Purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of recombinant calcium-binding domain of the small subunit of porcine calpain

The calcium-binding domain of the small subunit of porcine calpain (domain VI) has been expressed in Escherichia coli, purified, and crystallized in the presence of Ca(2+). Two crystal forms have been obtained by the vapor-diffusion method using PEG 6000 as the precipitant. Crystal form I, belonging to trigonal space group P3(1)21 (or P3(2)21) with cell dimensions a = b = 79.8, c = 57.08 A, alpha = beta = 90.0 and gamma, = 120.0 degrees diffracted to 2.8 A. The second crystal form diffracts to 1.8 A and belongs to monoclinic space group P2(1) with cell dimensions a = 50.1, b = 79.7, c = 57.1 A and beta = 91.2 degrees.

Crystal structure of calcium bound domain VI of calpain at 1.9 A resolution and its role in enzyme assembly, regulation, and inhibitor binding

The three dimensional structure of calcium-bound domain VI of porcine calpain has been determined to 1.9 A resolution. The crystal structure reveals five EF-hands, one more than previously suggested. There are two EF-hand pairs, one pair (EF1-EF2) displays an 'open' conformation and the other (EF3-EF4) a 'closed' conformation. Unusually, a calcium atom is found at the C-terminal end of the calcium binding loop of EF4. With two additional residues in the calcium binding loop, the fifth EF-hand (EF5) is in a 'closed' conformation. EF5 pairs up with the corresponding fifth EF-hand of a non-crystallographically related molecule. Considering the EF5's role in a homodimer formation of domain VI, we suggest a model for the assembly of heterodimeric calpain. The crystal structure of a Ca2+ bound domain VI-inhibitor (PD150606) complex has been refined to 2.1 A resolution. A possible mode for calpain inhibition is discussed.

Trp86 --> Phe replacement in bacteriorhodopsin affects a water molecule near Asp85 and light adaptation

Illumination of the Trp86 --> Phe mutant of bacteriorhodopsin causes anomalous light adaptation, i.e., isomerization of the retinal from all-trans to 13-cis, 15-syn. FTIR spectral analysis shows that illumination at 250 K yields two 13-cis photoproducts, the conventional 13-cis, 15-syn state, BR(C), and another termed BR(X). BR(X) is different from BR(C) because it has a lower N-H in-plane bending frequency and a higher C14-C15 stretching frequency, as well as an absence of coupling between these modes. BR(X), which is stable at 275 K, is more abundant in the photosteady state produced by longer wavelength light and detected as the only photoproduct at 170 K. Its different structural features result from distortion of the C14-C15 bond of the chromophore. In the W86F mutant protein, the small structural changes of a water molecule in the conversion between the all-trans and 13-cis, 15-syn forms and in the formation of the K photointermediate are absent, but the larger changes of water molecule(s) that normally occur in the L and M intermediates are present. We propose that Trp86, together with Asp85, is involved in binding the water molecule and in preventing the formation of the 13-cis, 15-syn photoproducts, BR(C) and BR(X), when the wild type protein is illuminated.

Time-resolved fourier transform infrared study of structural changes in the last steps of the photocycles of Glu-204 and Leu-93 mutants of bacteriorhodopsin

The last intermediate in the photocycle of the light-driven proton pump bacteriorhodopsin is the red-shifted O state. The structure and dynamics of the last step in the photocycle were characterized with time-resolved Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of the mutants of Glu-204 and Leu-93, which accumulate this intermediate in much larger amounts than the wild type. The results show that E204Q and E204D give distorted all-trans-retinal chromophore like the O intermediate of the wild type. This is simply due to the perturbation of the proton acceptor function of Glu-204 in the O-to-BR transition in the Glu-204 mutants. The corresponding red-shifted intermediates of L93M, L93T, and L93S have a 13-cis chromophore like the N intermediate of the wild type, as reported from analysis of extracted retinal [Delaney, J. K., Schweiger, U., & Subramaniam, S. (1995) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92, 11120-11124]. In spite of their different chromophore structures from the O intermediate, the red-shifted intermediates are similar to the O intermediate but not to the N intermediate of the wild type with respect to structural changes in the peptide carbonyls. The structural changes around Asp-96 in the N intermediate are completely restored also in the red-shifted intermediates of the Leu-93 mutants like in the O intermediate. These results imply that the protein structural changes in the last step proceed regardless of thermal isomerization of the chromophore. Time-resolved Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with the Glu-204 mutants suggests that the response of Asp-204 (Glu-204 in the wild type) to the protonation of Asp-85 during formation of the M intermediate, which results in proton release, is slow and may occur through structural changes.

HIRF: a novel nuclear factor that binds to the human T-cell leukemia virus type I internal regulatory element (HIRE)

The transcription of human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I) provirus starts from a promoter located in the 5' long terminal repeat (LTR). We have identified a second promoter at the 3' end of the pol gene. This internal promoter expresses the Tax transactivator protein, but does not require Tax for its activity. Furthermore, we have found the novel enhancer motif AGTTCTGCCC, which are located near the initiation site. We have named the sequence HIRE (HTLV-I internal regulatory element). The HIRE binding protein is a ubiquitous protein. We purified this protein from the HTLV-I producing cell line MT-2 cells by DNA affinity chromatography. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed four major bands (70, 85, 115 and more than 200 kDa) and some minor bands on the gel. We renatured each major protein and showed the 70 and 115 kDa proteins bind to DNA, although the 115 kDa protein seemed to bind nonspecifically. We have designated these components as HIRF (HTLV-I internal regulatory factor).

HTLV-I env-pX transgenic rats: prototype animal model for collagen vascular diseases

To evaluate the function of HTLV-I env-pX gene in vivo, we developed two lines of transgenic rats (env-pX rats) that expressed env-pX gene products, under control of own LTR promotor. In various tissues of the rats, env and pX mRNAs were constitutively expressed, irrespective of age. At age 5 weeks, swelling of the bilateral ankle joints histologically showing synovial lining hyperplasia, severe chronic inflammation, erosion of the joint cartilage, and bone destruction with pannus formation began to develop in these env-pX rats. These histologic features resemble those of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in man. High titered rheumatoid factors and low anti-dsDNA antibodies and hyper-gamma globulinemia were detected. Necrotizing arteritis resembling polyarteritis nodosa, polymyositis, myocarditis and Sjögren syndrome-like sialoadenitis developed, together with RA-like arthritis even in one individual animal. Thymic atrophy with low body weight was also observed. The evidence indicates that env-pX rats appear to be suitable animal models for elucidating pathogenetic mechanisms involved in not only HTLV-I related diseases but also various collegen vascular and autoimmune diseases of unknown etiology in man.

Intramembrane signaling mediated by hydrogen-bonding of water and carboxyl groups in bacteriorhodopsin and rhodopsin

The light-induced mechanism for proton pumping of bacteriorhodopsin was studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of the discrete sequential intermediate states, L, M, and N. Attention is focused on L in the early microsecond time range, as a transition state in which the Schiff base forms strong H-bonding with a water molecule coordinated with Asp85. This structure leads to transfer of the Schiff base proton to Asp85 in the L-to-M process, which then triggers proton release from Glu204 to the extracellular surface. H-bonding of Arg82 and water molecules are involved in this process. Chloride can replace Asp85 in the D85T mutant, and this anion will be then transported instead of a proton. In L, structural perturbations are induced also around Asp96, through a string of H-bonding mediated by internal water molecules and peptide carbonyls in helices B and C, and Trp182 in helix F. These may cause the structural changes that occur later in the M-to-N process. Similar interactions, through internal water molecules and the peptide bonds in helices B and C, take place in bovine rhodopsin. They transduce changes across the membrane from the Schiff base to the cytoplasmic surface, where the activation of the transducin occurs.

The CD46 transmembrane domain is required for efficient formation of measles-virus-mediated syncytium

Two phosphatidylinositol (PI)-anchored versions of a measles virus (MV) receptor membrane cofactor protein (MCP; CD46) were generated by fusing the extracellular domain of MCP to the decay-accelerating factor (DAF; CD55) or its PI anchor. The PI-anchored forms of MCP expressed on Chinese hamster ovary cells, otherwise non-permissive to MV, conferred a smaller MV cytopathic effect than a wild-type MCP, a Ser/Thr-rich domain-deletion mutant and a cytoplasmic tail-deletion mutant of MCP. Therefore the differences in MV receptor properties between the two PI-anchored and three transmembrane forms were investigated. The PI-anchored forms were predominantly expressed on microvilli as in DAF, whereas the other transmembrane forms were found on intracellular membranes. The PI-anchored forms conferred high MV-binding capacity compared with the transmembrane versions. MV replication was, however, severely suppressed in cells expressing the PI-anchored forms, resulting in ineffective syncytium formation. In contrast, cell-to-cell fusion occurred efficiently after co-transfection of cDNA species encoding MV-H. MV-F and any version of MCP. Thus the PI-anchored forms, despite showing sufficient MV binding and cell-to-cell fusion competence together with MV-H and MV-F, mediate inefficient MV entry or replication, which causes severe suppression of the MV cytopathic effect. A biased receptor distribution on microvilli might participate in the selection of a low MV uptake pathway in the PI-anchored forms of MCP. Taken together, the transmembrane portion of MCP is a critical factor for effective virus-cell fusion and the subsequent MV replication.

A wide spectrum of collagen vascular and autoimmune diseases in transgenic rats carrying the env-pX gene of human T lymphocyte virus type I

To investigate the pathogenesis of human T lymphocyte virus type I (HTLV-I)- related diseases, the env-pX gene of HTLV-I was introduced into the germline of inbred Wistar-King-Aptekman-Hokudai rats. A wide spectrum of collagen vascular diseases was evident in the transgenic rats, including chronic destructive arthritis similar to rheumatoid arthritis, necrotizing arteritis mimicking polyarteritis nodosa, polymyositis, myocarditis, dermatitis, and chronic sialoadenitis and dacryoadenitis resembling Sjögren's syndrome in humans. Thymic atrophy with the depletion of CD4 and CD8 double-positive thymocytes was also observed. In these animals, a number of autoantibodies, including high titers of rheumatoid factor, were present in the serum. We propose that the HTLV-I env-pX gene region may play a pathogenetic role in the development of collagen vascular and autoimmune diseases associated with autoimmune phenomenon.

Apoptosis of human glioma cells in vitro and in vivo induced by a neutralizing antibody against human basic fibroblast growth factor

Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) is mitogenic to neuroectoderm- and mesoderm-derived cells and is a potent angiogenic factor. Abundant amounts of this factor and its receptor are detected in human glioma tissues and cells, and bFGF in glioma is thought to be involved in autonomous cell growth as an autocrine growth factor. A neutralizing mouse monoclonal antibody (MAb) against bFGF, 3H3 MAb, has been shown to inhibit both in vitro and in vivo growth of human glioma cell lines. This study shows that the human glioma cell lines U-87MG and U-251MG, which express high levels of bFGF and its receptor, can be induced to undergo apoptosis when cultured with 3H3 MAb. It is also demonstrated that 3H3 MAb can cause apoptosis in the same glioma cells that were transplanted into nude mice. Furthermore, enforced overexpression of bcl-2 protein by gene transfection prevented 3H3 MAb-induced apoptosis of glioma cells. It is concluded that induction of apoptosis by the neutralizing antibody is a promising therapeutic strategy for glioma.

Re-evaluation of chromosomal aberration induction on nine mouse lymphoma assay "unique positive' NTP carcinogens

In a collaborative study organized under the JEMS MMS, nine mouse lymphoma assay (MLA) "unique positive' NTP rodent carcinogens were re-evaluated by an in vitro chromosomal aberration assay using Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cells (CHL/IU). Six of nine chemicals induced chromosomal aberrations; bromodichloromethane, chlorendic acid and isophorone induced structural aberrations, and chlorodibromomethane, pentachloroethane and 1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane induced numerical aberrations (polyploidy). These six chemicals, therefore, are not uniquely positive in the MLA. The difference between the NTP results and ours might be due to the use of different cell lines and protocols, and in some cases, to different interpretations of polyploidy. The remaining three chemicals, benzyl acetate, cinnamyl anthranilate and trichloroethylene, were negative in this study.

An alpha-mercaptoacrylic acid derivative is a selective nonpeptide cell-permeable calpain inhibitor and is neuroprotective

Overactivation of calcium-activated neutral protease (calpain) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of several degenerative conditions, including stroke, myocardial ischemia, neuromuscular degeneration, and cataract formation. Alpha-mercaptoacrylate derivatives (exemplified by PD150606), with potent and selective inhibitory actions against calpain, have been identified. PD150606 exhibits the following characteristics: (i) Ki values for mu- and m-calpains of 0.21 microM and 0.37 microM, respectively, (ii) high specificity for calpains relative to other proteases, (iii) uncompetitive inhibition with respect to substrate, and (iv) it does not shield calpain against inactivation by the active-site inhibitor trans-(epoxysuccinyl)-L-leucyl-amido-3-methylbutane, suggesting a nonactive site action for PD150606. The recombinant calcium-binding domain from each of the large or small subunits of mu-calpain was found to interact with PD150606. In low micromolar range, PD15O6O6 inhibited calpain activity in two intact cell systems. The neuroprotective effects of this class of compound were also demonstrated by the ability of PD150606 to attenuate hypoxic/hypoglycemic injury to cerebrocortical neurons in culture and excitotoxic injury to Purkinje cells in cerebellar slices.

Nucleo-cytoplasmic redistribution of the HTLV-I Rex protein: alterations by coexpression of the HTLV-I p21x protein

The function of the Rex protein of human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I) has been demonstrated to be very similar to the Rev protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Both of these retroviral regulatory proteins rescue unspliced viral RNAs from the nuclei of infected cells. The Rev protein of HIV-1 has been reported to shuttle between the nucleus/nucleolus and the cytoplasm. Here, we have found that Rex also relocated out of the nucleus in the presence of actinomycin D. This effect was demonstrated in dose- and time-course-dependent manners. In comparison with previous reports on HIV-1 Rev, these effects with Rex seemed to be similar, but less distinct, which may reflect precise differences in the subcellular localization and/or shuttling pathways of Rev and Rex. Interestingly, the endogenous truncated form of the Rex protein, p21x, significantly interfered with the intracellular translocation of Rex, when coexpressed in trans. As expression of p21x occurs in various HTLV-I-infected cells, p21x may play a role in the life-cycle of HTLV-I, through regulating the dynamic subcellular distribution of the viral trans-activator, Rex.

Effects of arginine-82 on the interactions of internal water molecules in bacteriorhodopsin

Arg82, one of the residues near the protonated Schiff base of bacteriorhodopsin, facilitates proton release to the medium during the L-to-M reaction of the photocycle, but retards the rate of proton transfer from the Schiff base to Asp85. In order to understand the role of Arg82 in these processes, the structural changes upon formation of the M intermediate were studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of the hydrated films of Arg82 mutants at pH 9.5. The negative band at 1700 cm-1 in the BR --> M spectrum due to the deprotonation of Glu204 was absent when Arg82 was replaced with alanine (R82A), but present with small amplitude when residue 82 was a glutamine (R82Q), or a lysine (R82K), with a shift to 1696 cm-1. The O-H stretch of water at 3643 cm-1 is shifted toward a lower frequency in R82Q, R82K, and R82A in the unphotolyzed state. However, R82Q retains a fraction of the unshifted band. Another O-H stretch is prominent in R82Q around 3625 cm-1 but absent in R82A and probably in R82K. In parallel, R82Q retains a fraction of the slow component of the formation of the M intermediate, which is almost completely absent in R82K and R82A. These results, along with previous data for the mutants of Glu204, suggest that the guanidium group of Arg82 influences the H-bonding of water molecules located close to Asp85 and Arg82-Glu204 regions, and the rate of proton transfer from the Schiff base to Asp85. The amide group of Gln82 can substitute for it but weakly.

Rapid purification of human complement receptor type 1 (CD35, CR1)

We established a rapid purification procedure for complement receptor type 1 (CR1, CD35). Human erythrocyte stromata were solubilized, and the extract was directly applied to a Red-Sepharose column. The eluate was diluted 2-fold, then subjected to an immunoaffinity column, anti-CR1 (named 31R)-conjugated to Sepharose. More than 50% of CR1 was recovered with purity of > 90%. The CR1 preparation showed sufficient cofactor activity for factor I as compared to that prepared by the conventional method. Since 31R recognizes a single epitope in CR1 including its rare variants and soluble forms, this method will allow us to recover with high efficiency these forms of CR1 which have been detected especially in some disease states.

Cis/trans-activation of the interleukin-9 receptor gene in an HTLV-I-transformed human lymphocytic cell

The MT-2 cell-line, which had been established through in vitro cell to cell transmission of human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I) among human primary lymphocytes, was shown to possess multiple copies of integrated proviruses, including defective proviral genomes. By analysing a genomic clone, we identified the integration site of a single HTLV-I long terminal repeat (LTR) in the interleukin-9 (IL-9) receptor (IL-9R) gene. The integrated HTLV-I-LTR was shown to be functional as a promoter and the integration site was located in an intron upstream of the first coding exon of the IL-9R gene. Upon analysis of total cellular RNA, specific expression of HTLV-I-LTR Il-9R chimeric mRNAs in MT-2 cells was demonstrated. Cloning and characterization of these cDNAs have identified HTLV-I-IL-9R chimeric splicing, using either intact or alternative splice sites within the IL-9R gene. The potential roles of multiple interactions between IL-9, IL-9R and HTLV-I in the monoclonal expansion and transformation of MT-2 cells are explored.

C5b-8 step lysis of swine endothelial cells by human complement and functional feature of transfected CD59

The authors established several swine endothelial cell (SEC) lines expressing human CD59 by transfection of cDNA, and assessed the function of the transfectant molecules in comparison with those of membrane cofactor protein (MCP) and decay-accelerating factor (DAF) in an in vitro hyperacute rejection model of swine to human discordant xenograft. At the usual expression rate, DAF and MCP protected SEC from human complement mediated cell lysis, but CD59 did not block human complement attack on SEC. However, CD59 protects SEC from cell lysis when sufficiently expressed as in human umbilical vein (HUVEC). The authors examined why CD59 needed so many molecules to protect human complement-mediated SEC lysis and found that SEC underwent lysis by human C5b-8. The degree of C5b-8 step lysis of SEC was approximately 70% of the total activation (C5b-9). Additionally, CD59 protected human complement activities less efficiently at the C5b-8 step than at the C9-step. Therefore, to overcome human complement mediated SEC lysis, C8 activity must be inhibited by dense expression of CD59.

Mechanisms by which the surface expression of the glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol-anchored complement regulatory proteins decay-accelerating factor (CD55) and CD59 is lost in human leukaemia cell lines

We have investigated the mechanisms of defects in the glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored complement regulatory proteins delay-accelerating factor (DAF) and/or CD59 in a panel of human leukaemia cell lines that lack surface expression of these proteins: U937 (DAF+/CD59-), CEM (DAF-/CD59+), TALL (DAF-/CD59-) and a substrain of Ramos [Ramos(-)] (DAF-/CD59-). Northern blotting and reverse transcription-PCR revealed that the main cause of the DAF and/or CD59 deficiency is the failure of mRNA expression in most of the cell lines, except in Ramos(-) in which sufficient mRNA for DAF and CD59 was produced. U937, CEM and TALL cells were not defective in GPI anchor formation as assessed by the detection of other GPI-anchored proteins. No gene abnormality corresponding to DAF or CD59 was detected by Southern blotting. Thus the cause of the defects of DAF and/or CD59 in these leukaemia cell lines except for Ramos(-) is virtually undetectable steady-state levels of the relevant mRNA, most likely attributable to lack of transcription in these cell lines. On the other hand, Ramos(-) cells failed to generate a GPI anchor, whereas they normally expressed DAF and CD59 transcripts. The transfection of phosphatidylinositol-glycan class A (PIG-A) cDNA into Ramos(-) cells restored DAF and CD59 expression, indicating that the defective mechanism in GPI anchor formation is similar to that in paroxysmal noctural haemoglobinuria (PNH) cells, i.e. a deficiency of the PIG-A gene product. Thus the mechanisms of the defects of DAF and/or CD59 in human leukaemia cell lines are not uniform, and in most cases are different from that proposed to cause PNH.

Cytogenetic effects of a food mutagen, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-beta]pyridine (PhIP), and its metabolite, 2-hydroxyamino-1-methy-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-beta]pyridine (N-OH-PhIP), on human and Chinese hamster cells in vitro

2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-beta]pyridine (PhIP) induced structural chromosomal aberrations (CAs) and sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs) in human lymphocytes and human diploid fibroblasts (TIG-7) at concentrations above 12.5 microgram /ml in the presence of rat S9 mix. PhIP also elevated the frequencies of SCEs in human lymphocytes in the presence of rat S9 at concentrations above 2.0 microgram/ml with dose-dependency. A proximate form of metabolites of PhIP, 2-hydroxy-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-beta]pyridine (N-OH-PhIP), caused CAs in human and Chinese hamster fibroblast cells in the absence of S9 mix at concentrations above 0.75 microgram/ml and 1.25 microgram/ml, respectively, which were 10 times lower than the effective concentration of PhIP. No marked differences were observed in the cytogenetic sensitivity to N-OH-PhIP between human and Chinese hamster cells, except between lymphocytes obtained from different donors.

Constitutive activation of NF-kappa B is essential for transformation of rat fibroblasts by the human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax protein

Human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I) encodes a 40 kDa trans-acting protein, Tax, that regulates transcription of both the proviral and cellular genes, and can transform rat fibroblasts. To determine the functional importance of its trans-acting capacities in cell transformation, we have examined two representative pathways of transcriptional activation--HTLV-I long terminal repeat (LTR) mediated and NF-kappa B dependent--by mutational analysis of Tax. In contrast to a previous report, mutants lacking the ability to activate an NF-kappaB-dependent promoter failed to transform rat fibroblasts, whereas a mutation which abolishes the HTLV-I LTR-mediated trans-activation demonstrated a wild-type capacity for cell transformation. Stable expression of Tax competent for transformation caused enhanced DNA binding of NF-kappa B in rat fibroblasts. We also demonstrate that stable co-expression of the NFKB2 precursor, known as a member of the I kappa B proteins, with wild-type Tax blocked transformation as well as eliminated aberrant NF-kappaB activation by Tax without interference with the HTLV-I LTR-mediated trans-activation. Our results indicate that constitutive activation of NF-kappa B is essential for Tax-mediated transformation of rat fibroblasts.

Nuclear preservation and cytoplasmic degradation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev protein

Rev, a major regulatory protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, has been demonstrated to shuttle between the nucleus and cytoplasm of infected cells. The fate of the Rev protein in living cells was evaluated by pulse-chase experiments using a transient Rev expression system. Sixteen hours after chasing with unlabelled amino acids, 45% of the labelled Rev was still present, which clearly indicates a long half-life of Rev in living cells. A Rev mutant which is deficient in the ability to migrate from the nucleus to the cytoplasm was degraded more slowly than the wild-type Rev protein. As well, another Rev mutant protein, which lacks a functional nucleolar targeting signal (NOS) and is unable to enter the cell nucleus, was rapidly degraded and undetectable 16 h after chasing. Nuclear-nucleolar targeting properties provided by a divergent NOS from a related retrovirus, which was used to substitute for the NOS of Rev, increased the intracellular half-life of this Rev mutant. Moreover, coexpression of an intracellular anti-Rev single-chain antibody (SFv), which has been shown to interfere with the nuclear translocation of Rev, accelerated the degradation of the wild-type Rev protein. Differential degradation of Rev in the nucleus and cytoplasm may play a critical role in determining and maintaining different stages of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection, in conjunction with the shuttling properties of the Rev protein.