can cause severe reactions in sensitive individuals. As a result, the U.S. FDA requires that sulfites be listed on the label of any food product containing >10 mg/kg (ppm) sulfite (measured as sulfur dioxide). Currently, the optimized Monier-Williams (MW) method (AOAC Official Method 990.28) is the most common approach for determining sulfite concentrations in food samples. However, this method is time-consuming and lacks specificity in certain matrices. An improved rapid, sensitive, and selective method has been developed using electrospray ionization (ESI) high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the determination of sulfite in various food matrices. A total of 12 different types of foods were evaluated. These included dried fruits and vegetables, frozen seafood, sweeteners, and juices. The matrix is extracted with a buffered formaldehyde solution, converting free and reversibly bound sulfite to the stable formaldehyde adduct, hydroxymethylsulfonate (HMS). Extracts are prepared for injection using a C18 SPE cartridge to remove any lipophilic compounds. HMS is then separated from other matrix components using hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) and detected using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). The method was validated at 5 concentrations in 12 food matrices. Accuracy data showed spiked recoveries ranging from 84 to 115% in representative foods. Six commercially available sulfited products were analyzed using the LC-MS/MS method, as well as the MW method, to determine if differences exist.