The IL-10/STAT3-mediated anti-inflammatory response: recent developments and future challenges

O-Linked β-N-Acetylglucosamine Modification: Linking Hypertension and the Immune System

The O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine modification (O-GlcNAcylation) of proteins dynamically regulates protein function, localization, stability, and interactions. This post-translational modification is intimately linked to cardiovascular disease, including hypertension. An increasing number of studies suggest that components of innate and adaptive immunity, active players in the pathophysiology of hypertension, are targets for O-GlcNAcylation. In this review, we highlight the potential roles of O-GlcNAcylation in the immune system and discuss how those immune targets of O-GlcNAcylation may contribute to arterial hypertension.

The utilisation of resolvins in medicine and tissue engineering

Recent advances in the field of regenerative medicine and biomaterial science have highlighted the importance of controlling immune cell phenotypes at the biomaterial interface. These studies have clearly indicated that a rapid resolution of the inflammatory process, mediated by a switch in the macrophage population towards a reparative phenotype, is essential for tissue regeneration to occur. While various biomaterial surfaces have been developed in order to impart immunomodulatory properties to the resulting constructs, an alternative strategy involving the use of reparative biological cues, known as resolvins, is emerging in regenerative medicine. This review reports on the mechanisms via which resolvins participate in the resolution of inflammation and describes their current utilisation in pre-clinical and clinical settings, along with their effectiveness when combined with biomaterial constructs in tissue engineering applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The resolution of the inflammatory process is necessary for achieving tissue healing and regeneration. Resolvins are lipid mediators and play a key role in the resolution of the inflammatory response and can be used in as biological cues to promote tissue regeneration. This review describes the various biological inflammatory mechanisms and pathways involving resolvins and how their action results in a pro-healing response. The use of these molecules in the clinical setting is then summarised for various applications along with their limitations. Lastly, the review focuses on the emergence resolvins in tissue engineering products including the use of a more stable form which holds greater prospect for regenerative purposes.

Regulatory T Cells in Autoimmune Vasculitis

Blood vessels are indispensable for host survival and are protected from inappropriate inflammation by immune privilege. This protection is lost in patients with autoimmune vasculitides, a heterogeneous group of diseases causing damage to arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. Vasculitis leads to vascular wall destruction and/or luminal occlusion, resulting in hemorrhage and tissue ischemia. Failure in the quantity and quality of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells (Treg) has been implicated in the breakdown of the vascular immune privilege. Emerging data suggest that Treg deficiencies are disease-specific, affecting distinct pathways in distinct vasculitides. Mechanistic studies have identified faulty CD8+ Tregs in Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA), a vasculitis of the aorta and the large aortic branch vessels. Specifically, aberrant signaling through the NOTCH4 receptor expressed on CD8+ Treg cells leads to rerouting of intracellular vesicle trafficking and failure in the release of immunosuppressive exosomes, ultimately boosting inflammatory attack to medium and large arteries. In Kawasaki’s disease, a medium vessel vasculitis targeting the coronary arteries, aberrant expression of miR-155 and dysregulated STAT5 signaling have been implicated in undermining CD4+ Treg function. Explorations of mechanisms leading to insufficient immunosuppression and uncontrolled vascular inflammation hold the promise to discover novel therapeutic interventions that could potentially restore the immune privilege of blood vessels and pave the way for urgently needed innovations in vasculitis management.

Tendon Immune Regeneration: Insights on the Synergetic Role of Stem and Immune Cells during Tendon Regeneration

Tendon disorders represent a very common pathology in today's population, and tendinopathies that account 30% of tendon-related injuries, affect yearly millions of people which in turn cause huge socioeconomic and health repercussions worldwide. Inflammation plays a prominent role in the development of tendon pathologies, and advances in understanding the underlying mechanisms during the inflammatory state have provided additional insights into its potential role in tendon disorders. Different cell compartments, in combination with secreted immune modulators, have shown to control and modulate the inflammatory response during tendinopathies. Stromal compartment represented by tenocytes has shown to display an important role in orchestrating the inflammatory response during tendon injuries due to the interplay they exhibit with the immune-sensing and infiltrating compartments, which belong to resident and recruited immune cells. The use of stem cells or their derived secretomes within the regenerative medicine field might represent synergic new therapeutical approaches that can be used to tune the reaction of immune cells within the damaged tissues. To this end, promising opportunities are headed to the stimulation of macrophages polarization towards anti-inflammatory phenotype together with the recruitment of stem cells, that possess immunomodulatory properties, able to infiltrate within the damaged tissues and improve tendinopathies resolution. Indeed, the comprehension of the interactions between tenocytes or stem cells with the immune cells might considerably modulate the immune reaction solving hence the inflammatory response and preventing fibrotic tissue formation. The purpose of this review is to compare the roles of distinct cell compartments during tendon homeostasis and injury. Furthermore, the role of immune cells in this field, as well as their interactions with stem cells and tenocytes during tendon regeneration, will be discussed to gain insights into new ways for dealing with tendinopathies.

A Review on the Immunomodulatory Mechanism of Acupuncture in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease with a high prevalence and canceration rate. The immune disorder is one of the recognized mechanisms. Acupuncture is widely used to treat patients with IBD. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have proven the effectiveness of acupuncture in the treatment of IBD, and some progress has been made in the mechanism. In this paper, we reviewed the studies related to acupuncture for IBD and focused on the immunomodulatory mechanism. We found that acupuncture could regulate the innate and adaptive immunity of IBD patients in many ways. Acupuncture exerts innate immunomodulatory effects by regulating intestinal epithelial barrier, toll-like receptors, NLRP3 inflammasomes, oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress and exerts adaptive immunomodulation by regulating the balance of Th17/Treg and Th1/Th2 cells. In addition, acupuncture can also regulate intestinal flora.

The tumor innate immune microenvironment in prostate cancer: an overview of soluble factors and cellular effectors

Prostate cancer (PCa) accounts as the most common non-cutaneous disease affecting males, and as the first cancer, for incidence, in male. With the introduction of the concept of immunoscore, PCa has been classified as a cold tumor, thus driving the attention in the development of strategies aimed at blocking the infiltration/activation of immunosuppressive cells, while favoring the infiltration/activation of anti-tumor immune cells. Even if immunotherapy has revolutionized the approaches to cancer therapy, there is still a window failure, due to the immune cell plasticity within PCa, that can acquire pro-tumor features, subsequent to the tumor microenvironment (TME) capability to polarize them. This review discussed selected relevant soluble factors [transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-10, IL-23] and cellular components of the innate immunity, as drivers of tumor progression, immunosuppression, and angiogenesis within the PCa-TME.

Chronic Ketosis Modulates HIF1α-Mediated Inflammatory Response in Rat Brain

Hypoxia inducible factor alpha (HIF1α) is associated with neuroprotection conferred by diet-induced ketosis but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study we use a ketogenic diet in rodents to induce a metabolic state of chronic ketosis, as measured by elevated blood ketone bodies. Chronic ketosis correlates with neuroprotection in both aged and following focal cerebral ischaemia and reperfusion (via middle cerebral artery occlusion, MCAO) in mouse and rat models. Ketone bodies are known to be used efficiently by the brain and metabolism of ketone bodies is associated with increased cytosolic succinate levels that inhibits prolyl hydroxylases allowing HIF1α to accumulate. Ketosis also regulates inflammatory pathways, and HIF1α is reported to be essential for gene expression of interleukin10 (IL10). Therefore we hypothesised that ketosis-stabilised HIF1α modulates the expression of inflammatory cytokines orchestrating neuroprotection. To test changes in cytokine levels in rodent brain, eight-week-old rats were fed either the standard chow diet (SD) or the ketogenic (KG) diet for 4 weeks before ischaemia experiments (MCAO) were performed and the brain tissues were collected. Consistent with our hypothesis, immunoblotting analysis shows IL10 levels were significantly higher in KG diet rat brain compared to SD, whereas the TNFα and IL6 levels were significantly lower in the brains of KG diet fed group.

Interleukin-10 in the Vasculature: Pathophysiological Implications

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is an important immunomodulatory cytokine, initially characterized as an anti-inflammatory agent released by immune cells during infectious and inflammatory processes. IL-10 exhibits biological functions that extend to the regulation of different intracellular signaling pathways directly associated with vascular function. This cytokine plays a vital role in vascular tone regulation through the change of important proteins involved in vasoconstriction and vasodilation. Numerous investigations covered here have shown that therapeutic strategies inducing IL-10 result in anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertrophic, antihyperplastic, anti-apoptotic and antihypertensive effects. This non-systematic review summarizes the modulating effects mediated by IL-10 in vascular tissue, particularly on vascular tone, and the intracellular pathway induced by this cytokine. We also highlight the advances in IL-10 manipulation as a therapeutic target in different cardiovascular pathophysiologies, including the physiological implications in animals and humans. Finally, the review illustrates current and potential future perspectives of the potential use of IL-10 in clinical trials, based on the clinical evidence.

Regulation of STAT3 signaling in IFNγ and IL10 pathways and in their cross-talk

The pro-inflammatory IFNγ-STAT1 pathway and anti-inflammatory IL10-STAT3 pathway elicit cellular responses primarily utilizing their canonical STATs. However IL10 mediated STAT1 and IFNγ mediated STAT3 activation is also observed, suggesting crosstalk of these functionally opposing signaling pathways can potentially reshape the canonical dynamics both STATs and alter the expression of their target genes. Herein, we measured the dynamics of STATs in response to different doses of IL10 or IFNγ and in their co-stimulation and employed quantitative modeling to understand the regulatory mechanisms controlling signal responses in individual and co-simulation scenarios. Our experiments show, STAT3 in particular, exhibits a bell-shaped dose-response while treated with IFNγ or IL10 and our model quantiatively captured the dose-dependent dynamics of both the STATs in both pathways. The model next predicted and subsequent experiments validated that STAT3 dynamics would robustly remain IL10 specific when subjected to a co-stimulation of both IFNγ and IL10. Genes common to both pathways also exhibited IL10 specific expression during the co-stimulation. The findings thus uncover anovel feature of the IL10-STAT3 signaling axis during pathway crosstalk. Finally, parameter sampling coupled to information theory based analysis showed that bell-shaped signal-response of STAT3 in both pathways is primarily dependent on receptor concentration whereas robustness of IL10-STAT3 signaling axis in co-stimulation results from the negative regulation of the IFNγ pathway.

Immunological Characterization of HIV and SARS-CoV-2 Coinfected Young Individuals

While the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and/or COVID-19 disease progression in the general population has been largely assessed, its impact on HIV-positive individuals remains unclear. We present clinical and immunological data collected in a cohort of HIV-infected young individuals during the first wave of COVID-19 pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 RNA, virus-specific antibodies, as well as the expression of factors involved in the anti-viral immune response were analyzed. Moreover, we set up an in vitro coinfection assay to study the mechanisms correlated to the coinfection process. Our results did not show any increased risk of severe COVID-19 in HIV-positive young individuals. In those subjects who contracted SARS-CoV-2 infection, an increase in IL-10 expression and production was observed. Furthermore, in the in vitro coinfection assay, we revealed a reduction in SARS-CoV-2 replication associated to an upregulation of IL-10. We speculate that IL-10 could play a crucial role in the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection in HIV-positive individuals. These results might help defining clinical management of HIV/SARS-CoV-2 co-infected young individuals, or putative indications for vaccination schedules in this population.

Elevated IgA and IL-10 levels in very-early-onset inflammatory bowel disease secondary to IL-10 receptor deficiency

OBJECTIVE

To report two patients with very-early-onset inflammatory bowel disease (VEOIBD) secondary to interleukin-10 receptor (IL-10R) mutations, explore immunophenotyping data and plasma cytokine profile on these cases compared to healthy controls, and describe the phenotype of IL-10/IL-10R mutations based on a literature review.

CASE DESCRIPTION

We report on two female infants referred to our tertiary center at the age of ten months, with severe colonic and perianal disease, as well as significant malnutrition, who had shown limited response to usual inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) therapy agents. In the first case, whole-exome sequencing (WES) revealed a homozygous (c.537G>A/p.T179T) mutation in exon 4 of the IL-10RA gene, while in the second patient, compound heterozygosity was identified, also in the IL-10RA gene (chr11:117.859.199 variant A>G/p.Tyr57Cys and chr11: 117.860.335 variant G>T/p.Val123Leu). Both patients underwent hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). Immunological work-up of these patients revealed increased IL-10 plasma levels and increased IgA.

COMMENTS

Our case reports disclose novel findings on plasma cytokine profile in IL-10R deficiency, and we describe the severe phenotype of IL-10/IL-10R deficiency that should be recognized by physicians.

KDP, a Lactobacilli Product from Kimchi, Enhances Mucosal Immunity by Increasing Secretory IgA in Mice and Exhibits Antimicrobial Activity

The potential of KDP, a lactic acid bacterial strain of Lactobacillus sakei, to enhance the production of mucosal specific immunoglobulin A (IgA) in mice and thereby enhance gut mucosal immunity was examined. KDP is composed of dead cells isolated from the Korean traditional food kimchi. Female BALB/c mice orally received 0.25 mg KDP once daily for 5 weeks and were co-administrated ovalbumin (OVA) for negative control and cholera toxin for positive control. Mice administered KDP exhibited increased secretory IgA (sIgA) contents in the small intestine, Peyer’s patches, serum, colon, and lungs as examined by ELISA. KDP also significantly increased the gene expression of Bcl-6, IL-10, IL-12p40, IL-21, and STAT4. In addition, KDP acted as a potent antioxidant, as indicated by its significant inhibitory effects in the range of 16.5–59.4% for DPPH, nitric oxide, maximum total antioxidant capacity, and maximum reducing power. Finally, KDP exhibited potent antimicrobial activity as evidenced by a significant decrease in the growth of 7 samples of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria and Candida albicans. KDP’s adjuvant effect is shown to be comparable to that of cholera toxin. We conclude that KDP can significantly enhance the intestine’s secretory immunity to OVA, as well as act as a potent antioxidant and antimicrobial agent. These results suggest that orally administered KDP should be studied in clinical trials for antigen-specific IgA production.

Regulation of adipogenic differentiation and adipose tissue inflammation by interferon regulatory factor 3

Dysfunction of adipocytes and adipose tissue is a primary defect in obesity and obesity-associated metabolic diseases. Interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) has been implicated in adipogenesis. However, the role of IRF3 in obesity and obesity-associated disorders remains unclear. Here, we show that IRF3 expression in human adipose tissues is positively associated with insulin sensitivity and negatively associated with type 2 diabetes. In mouse pre-adipocytes, deficiency of IRF3 results in increased expression of PPARγ and PPARγ-mediated adipogenic genes, leading to increased adipogenesis and altered adipocyte functionality. The IRF3 knockout (KO) mice develop obesity, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, and eventually type 2 diabetes with aging, which is associated with the development of white adipose tissue (WAT) inflammation. Increased macrophage accumulation with M1 phenotype which is due to the loss of IFNβ-mediated IL-10 expression is observed in WAT of the KO mice compared to that in wild-type mice. Bone-marrow reconstitution experiments demonstrate that the nonhematopoietic cells are the primary contributors to the development of obesity and both hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cells contribute to the development of obesity-related complications in IRF3 KO mice. This study demonstrates that IRF3 regulates the biology of multiple cell types including adipocytes and macrophages to prevent the development of obesity and obesity-related complications and hence, could be a potential target for therapeutic interventions for the prevention and treatment of obesity-associated metabolic disorders.

Pre-clinical development and molecular characterization of an engineered type 1 regulatory T-cell product suitable for immunotherapy

BACKGROUND AIMS

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is a curative therapeutic approach for many hematological disorders. However, allo-HSCT is frequently accompanied by a serious side effect: graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). The clinical use of allo-HSCT is limited by the inability of current immunosuppressive regimens to adequately control GvHD without impairing the graft-versus-leukemia effect (GvL) conferred by transplanted healthy immune cells. To address this, the authors have developed an engineered type 1 regulatory T-cell product called CD4IL-10 cells. CD4IL-10 cells are obtained through lentiviral transduction, which delivers the human IL10 gene into purified polyclonal CD4+ T cells. CD4IL-10 cells may provide an advantage over standard-of-care immunosuppressants because of the ability to suppress GvHD through continuous secretion of IL-10 and enhance the GvL effect in myeloid malignancies through targeted killing of malignant myeloid cells.

METHODS

Here the authors established a production process aimed at current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP) production for CD4IL-10 cells.

RESULTS

The authors demonstrated that the CD4IL-10 cell product maintains the suppressive and cytotoxic functions of previously described CD4IL-10 cells. In addition, RNA sequencing analysis of CD4IL-10 identified novel transcriptome changes, indicating that CD4IL-10 cells primarily upregulate cytotoxicity-related genes. These include four molecules with described roles in CD8+ T and natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity: CD244, KLRD1, KLRC1 and FASLG. Finally, it was shown that CD4IL-10 cells upregulate IL-22, which mediates wound healing and tissue repair, particularly in the gut.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these results pave the way toward clinical translation of the cGMP-optimized CD4IL-10 cell product and uncover new molecules that have a role in the clinical application of CD4IL-10 cells.

Cyclic sulfur compounds targeting macrophage polarization into M2/protumor phenotype and their anti-tumor effects

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), especially the M2-like phenotype, promote tumor progression, making them candidate targets for anti-tumor therapy. We previously discovered a cyclic sulfur compound, Onionin A (ONA), which suppresses tumor progression by inhibiting the M2-polarization of TAMs. In the present study, we sought to find new candidate compounds possessing a stronger effect compared to ONA by exploring compounds with structures similar to those of ONA among several cyclic sulfur compounds. A total of 81 cyclic sulfur compounds were screened, and their effects on macrophage polarization toward an M2-like phenotype were tested using human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDMs). The anti-tumor effects of the identified candidate compounds were examined in a tumor-bearing mouse model. Three candidate compounds inhibited both IL-10- and tumor culture supernatant (TCS)-induced M2-polarization of HMDMs. These compounds also suppressed STAT3 activation in HMDMs stimulated by IL-10 and TCS, whereas these compounds had no effect on STAT3 activation in tumor cells. Furthermore, these compounds inhibited tumor cell proliferation under co-culture conditions with HMDMs, indicating that the three candidate compounds suppress tumor proliferation by regulating cell-cell interactions between tumor cells and macrophages. In addition, two of these candidate compounds had inhibitory effects on tumor growth and lung metastasis in the LM8 tumor-bearing mouse model. Our study identified new candidate cyclic sulfur compounds for anti-tumor therapy targeting the M2-polarization of TAMs.

Preliminary Evidence for IL-10-Induced ACE2 mRNA Expression in Lung-Derived and Endothelial Cells: Implications for SARS-Cov-2 ARDS Pathogenesis

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is a receptor for the spike protein of SARS-COV-2 that allows viral binding and entry and is expressed on the surface of several pulmonary and non-pulmonary cell types, with induction of a “cytokine storm” upon binding. Other cell types present the receptor and can be infected, including cardiac, renal, intestinal, and endothelial cells. High ACE2 levels protect from inflammation. Despite the relevance of ACE2 levels in COVID-19 pathogenesis, experimental studies to comprehensively address the question of ACE2 regulations are still limited. A relevant observation from the clinic is that, besides the pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6 and IL-1β, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 is also elevated in worse prognosis patients. This could represent somehow a “danger signal”, an alarmin from the host organism, given the immuno-regulatory properties of the cytokine. Here, we investigated whether IL-10 could increase ACE2 expression in the lung-derived Calu-3 cell line. We provided preliminary evidence of ACE2 mRNA increase in cells of lung origin in vitro, following IL-10 treatment. Endothelial cell infection by SARS-COV-2 is associated with vasculitis, thromboembolism, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. We confirmed ACE2 expression enhancement by IL-10 treatment also on endothelial cells. The sartans (olmesartan and losartan) showed non-statistically significant ACE2 modulation in Calu-3 and endothelial cells, as compared to untreated control cells. We observed that the antidiabetic biguanide metformin, a putative anti-inflammatory agent, also upregulates ACE2 expression in Calu-3 and endothelial cells. We hypothesized that IL-10 could be a danger signal, and its elevation could possibly represent a feedback mechanism fighting inflammation. Although further confirmatory studies are required, inducing IL-10 upregulation could be clinically relevant in COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and vasculitis, by reinforcing ACE2 levels.

Interpreting 'anti-inflammatory' cytokine responses to exercise: focus on interleukin-10

Circulating concentrations of canonically pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines are commonly measured when evaluating the anti-inflammatory effects of exercise. An important caveat to interpreting systemic cytokine concentrations as evidence for the anti-inflammatory effects of exercise is the observed dissociation between circulating cytokine concentrations and cytokine function at the tissue/cellular level. The dichotomization of cytokines as pro- or anti-inflammatory also overlooks the context dependence of cytokine function, which can vary depending on the physiological state being studied, the cytokine's cellular source/target, and magnitude of cytokine responses. We re-evaluate our current understanding of anti-inflammatory cytokine responses to exercise by highlighting nuances surrounding the interpretation of altered systemic cytokine concentrations as evidence for changes in inflammatory processes occurring at the tissue/cellular level. We highlight the lesser known pro-inflammatory and immunostimulatory actions of the prototypical anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin (IL)-10, including the potentiation of interferon gamma production during endotoxaemia, CD8⁺ T cell activation in tumour bearing rodents and cancer patients in vivo, and CD8⁺ T lymphocyte and natural killer cell activation in vitro. IL-10's more well-established anti-inflammatory actions can also be blunted following exercise training and under chronic inflammatory states such as type 2 diabetes (T2D) independently of circulating IL-10 concentrations. The resistance to IL-10's anti-inflammatory action in T2D coincides with blunted STAT3 phosphorylation and can be restored with small-molecule activators of IL-10 signalling, highlighting potential therapeutic avenues for restoring IL-10 action. We posit that inferences based on altered circulating cytokine concentrations alone can miss important functional changes in cytokine action occurring at the tissue/cellular level.

Association between IL-10 rs3024505 and susceptibility to inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the small intestine, colon, and rectum. We evaluated associations between the interleukin 10 (IL-10) rs3024505 polymorphism and IBD, ulcerative colitis (UC), and Crohn's disease (CD) by meta-analysis. All peer-reviewed manuscripts concerning the relationship between IL-10_rs3024505 and IBD identified by searing the PubMed, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and Chinese Medical Database were examined. The association between IL-10_rs3024505 and IBD was evaluated in allele (AG), recessive (RG), dominant (DG), homozygous (HMG), and heterozygous (HTG) genetic models. Associations were also conducted on IBD subtypes, CD and UC, and ethnicity (Non-Europeans and Europeans) subgroups. The meta-analysis included 13 studies, 8552 cases (IBD patients), and 12,830 healthy controls. Subgroup analysis of IBD (UC and CD) revealed heterogeneity in AG, DG, and HTG but no heterogeneity in RG or HMG. Moreover, AG, DG, and HTG did not show publication bias in IBD, CD, or UC, but RG and HMG exhibited publication bias. No heterogeneity and no publication bias were found among the five genetic models by a subgroup analysis of Non-Europeans and European ethnicities. The minor allele(T) of rs3024505 was significantly related to IBD: 1.37 (1.30-1.45) for AG, 2.06 (1.74-2.45) for RG, 1.39 (1.27-1.52) for DG, 2.25 (1.89-2.67) for HMG, and 1.32 (1.23-1.40) for HTG (all P < 0.00001). In the subgroup analysis of ethnicity, there was a significant effect of rs3024505 on IBD in Europeans but not non-Europeans: 1.38 (1.31-1.46) for AG, 2.07 (1.73-2.48) for RG, 1.39 (1.31-1.49) for DG, 2.26 (1.89-2.71) for HMG, and 1.33 (1.24-1.42) for HTG in Europeans (all P < 0.00001). Sensitivity analysis showed no dominant study in Europeans, but one study had a dominant impact in Non-Europeans. In conclusion, IL-10_rs3024505 polymorphism confers susceptibility to CD and UC in Europeans, but its impact should have conducted more studies in Non-Europeans.

Challenges and Prospects for Designer T and NK Cells in Glioblastoma Immunotherapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent, aggressive primary brain tumour with a dismal prognosis. Treatment at diagnosis has limited efficacy and there is no standardised treatment at recurrence. New, personalised treatment options are under investigation, although challenges persist for heterogenous tumours such as GBM. Gene editing technologies are a game changer, enabling design of novel molecular-immunological treatments to be used in combination with chemoradiation, to achieve long lasting survival benefits for patients. Here, we review the literature on how cutting-edge molecular gene editing technologies can be applied to known and emerging tumour-associated antigens to enhance chimeric antigen receptor T and NK cell therapies for GBM. A tight balance of limiting neurotoxicity, avoiding tumour antigen loss and therapy resistance, while simultaneously promoting long-term persistence of the adoptively transferred cells must be maintained to significantly improve patient survival. We discuss the opportunities and challenges posed by the brain contexture to the administration of the treatments and achieving sustained clinical responses.

Metformin selectively dampens the acute inflammatory response through an AMPK-dependent mechanism

Metformin is a first-line drug in the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In addition to its antigluconeogenic and insulin-sensitizing properties, metformin has emerged as a potent inhibitor of the chronic inflammatory response of macrophages. In particular, metformin treatment has been shown to reduce expression of interleukin (IL-) 1β during long-term exposure to the pro-inflammatory stimulus lipopolysaccharide (LPS) through a reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS), which decreases the levels of the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) 1-α, and through enhanced expression of IL-10. However, the effect of metformin on the acute inflammatory response, before significant levels of ROS accumulate in the cell, has not been explored. Here, we show that metformin alters the acute inflammatory response through its activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), but independently of HIF1-α and IL-10, in primary macrophages and two macrophage-like cell lines. Thus, metformin changes the acute and the chronic inflammatory response through fundamentally distinct mechanisms. Furthermore, RNA-seq analysis reveals that metformin pretreatment affects the levels of a large yet selective subset of inflammatory genes, dampening the response to short-term LPS exposure and affecting a wide range of pathways and biological functions. Taken together, these findings reveal an unexpected complexity in the anti-inflammatory properties of this widely used drug.

Hepatic stellate cell senescence in liver fibrosis: Characteristics, mechanisms and perspectives

Myofibroblasts play an important role in fibrogenesis. Hepatic stellate cells are the main precursors of myofibroblasts. Cellular senescence is the terminal cell fate in which proliferating cells undergo irreversible cell cycle arrest. Senescent hepatic stellate cells were identified in liver fibrosis. Senescent hepatic stellate cells display decreased collagen production and proliferation. Therefore, induction of senescence could be a protective mechanism against progression of liver fibrosis and the concept of therapy-induced senescence has been proposed to treat liver fibrosis. In this review, characteristics of senescent hepatic stellate cells and the essential signaling pathways involved in senescence are reviewed. Furthermore, the potential impact of senescent hepatic stellate cells on other liver cell types are discussed. Senescent cells are cleared by the immune system. The persistence of senescent cells can remodel the microenvironment and interact with inflammatory cells to induce aging-related dysfunction. Therefore, senolytics, a class of compounds that selectively induce death of senescent cells, were introduced as treatment to remove senescent cells and consequently decrease the disadvantageous effects of persisting senescent cells. The effects of senescent hepatic stellate cells in liver fibrosis need further investigation.

Prognostic Impact of Monocyte to Lymphocyte Ratio in Clinical Outcome of Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background:

Lymphocyte to monocyte ratio (LMR) is a surrogate marker of systemic inflammation which is shown to be related to the patient’s survival in multiple malignancies. An important implication of this marker potentially is neoplasms in which there is no correlation between prognosis and histopathological staging and also has no reliable chemical markers associated with prognosis. Herein, this meta-analysis aimed to investigate the prognostic role of LMR in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Materials and Methods:

In the current systemic review and meta-analysis, we conducted a systemic search of databases and indexing sources, including PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, Scopus, and ProQuest up to May 2019 toinclude studies on the prognostic significance of LMR on patients with HCC. Overall survival (OS), disease-free survival (DFS) and recurrence-free survival (RFS) values were extracted from the studies and analyzed. The pooled hazard ratio with a 95% confidence interval was explored to identify the prognostic value of the LMR in the survival of the patients with HCC.

Results:

A total of 12 studies with a total sample size of 3750 cases were included. There was significant heterogeneity among the studies; therefore, subgroup analysis was also performed. Overall analysis regarding OS showed an insignificant relationship between LMR and patient’s prognosis, dividing to subgroups based on LMR cut-offs did not yield any significant result, subgroup analysis for RFS founded statistically significant results and LMR was significantly related to DFS.

Conclusion:

High LMR was associated with increased DFS and RFS, in return this association was not observed for OS.

MiR-124 Regulates the Inflammation and Apoptosis in Myocardial Infarction Rats by Targeting STAT3

This study aimed to discover the effect of miR-124/STAT3 axis on the inflammation and cell apoptosis in myocardial infarction (MI) rats. Sprague-Dawley (SD) male rats were selected for establishing MI models and divided into Sham, MI, MI + anti-miR-124 and MI + Ad-miR-124 groups. Cardiac function was detected via echocardiography. Hematoxylin & eosin (HE) and triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining were used to observe the pathological changes and infarction area, while transferase (TdT)-mediated D-UTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay was to observe myocardial apoptosis. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine the serum levels of inflammatory cytokines. Quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blotting were performed to determine the mRNA and protein levels, respectively. Dual luciferase reporter gene assay revealed that STAT3 was a target gene of miR-124. The expression levels of miR-124 were increased and the pSTAT3/STAT3 ratio was reduced in the MI rats. The rats in the MI group showed enhanced LVEDD and LVESD, reduced LVEF and LVFS, as well as larger myocardial infarction area compared with the Sham group, Besides, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and MCP-1 levels were elevated and the expressions of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cleaved caspase-3 were downregulated in MI group. We further found that silencing miR-124 improved cardiac function, reduced infarction area and the levels of inflammatory cytokines, as well as prevented myocardial apoptosis in MI rats. Silencing miR-124 could inhibit the inflammation and apoptosis of myocardial cells, thereby relieving the MI injury via upregulation of STAT3.

The Ups and Downs of STAT Inhibition in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Aberrant Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) signaling is implicated in the pathogenesis of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), a highly heterogeneous hematopoietic malignancy. The management of AML is complex and despite impressive efforts into better understanding its underlying molecular mechanisms, survival rates in the elderly have not shown a substantial improvement over the past decades. This is particularly due to the heterogeneity of AML and the need for personalized approaches. Due to the crucial role of the deregulated JAK-STAT signaling in AML, selective targeting of the JAK-STAT pathway, particularly constitutively activated STAT3 and STAT5 and their associated upstream JAKs, is of great interest. This strategy has shown promising results in vitro and in vivo with several compounds having reached clinical trials. Here, we summarize recent FDA approvals and current potential clinically relevant inhibitors for AML patients targeting JAK and STAT proteins. This review underlines the need for detailed cytogenetic analysis and additional assessment of JAK-STAT pathway activation. It highlights the ongoing development of new JAK-STAT inhibitors with better disease specificity, which opens up new avenues for improved disease management.

Schizochytrium sp. Dietary supplementation modify Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) transcriptional regulation in monocytes and neutrophils of dairy goats

Animals protect themselves against pathogens or abiotic factors by innate or adaptive mechanisms. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3) of microalgae modify both human and mice' immune systems resulting in a beneficial balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory pathways. However, scarce information exists on their impact on lactating animals' immunity. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of dietary inclusion of Schizochytrium sp. (rich in docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid), on the expression of several genes involved in the innate immunity of goats. Twenty-four dairy goats were divided into four homogeneous sub-groups (n = 6). All goats were fed individually with alfalfa hay and concentrate. The concentrate of the control group (CON) had no microalgae while those of the treated groups were supplemented daily with 20 (ALG20), 40 (ALG40), and 60 (ALG60) g Schizochytrium sp. Monocytes and neutrophils were isolated from goats' blood in the 20th, 40th^, and 60th days from the beginning of the experimental period. The relative transcript levels of TLR4, MYD88, MAPK, IRF3, IFNG, and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1B, IL2, IL8, TNF), and chemokines (CCL5 and CXCL16) were decreased in monocytes of microalgae treated goats compared to the CON. In contrast, MAPK and IL1B relative transcript levels were increased in neutrophils of ALG40 and ALG60 groups. In conclusion, the supplementation of goats' diet with 20 g Schizochytrium sp. resulted in a downregulation of the pro-inflammatory transcriptions, and following further research could be considered as a sustainable alternative strategy to improve immune function.

Cord blood levels of interleukin-10 decrease in neonates with increased birth weight: novel implications of the cytokine network in early obesity

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) are associated with body weight alterations in children, adolescents, and adults. However, little is known regarding the role of IL-10 and IFN-gamma in birth weight of neonates. One hundred eighty-two infants were enrolled and divided in groups of normal birth weight (< 95th percentile) or increased birth weight (> 95th percentile) for gestational age. IL-10 and IFN-gamma levels were measured in umbilical cord tissue and blood of newborns by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The average value of birth weight in infants below and above the 95th percentile was 3.03±0.39 and 3.58±0.37 kg, respectively, and was independent of the mother's pre-gestational body mass index. The Student t test revealed that neonates with birth weights > 95th percentile show a significant 30% decrease in cord blood values of IL-10 as compared to infants with birth weights < 95th percentile (P<0.0001), with no significant changes in IFN-gamma levels (P=0.1661). Cord blood IL-10 was not of maternal origin but produced by umbilical cord tissue that showed less IL-10 expression in neonates with birth weights > 95th percentile than in infants with birth weights < 95th percentile (P=0.0252). Cord blood levels of IL-10 exhibited significant inverse correlations with birth weight (r = - 0.658, P=0.002) and INF-gamma (r = - 0.502, P=0.005).Conclusion: In conclusion, this work demonstrates for the first time that cord blood IL-10 decreases as birth weight increases in infants born at term and might help to improve early recognition of newborns at higher risk of developing obesity in childhood or adulthood. What is Known: • Reduction in interleukin-10 levels has been associated with obesity in adolescents and adults but not newborns. • The number of neonates with excess birth weight has alarmingly increased in the last 30 years. What is New: • We demonstrate that umbilical cord blood levels of interleukin-10 clearly decrease as birth weight increases. • Interleukin-10 and interferon-gamma integrate a cytokine network that might play a role in obesity in infants.

Biological effects of stevia, sucralose and sucrose in citrus-maqui juices on overweight subjects

BACKGROUND

In the last few years there has been emerging interest in substituting added sugars from juices with other sweeteners to make them healthier. But their long-term effects have been poorly evaluated. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of the addition of stevia, sucralose and sucrose (control) to maqui-citrus beverages on antioxidant and inflammatory status.

METHODS

a 3-arm parallel, randomized and triple blind clinical trial was performed in overweight subjects (n = 138), who consumed the test beverage (330 mL day-1) for 60 days. The following markers were determined: antioxidant status (ORAC, homocysteine, and oxidized LDL), safety parameters (ALP, AST, ALT, and total bilirubin), lipid profile (total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, and triglycerides) and inflammatory biomarkers (IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10).

RESULTS

The homocysteine levels significantly increased after consumption of sucralose (27%, p = 0.001) and sucrose (40%, p = 0.006). A significant increase in the IL-10 concentration after consumption of the stevia sweetened beverage, and in ORAC values (21%) in subjects with lower basal antioxidant status were observed. The HDL and total cholesterol levels significantly increased after consumption of sucralose (p = 0.039) and sucrose (p = 0.001), respectively. No changes in triglycerides, LDL or oxidized LDL were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxidative stress and an inflammatory response were observed after consumption of these sweetened beverages, with the exception of stevia, which produced an anti-inflammatory response. The possible antioxidative effects of this polyphenol-rich beverage may only benefit those individuals with poorer antioxidant status. Many randomized controlled trials at normal levels of consumption using commonly consumed sweeteners are necessary to clarify their roles in health.

Transcriptome analysis of porcine PBMCs reveals lipopolysaccharide-induced immunomodulatory responses and crosstalk of immune and glucocorticoid receptor signaling

The current level of knowledge on transcriptome responses triggered by endotoxins and glucocorticoids in immune cells in pigs is limited. Therefore, in the present study, we treated porcine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and dexamethasone (DEX) separately or combined for 2 hours. The resultant transcriptional responses were examined by mRNA sequencing. We found that the LPS treatment triggered pronounced inflammatory responses as evidenced by upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and related signaling pathways like NF-κB. Concurrently, a series of downregulated pro-inflammatory and upregulated anti-inflammatory molecules were identified. These are involved in the inhibition of TLR, NF-κB, and MAPK cascades and activation of signaling mediated by Tregs and STAT3, respectively. These findings suggested that LPS initiated also an anti-inflammatory process to prevent an overwhelming inflammatory response. The transcriptome responses further revealed substantial crosstalk of immune responses and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signaling. This was apparent in four aspects: constitutive inhibition of T cell signaling by DEX through a subset of genes showing no response to LPS; inhibition of LPS-induced inflammatory genes by DEX; attenuation of DEX action by LPS paralleled by the regulation of genes implicated in cytokine and calcium signaling; and DEX-induced changes in genes associated with the activation of pro-inflammatory TLR, NF-κB, iNOS, and IL-1 signaling. Consequently, our study provides novel insights into inflammatory and GR signaling in pigs, as well as an understanding of the application of glucocorticoid drugs for the treatment of inflammatory disorders.

Effects of cigarette smoke extract on bronchial epithelial cells stimulated with Cryptococcus neoformans

In the airways, the adhesion of Cryptococcus neoformans with airway epithelial cells is crucial for the establishment of cryptococcosis. Tobacco smoke is considered a risk factor for cryptococcosis. Here, we evaluated the effects of cigarette smoke extract (CSE) on human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) stimulated with C. neoformans. Multiplicities of infection (MOIs) of 1-100 of C. neoformans per cell led to increased IL-8 production and no cytotoxic effects when compared to those of controls. C. neoformans (MOI 100) also significantly increased the concentration of IL-6. In cells stimulated with CSE doses (1.0, 2.5 and 5.0%) from one or five cigarettes, increased IL-1β production was observed only in doses from one (1.0%) and five (2.5%) cigarettes when compared to that of controls. However, only 1.0% CSE failed to show cytotoxic effects. In addition, CSE significantly increased the concentration of IL-8. Cells stimulated with both CSE and C. neoformans demonstrated a reduction in IL-6/STAT3 signalling compared to that in cells stimulated by C. neoformans. In addition, a significant increase in IL-10 production was also observed. No alterations in NF-kB or ICAM-1 expression were observed among the groups. The combination of CSE and C. neoformans favoured the increase of fungal numbers and extracellular adhering of C. neoformans on BEAS-2B cells. In addition, the internalization of C. neoformans on BEAS-2B cells was reduced after CSE stimulation. In conclusion, the association of CSE and C. neoformans induced an anti-inflammatory effect in bronchial epithelial cells, which might favour the development of C. neoformans infection in the airways.

Osteocyte exosomes accelerate benign prostatic hyperplasia development

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is one of the most common diseases in elderly men. BPH patients exhibit an increased risk of vertebral and hip fractures, which are most attributable to pre-existing osteoporosis. However, the relationship between BPH and osteoporosis is still unknown. Here we found that osteocytes, the most abundant bone cells, promoted BPH development by secreting exosomes. In vitro, osteocyte exosomes (OCY-Exo) directly promoted cell proliferation of a prostate epithelial cell line BPH-1 and a macrophage cell line RAW264.7, OCY-Exo also stimulated macrophage-induced proliferation of BPH-1 cells. In vivo, intramedullary injection of OCY-Exo accumulated in prostate. Intravenous administration of OCY-Exo exacerbated testosterone-induced BPH in C57BL/6J mice. Our study uncovers the role of OCY-Exo as a stimulator of BPH, suggesting a novel mechanism in bone-prostate communication.

Lonomia obliqua Venom Induces NF-κB Activation and a Pro-Inflammatory Profile in THP-1-Derived Macrophage

Envenomation caused by contact with Lonomia obliqua bristles is characterized by pain, an intense systemic proinflammatory reaction and disturbances in the coagulation cascade that can cause severe clinical manifestations and death. However, the role of immune system components in these effects is still poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated the cytotoxic effect of L. obliqua venom on THP-1-derived macrophages and its ability to modulate inflammatory markers, as well as the cytokine and chemokine release profile. Our results show that L. obliqua venom is able to directly exert a potent pro-inflammatory reaction in macrophages, characterized by the activation of the NF-κB transcription factor pathway, the expression of CD80 and CD83, and the release of pro-inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and CXCL10. These results suggest that macrophages can play an important role during the orchestration of the inflammatory response present in envenomation caused by Lonomia obliqua caterpillars.

Impact of Interleukin 10 Deficiency on Intestinal Epithelium Responses to Inflammatory Signals

Interleukin 10 (IL-10) is a pleiotropic, anti-inflammatory cytokine that has a major protective role in the intestine. Although its production by cells of the innate and adaptive immune system has been extensively studied, its intrinsic role in intestinal epithelial cells is poorly understood. In this study, we utilised both ATAC sequencing and RNA sequencing to define the transcriptional response of murine enteroids to tumour necrosis factor (TNF). We identified that the key early phase drivers of the transcriptional response to TNF within intestinal epithelium were NFκB transcription factor dependent. Using wild-type and Il10-/- enteroid cultures, we showed an intrinsic, intestinal epithelium specific effect of IL-10 deficiency on TNF-induced gene transcription, with significant downregulation of identified NFκB target genes Tnf, Ccl20, and Cxcl10, and delayed overexpression of NFκB inhibitor encoding genes, Nfkbia and Tnfaip3. IL-10 deficiency, or immunoblockade of IL-10 receptor, impacted on TNF-induced endogenous NFκB activity and downstream NFκB target gene transcription. Intestinal epithelium-derived IL-10 appears to play a crucial role as a positive regulator of the canonical NFκB pathway, contributing to maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. This is particularly important in the context of an inflammatory environment and highlights the potential for future tissue-targeted IL-10 therapeutic intervention.

Transcriptional and Microenvironmental Landscape of Macrophage Transition in Cancer: A Boolean Analysis

The balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory immune system responses is crucial to face and counteract complex diseases such as cancer. Macrophages are an essential population that contributes to this balance in collusion with the local tumor microenvironment. Cancer cells evade the attack of macrophages by liberating cytokines and enhancing the transition to the M2 phenotype with pro-tumoral functions. Despite this pernicious effect on immune systems, the M1 phenotype still exists in the environment and can eliminate tumor cells by liberating cytokines that recruit and activate the cytotoxic actions of TH1 effector cells. Here, we used a Boolean modeling approach to understand how the tumor microenvironment shapes macrophage behavior to enhance pro-tumoral functions. Our network reconstruction integrates experimental data and public information that let us study the polarization from monocytes to M1, M2a, M2b, M2c, and M2d subphenotypes. To analyze the dynamics of our model, we modeled macrophage polarization in different conditions and perturbations. Notably, our study identified new hybrid cell populations, undescribed before. Based on the in vivo macrophage behavior, we explained the hybrid macrophages’ role in the tumor microenvironment. The in silico model allowed us to postulate transcriptional factors that maintain the balance between macrophages with anti- and pro-tumoral functions. In our pursuit to maintain the balance of macrophage phenotypes to eliminate malignant tumor cells, we emulated a theoretical genetically modified macrophage by modifying the activation of NFκB and a loss of function in HIF1-α and discussed their phenotype implications. Overall, our theoretical approach is as a guide to design new experiments for unraveling the principles of the dual host-protective or -harmful antagonistic roles of transitional macrophages in tumor immunoediting and cancer cell fate decisions.

Immune mediating molecules and pathogenesis of COVID-19-associated neurological disease

Background

Long period of SARS-CoV-2 infection has been associated with psychiatric and cognitive disorders in adolescents and children. SARS-CoV-2 remains dormant in the CNS leading to neurological complications. The wide expression of ACE2 in the brain raises concern for its involvement in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Though, the mechanistic insights about blood-brain barriers (BBB) crossing by SARS-CoV-2 and further brain infection are still not clear. Moreover, the mechanism behind dormant SARS-CoV-2 infections leading to chronic neurological disorders needs to be unveiled. There is an urgent need to find out the risk factor involved in COVID-19-associated neurological disease. Therefore, the role of immune-associated genes in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 associated neurological diseases is presented which could contribute to finding associated genetic risk factors.

Method

The search utilizing multiple databases, specifically, EMBASE, PubMed (Medline), and Google Scholar was performed. Moreover, the literature survey on the involvement of COVID-19, neuropathogenesis, and its consequences was done.

Description

Persistent inflammatory stimuli may promote the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. An increased expression level of cytokine, chemokine, and decreased expression level of immune cells has been associated with the COVID-19 patient. Cytokine storm was observed in severe COVID-19 patients. The nature of SARS-CoV-2 infection can be neuroinflammatory. Genes of immune response could be associated with neurodegenerative diseases.

Conclusion

The present review will provide a useful framework and help in understanding COVID-19-associated neuropathogenesis. Experimental studies on immune-associated genes in COVID-19 patients with neurological manifestations could be helpful to establish its neuropathogenesis.

Acteoside Presents Protective Effects on Cerebral Ischemia/reperfusion Injury Through Targeting CCL2, CXCL10, and ICAM1

The objective of this study is to investigate the roles of acteoside (ACT) in cells with oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R)-induced injury and the underlying mechanisms. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion were identified using GSE61616 data set. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment with the DEGs and the prediction of ACT's targets were conducted using The Comparative Toxicogenomics Database. The OGD/R model was established with bEnd.3 cells. Following that, bEnd.3 cells were treated by distinct concentrations of ACT and IL-10. The proliferation and apoptosis of cells were analyzed by cell counting kit-8 and flow cytometry assays, respectively. Western blot was used to check involved proteins. Herein, we identified CCL2, CXCL10, and ICAM1 as the targets of ACT, which were upregulated in tissues of MACO rats and cells with OGD/R-induced injury. ACT promoted the proliferation but reduce the apoptosis of cells with OGD/R-induced injury. Moreover, these effects of ACT were enhanced by IL-10. After being treated with ACT, IL-10, or ACT together with IL-10, the levels of CCL2, CXCL10, and ICAM1 were all decreased, whereas p-Stat3 was raised in cells with OGD/R-induced injury, while Stat3 expression presented no significant difference among groups. ACT protected cells against OGD/R-induced injury through regulating the IL-10/Stat3 signaling, indicating that ACT might be an effective therapy drug to lower cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Epigenetic Regulation of Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's Disease

Neuroinflammation is one of the most significant factors involved in the initiation and progression of Parkinson's disease. PD is a neurodegenerative disorder with a motor disability linked with various complex and diversified risk factors. These factors trigger myriads of cellular and molecular processes, such as misfolding defective proteins, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neurotoxic substances that induce selective neurodegeneration of dopamine neurons. This neuronal damage activates the neuronal immune system, including glial cells and inflammatory cytokines, to trigger neuroinflammation. The transition of acute to chronic neuroinflammation enhances the susceptibility of inflammation-induced dopaminergic neuron damage, forming a vicious cycle and prompting an individual to PD development. Epigenetic mechanisms recently have been at the forefront of the regulation of neuroinflammatory factors in PD, proposing a new dawn for breaking this vicious cycle. This review examined the core epigenetic mechanisms involved in the activation and phenotypic transformation of glial cells mediated neuroinflammation in PD. We found that epigenetic mechanisms do not work independently, despite being coordinated with each other to activate neuroinflammatory pathways. In this regard, we attempted to find the synergic correlation and contribution of these epigenetic modifications with various neuroinflammatory pathways to broaden the canvas of underlying pathological mechanisms involved in PD development. Moreover, this study highlighted the dual characteristics (neuroprotective/neurotoxic) of these epigenetic marks, which may counteract PD pathogenesis and make them potential candidates for devising future PD diagnosis and treatment.

Cytokine signaling convergence regulates the microglial state transition in Alzheimer's disease

Genetic analyses have revealed the pivotal contribution of microglial dysfunctions to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Along AD progression, the accumulation of danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) including beta-amyloid and hyperphosphorylated tau continuously stimulates microglia, which results in their chronic activation. Chronically activated microglia secrete excessive pro-inflammatory cytokines, which further regulate microglial responses towards DAMPs. This has spurred longstanding interest in targeting cytokine-induced microglial responses for AD therapeutic development. However, the cytokine-induced microglial state transition is not comprehensively understood. Cytokines are assumed to induce microglial state transition from a resting state to an activated state. However, recent evidence indicate that this microglial state transition involves multiple sequential functional states. Moreover, the mechanisms by which different functional states within the cytokine-induced microglial state transition regulate AD pathology remain unclear. In this review, we summarize how different cytokine signaling pathways, including those of IL-33 (interleukin-33), NLRP3 inflammasome-IL-1β, IL-10, and IL-12/IL-23, regulate microglial functions in AD. Furthermore, we discuss how the modulation of these cytokine signaling pathways can result in beneficial outcomes in AD. Finally, we describe a stepwise functional state transition of microglia induced by cytokine signaling that can provide insights into the molecular basis of the beneficial effects of cytokine modulation in AD and potentially aid therapeutic development.

The Immunoproteasome Subunits LMP2, LMP7 and MECL-1 Are Crucial Along the Induction of Cerebral Toxoplasmosis

Cell survival and function critically relies on the fine-tuned balance of protein synthesis and degradation. In the steady state, the standard proteasome is sufficient to maintain this proteostasis. However, upon inflammation, the sharp increase in protein production requires additional mechanisms to limit protein-associated cellular stress. Under inflammatory conditions and the release of interferons, the immunoproteasome (IP) is induced to support protein processing and recycling. In antigen-presenting cells constitutively expressing IPs, inflammation-related mechanisms contribute to the formation of MHC class I/II-peptide complexes, which are required for the induction of T cell responses. The control of Toxoplasma gondii infection relies on Interferon-γ (IFNγ)-related T cell responses. Whether and how the IP affects the course of anti-parasitic T cell responses along the infection as well as inflammation of the central nervous system is still unknown. To answer this question we used triple knockout (TKO) mice lacking the 3 catalytic subunits of the immunoproteasome (β1i/LMP2, β2i/MECL-1 and β5i/LMP7). Here we show that the numbers of dendritic cells, monocytes and CD8⁺ T cells were reduced in Toxoplasma gondii-infected TKO mice. Furthermore, impaired IFNγ, TNF and iNOS production was accompanied by dysregulated chemokine expression and altered immune cell recruitment to the brain. T cell differentiation was altered, apoptosis rates of microglia and monocytes were elevated and STAT3 downstream signaling was diminished. Consequently, anti-parasitic immune responses were impaired in TKO mice leading to elevated T. gondii burden and prolonged neuroinflammation. In summary we provide evidence for a critical role of the IP subunits β1i/LMP2, β2i/MECL-1 and β5i/LMP7 for the control of cerebral Toxoplasma gondii infection and subsequent neuroinflammation.

Inhibition of IL-6 in the LCWE Mouse Model of Kawasaki Disease Inhibits Acute Phase Reactant Serum Amyloid A but Fails to Attenuate Vasculitis

Objective

Kawasaki disease (KD) is the most common cause of acquired pediatric heart disease in the developed world. 10% of KD patients are resistant to front-line therapy, and no interventions exist to address secondary complications such as myocardial fibrosis. We sought to identify proteins and pathways associated with disease and anti-IL-1 treatment in a mouse model of KD.

Methods

Vasculitis was induced via Lactobacillus casei cell wall extract (LCWE) injection in 5-week-old male mice. Groups of mice were injected with LCWE alone, LCWE and IL-1 receptor antagonist anakinra, or saline for controls. Upper heart tissue was assessed by quantitative mass spectrometry analysis. Expression and activation of STAT3 was assessed by immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and Western blot, and IL-6 expression by RNA-seq and ELISA. A STAT3 small molecular inhibitor and anti-IL-6R antibody were used to evaluate the role of STAT3 and IL-6 in disease development.

Results

STAT3 was highly expressed and phosphorylated in cardiac tissue of LCWE-injected mice, and reduced following anakinra treatment. Il6 and Stat3 gene expression was enhanced in abdominal aorta of LCWE-injected mice and reduced with Anakinra treatment. IL-6 serum levels were enhanced in LCWE-injected mice and normalized by anakinra. However, neither inhibition of STAT3 nor blockade of IL-6 altered disease development.

Conclusion

Proteomic analysis of cardiac tissues demonstrates differential protein expression between KD-like, control and anakinra treated cardiac tissue. STAT3 and IL-6 were highly upregulated with LCWE and normalized by anakinra treatment. However, both STAT3 and IL-6 were dispensable for disease development indicating they may be bystanders of inflammation.

Curcumin and Its Modified Formulations on Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): The Story So Far and Future Outlook

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic relapsing and remitting inflammatory disorder of the small intestine and colon. IBD includes ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD), and it is a major factor for the development of colon cancer, referred to as colitis-associated cancer (CAC). The current treatment of IBD mainly includes the use of synthetic drugs and monoclonal antibodies. However, these drugs have side effects over long-term use, and the high relapse rate restricts their application. In the recent past, many studies had witnessed a surge in applying plant-derived products to manage various diseases, including IBD. Curcumin is a bioactive component derived from a rhizome of turmeric (Curcuma longa). Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies show that curcumin may interact with many cellular targets (NF-κB, JAKs/STATs, MAPKs, TNF-γ, IL-6, PPARγ, and TRPV1) and effectively reduce the progression of IBD with promising results. Thus, curcumin is a potential therapeutic agent for patients with IBD once it significantly decreases clinical relapse in patients with quiescent IBD. This review aims to summarize recent advances and provide a comprehensive picture of curcumin's effectiveness in IBD and offer our view on future research on curcumin in IBD treatment.

Assessment of Inflammatory Markers in Children with Cow's Milk Allergy Treated with a Milk-Free Diet

Background: The aim of the study was to establish whether the use of a strict milk-free diet in children with cow’s milk allergy, resulting in the resolution of clinical symptoms of the disease, also extinguishes the inflammatory reaction induced by the allergy. Methods: We examined 64 children (aged 3–6 years) with a diagnosed cow’s milk allergy who had been treated with an elimination diet for at least six months and showed remission of the disease’s clinical symptoms as a result of the treatment. The control group consisted of 30 healthy children of the same age following an unrestricted age-appropriate diet. Concentrations of cytokines, calprotectin, and adipokines (leptin, resistin, chemerin, neutrophilic lipocalin associated with gelatinase—NGAL) were determined in the serum samples obtained from the studied children by immunoenzymatic assays. Results: Patients with CMA had significantly higher median values of serum IL-6, TNF-α, resistin, chemerin and NGAL in comparison to the healthy children (p < 0.05, p < 0.001, p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001, respectively). Serum concentrations of IL-10, leptin, calprotectin and CRP as well as in WBC count were in the same range in both studied groups. We observed direct statistically significant correlations between levels of IL-10 and CRP (p = 0.005), IL-10 and WBC (p = 0.045), TNF-α and WBC (p = 0.038), calprotectin and WBC (p < 0.001), chemerin and CRP (p < 0.001) as well as between NGAL and WBC (p = 0.002) in children with CMA. Conclusion: The use of a strict milk-free diet by children with CMA, resulting in the resolution of clinical symptoms of the disease, does not seem to extinguish the inflammation induced by the allergy. The findings of this study—elevated IL-6, TNF-α, resistin, chemerin and NGAL levels in patients with CMA—suggest that these parameters seem to be involved in the generation of a low-grade proinflammatory environment observed in cow‘s milk allergy and could be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment.

Targeting lysosomal cysteine protease cathepsin S reveals immunomodulatory therapeutic strategy for oxaliplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy

Rationale: Oxaliplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy (OIPN) is a common adverse effect that causes delayed treatment and poor prognosis among colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. However, its mechanism remains elusive, and no effective treatment is available.

Methods: We employed a prospective cohort study of adult patients with pathologically confirmed stage III CRC receiving adjuvant chemotherapy with an oxaliplatin-based regimen for investigating OIPN. To further validate the clinical manifestations and identify a potential therapeutic strategy, animal models, and in vitro studies on the mechanism of OIPN were applied.

Results: Our work found that (1) consistent with clinical findings, OIPN was observed in animal models. Targeting the enzymatic activity of cathepsin S (CTSS) by pharmacological blockade and gene deficiency strategy alleviates the manifestations of OIPN. (2) Oxaliplatin treatment increases CTSS expression by enhancing cytosol translocation of interferon response factor 1 (IRF1), which then facilitates STIM-dependent store-operated Ca²⁺ entry homeostasis. (3) The cytokine array demonstrated an increase in anti-inflammatory cytokines and suppression of proinflammatory cytokines in mice treated with RJW-58. (4) Mechanistically, inhibiting CTSS facilitated olfactory receptors transcription factor 1 release from P300/CBP binding, which enhanced binding to the interleukin-10 (IL-10) promoter region, driving IL-10 downstream signaling pathway. (5) Serum CTSS expression is increased in CRC patients with oxaliplatin-induced neurotoxicity.

Conclusions: We highlighted the critical role of CTSS in OIPN, which provides a therapeutic strategy for the common adverse side effects of oxaliplatin.

Targeting the Autonomic Nervous System for Risk Stratification, Outcome Prediction and Neuromodulation in Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke is a worldwide major cause of mortality and disability and has high costs in terms of health-related quality of life and expectancy as well as of social healthcare resources. In recent years, starting from the bidirectional relationship between autonomic nervous system (ANS) dysfunction and acute ischemic stroke (AIS), researchers have identified prognostic factors for risk stratification, prognosis of mid-term outcomes and response to recanalization therapy. In particular, the evaluation of the ANS function through the analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) appears to be a promising non-invasive and reliable tool for the management of patients with AIS. Furthermore, preclinical molecular studies on the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the onset and progression of stroke damage have shown an extensive overlap with the activity of the vagus nerve. Evidence from the application of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) on animal models of AIS and on patients with chronic ischemic stroke has highlighted the surprising therapeutic possibilities of neuromodulation. Preclinical molecular studies highlighted that the neuroprotective action of VNS results from anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiapoptotic mechanisms mediated by α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Given the proven safety of non-invasive VNS in the subacute phase, the ease of its use and its possible beneficial effect in hemorrhagic stroke as well, human studies with transcutaneous VNS should be less challenging than protocols that involve invasive VNS and could be the proof of concept that neuromodulation represents the very first therapeutic approach in the ultra-early management of stroke.

Interleukin-10: A double-edged sword in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is a frequently diagnosed cancer among women worldwide. Currently, BC can be divided into different subgroups according to the presence of the following hormone receptors: estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2. Each of these subgroups has different treatment strategies. However, the presence of new metastatic lesions and patient deterioration suggest resistance to a given treatment. Various lines of evidence had shown that cytokines are one of the important mediators of tumor growth, invasion, metastasis, and treatment resistance. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is an immunoregulatory cytokine, and acts as a poor prognostic marker in many cancers. The anti-inflammatory IL-10 blocks certain effects of inflammatory cytokines. It also antagonizes the co-stimulatory molecules on the antigen-presenting cells. Here, we review the current knowledge on the function and molecular mechanism of IL-10, and recent findings on how IL-10 contributes to the progression of BC.

ADAP Y571 Phosphorylation Is Required to Prime STAT3 for Activation in TLR4-Stimulated Macrophages

Adhesion and degranulation-promoting adapter protein (ADAP), originally identified as an essential adaptor molecule in TCR signaling and T cell adhesion, has emerged as a critical regulator in innate immune cells such as macrophages; however, its role in macrophage polarization and inflammatory responses remains unknown. In this study, we show that ADAP plays an essential role in TLR4-mediated mouse macrophage polarization via modulation of STAT3 activity. Macrophages from ADAP-deficient mice exhibit enhanced M1 polarization, expression of proinflammatory cytokines and capacity in inducing Th1 responses, but decreased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines in response to TLR4 activation by LPS. Furthermore, overexpression of ADAP enhances, whereas loss of ADAP reduces, the LPS-mediated phosphorylation and activity of STAT3, suggesting ADAP acts as a coactivator of STAT3 activity and function. Furthermore, the coactivator function of ADAP mostly depends on the tyrosine phosphorylation at Y571 in the motif YDSL induced by LPS. Mutation of Y571 to F severely impairs the stimulating effect of ADAP on STAT3 activity and the ability of ADAP to inhibit M1-like polarization in TLR4-activated mouse macrophages. Moreover, ADAP interacts with STAT3, and loss of ADAP renders mouse macrophages less sensitive to IL-6 stimulation for STAT3 phosphorylation. Collectively, our findings revealed an additional layer of regulation of TLR4-mediated mouse macrophage plasticity whereby ADAP phosphorylation on Y571 is required to prime STAT3 for activation in TLR4-stimulated mouse macrophages.

Microglia-derived interleukin-10 accelerates post-intracerebral hemorrhage hematoma clearance by regulating CD36

Hematoma size after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) significantly affects patient outcome. However, our knowledge of endogenous mechanisms that underlie hematoma clearance and the potential role of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) is limited. Using organotypic hippocampal slice cultures and a collagenase-induced ICH mouse model, we investigated the role of microglial IL-10 in phagocytosis ex vivo and hematoma clearance in vivo. In slice culture, exposure to hemoglobin induced IL-10 expression in microglia and enhanced phagocytosis that depended on IL-10-regulated expression of CD36. Following ICH, IL-10-deficient mice had more severe neuroinflammation, brain edema, iron deposition, and neurologic deficits associated with delayed hematoma clearance. Intranasal administration of recombinant IL-10 accelerated hematoma clearance and improved neurologic function. Additionally, IL-10-deficient mice had weakened in vivo phagocytic ability owing to decreased expression of microglial CD36. Moreover, loss of IL-10 significantly increased monocyte-derived macrophage infiltration and enhanced brain inflammation in vivo. These results indicate that IL-10 regulates microglial phagocytosis and monocyte-derived macrophage infiltration after ICH and that CD36 is a key phagocytosis effector regulated by IL-10. Leveraging the innate immune response to ICH by augmenting IL-10 signaling may provide a useful strategy for accelerating hematoma clearance and improving neurologic outcome in clinical translation studies.

Extrafollicular CD4 T cell-derived IL-10 functions rapidly and transiently to support anti-Plasmodium humoral immunity

Immunity against malaria depends on germinal center (GC)-derived antibody responses that are orchestrated by T follicular helper (TFH) cells. Emerging data show that the regulatory cytokine IL-10 plays an essential role in promoting GC B cell responses during both experimental malaria and virus infections. Here we investigated the cellular source and temporal role of IL-10, and whether IL-10 additionally signals to CD4 T-cells to support anti-Plasmodium humoral immunity. Distinct from reports of virus infection, we found that IL-10 was expressed by conventional, Foxp3-negative effector CD4 T cells and functioned in a B cell-intrinsic manner only during the first 96 hours of Plasmodium infection to support humoral immunity. The critical functions of IL-10 manifested only before the orchestration of GC responses and were primarily localized outside of B cell follicles. Mechanistically, our studies showed that the rapid and transient provision of IL-10 promoted B cell expression of anti-apoptotic factors, MHC class II, CD83, and cell-cell adhesion proteins that are essential for B cell survival and interaction with CD4 T cells. Together, our data reveal temporal features and mechanisms by which IL-10 critically supports humoral immunity during blood-stage Plasmodium infection, information that may be useful for developing new strategies designed to lessen the burden of malaria.