Polymer-Based Hydrogels Applied in Drug Delivery: An Overview

Assessing texturometer-derived rheological data for predicting the printability of gummy formulations in SSE 3D printing

Semi-solid extrusion (SSE), an additive manufacturing technique, is gaining significant attention for the printing of thermosensitive drugs. Hydrogels, one of the materials used in SSE, have emerged as a focus in pharmaceutical applications due to their ability to control the release of therapeutic agents spatially and temporally. Understanding the non-Newtonian flow and evaluating the mechanical properties of hydrogel-based materials during extrusion is, however, essential for successful 3D printing. Thus, users often find themselves conducting both rheological and texture profile analyses to characterize the hydrogel. While texturometers are primarily used to evaluate mechanical or sensory properties, viscosity measurements are typically performed using rotational rheometers or viscometers. In this study, we demonstrated how comparable rheological information can be obtained using a texturometer as a capillary rheometer. By preparing similar formulations to a previous study, we compared the rheological data obtained from a rotational rheometer to the data obtained from the texturometer. The means of the parameters obtained by fitting the data from both techniques to the power law model showed insignificant differences. In addition, three clusters were formed based on the flow behaviour and printability of the samples using principal component analysis. Furthermore, the printability was predicted using the samples' consistency and flow indexes, and the regression coefficient was 96.62 and 60.03% for capillary and rotational flow parameters, respectively. This approach thus holds the potential to streamline the time, expertise and equipment required for the rheological characterization of hydrogels for applications in semi-solid extrusion.

Innovative Strategies in 3D Bioprinting for Spinal Cord Injury Repair

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a catastrophic condition that disrupts neurons within the spinal cord, leading to severe motor and sensory deficits. While current treatments can alleviate pain, they do not promote neural regeneration or functional recovery. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting offers promising solutions for SCI repair by enabling the creation of complex neural tissue constructs. This review provides a comprehensive overview of 3D bioprinting techniques, bioinks, and stem cell applications in SCI repair. Additionally, it highlights recent advancements in 3D bioprinted scaffolds, including the integration of conductive materials, the incorporation of bioactive molecules like neurotrophic factors, drugs, and exosomes, and the design of innovative structures such as multi-channel and axial scaffolds. These innovative strategies in 3D bioprinting can offer a comprehensive approach to optimizing the spinal cord microenvironment, advancing SCI repair. This review highlights a comprehensive understanding of the current state of 3D bioprinting in SCI repair, offering insights into future directions in the field of regenerative medicine.

Eye of the future: Unlocking the potential utilization of hydrogels in intraocular lenses

Hydrogels are distinguished by their exceptional ability to absorb and retain large volumes of water within their complex three-dimensional polymer networks, which is advantageous for the development of intraocular lenses (IOLs). Their innate hydrophilicity offers an optimal substrate for the fabrication of IOLs that simulate the natural lens' accommodation, thereby reducing irritation and facilitating healing after surgery. The swelling and water retention characteristics of hydrogels contribute to their notable biocompatibility and versatile mechanical properties. However, the clinical application of hydrogels faces challenges, including managing potential adverse postimplantation effects. Rigorous research is essential to ascertain the safety and effectiveness of hydrogels. This review systematically examines the prospects and constraints of hydrogels as innovative materials for IOLs. Our comprehensive analysis examines their inherent properties, various classification strategies, cross-linking processes, and sensitivity to external stimuli. Additionally, we thoroughly evaluate their interactions with ocular tissues, underscoring the potential for hydrogels to be refined into seamless and biologically integrated visual aids. We also discuss the anticipated technological progress and clinical uses of hydrogels in IOL manufacturing. With ongoing technological advancements, the promise of hydrogels is poised to evolve from concept to clinical reality, marking a significant leap forward in ophthalmology characterized by improved patient comfort, enhanced functionality, and reliable safety.

Biomimetic kartogenin containing κ-carrageenan hydrogel for nucleus pulposus regeneration

Intervertebral disc degeneration is a clinical disease that reduces the quality of patient's life. The degeneration usually initiates in the nucleus pulposus (NP), hence the use of hydrogels represents a promising therapeutic approach. However, the viscoelastic nature of hydrogel and its ability to provide biomimetic architecture and biochemical cues influence the regeneration capability. This study focused on tuning the physical nature of a glycosaminoglycan hydrogel (κ-carrageenan) as well as the release kinetics of a chondrogenic factor (kartogenin - KGN) through physical cross-linking. For this, κ-carrageenan was cross linked with 2.5 % and 5 % potassium chloride (KCl) for 15 and 30 min and loaded with KGN molecule at 50 μM and 100 μM. The tight network structure with low water retention and degradation property was seen in hydrogel cross-linked with increased KCl concentration and time. However, optimal degradation along with NP mimicking viscoelastic nature was exhibited by 5 wt% KCl treated hydrogel (H3 hydrogel). All hydrogel groups exhibited burst KGN release at 24 h followed by a sustained release for 5 days. However, hydrogel cross-linked with 5 wt% KCl enhanced chondrogenic differentiation, mainly at lower KGN dose. In summary, this study shows the potential application of biomimetic KGN laden carrageenan hydrogel in NP regeneration.

Advanced drug delivery technologies for postmenopausal effects

Postmenopause is the 12-month absence of menstrual periods, characterized by decreased estrogen and progesterone levels, leading to physical and psychological alterations such as hot flashes, mood swings, sleep disruptions, and skin changes. Present postmenopausal treatments include hormone replacement therapy, non-hormonal drugs, lifestyle modifications, vaginal estrogen therapy, bone health treatments, and alternative therapies. Advanced drug delivery systems (ADDSs) are essential in managing postmenopausal effects (PMEs), offering targeted and controlled delivery to alleviate symptoms and improve overall health. This review emphasizes such ADDSs for addressing PMEs. Emerging trends such as artificial ovaries are also reviewed. Additionally, the prospects of technologies such as additive manufacturing (3D and 4D printing) and artificial intelligence in further tailoring therapeutic strategies against PMEs are provided.

Nanoparticles in cancer theragnostic and drug delivery: A comprehensive review

This comprehensive review provides an in-depth analysis of how nanotechnology has revolutionized cancer theragnostic, which combines diagnostic and therapeutic methods to customize cancer treatment. The study examines the unique attributes, uses, and difficulties linked to different types of nanoparticles, including gold, iron oxide, silica, Quantum dots, Carbon nanotubes, and liposomes, in the context of cancer treatment. In addition, the paper examines the progression of nanotheranostics, emphasizing its uses in precise medication administration, photothermal therapy, and sophisticated diagnostic methods such as MRI, CT, and fluorescence imaging. Moreover, the article highlights the capacity of nanoparticles to improve the effectiveness of drugs, reduce the overall toxicity in the body, and open up new possibilities for treating cancer by releasing drugs in a controlled manner and targeting specific areas. Furthermore, it tackles concerns regarding the compatibility of nanoparticles and their potential harmful effects, emphasizing the significance of continuous study to improve nanotherapeutic methods for use in medical treatments. The review finishes by outlining potential future applications of nanotechnology in predictive oncology and customized medicine.

Application of Hydrophilic Polymers to the Preparation of Prolonged-Release Minitablets with Bromhexine Hydrochloride and Bisoprolol Fumarate

Minitablets have been extensively studied in recent years as a convenient pediatric form because they allow successful administration even in very young children. Their advantages include easy dose adjustment by multiplication of single units as well as the possibility of drug release modification by coating or forming matrix systems. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the possibility of the formulation of prolonged-release minitablets with bromhexine hydrochloride (BHX) and bisoprolol fumarate (BFM) dedicated to pediatric patients. Minitablets with 3 mm diameter and 15 mg mass, containing 1 mg of active substance in 1 unit, were prepared by direct compression with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) of different grades, methylcellulose, sodium alginate, or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a sustained-release polymer. Different amounts of polymers and different compression forces were evaluated. Analysis of minitablets included their uniformity, hardness, and dissolution tests. The kinetics of drug substance release were analyzed with dedicated software. The prepared minitablets met the pharmacopeial requirements with respect to the uniformity of mass and content. The compressibility of BFM was significantly better than that of BHX, yet all minitablets had good mechanical properties. Dissolution studies showed a strong relationship between the type of polymer and its amount in the mass of a tablet and the dissolution rate. Prolonged release of up to 8 h was achieved when HPMC of 4000 cP viscosity was used in the amount of 30% to 80%. Sodium alginate in the amount of 50% was also effective in prolonging dissolution, but PVA was much less effective. Studies on the release kinetics showed that dissolution from prolonged-release minitablets with BHX fit the best to Hopfenberg or Hixson-Crowell models, while in the case of BFM, the best fit was found for Hopfenberg or Korsmeyer-Peppas models.

Potentilla tormentilla Extract Loaded Gel: Formulation, In Vivo and In Silico Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory Properties

The objective of the study was to develop a novel topical gel by mixing Potentilla tormentilla ethanolic extract, thermosensitive poloxamer 407, and carbomer 940 and evaluating its stability and rheological behavior. The irritation potential of the gel was evaluated in accordance with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Guidelines 404. The potential anti-inflammatory effects of the developed gel were evaluated in vivo in rats using the carrageenan-induced paw edema test. Moreover, the in silico binding affinity for chlorogenic and ellagic acid, as dominant components in the extract, against cyclooxygenase (COX) 1 and 2 was also determined. Our findings suggest that the gel containing Potentilla tormentilla extract remained stable throughout the observation period, exhibited pseudoplastic behavior, and caused no irritation in rats, thus being considered safe for topical treatment. Additionally, the developed gel showed the capability to reduce rat paw edema, which highlights significant anti-inflammatory potential. In silico analysis revealed that chlorogenic and ellagic acid exhibited a reduced binding affinity against COX-1 but had a similar inhibitory effect on COX-2 as flurbiprofen, which was confirmed by molecular dynamics results. The study proposes the possible application of Potentilla tormentilla ethanolic extract gel for the alleviation of localized inflammatory diseases; however, future clinical evaluation is required.

A Comprehensive Review of Stimuli-Responsive Smart Polymer Materials-Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

Today, smart materials are commonly used in various fields of science and technology, such as medicine, electronics, soft robotics, the chemical industry, the automotive field, and many others. Smart polymeric materials hold good promise for the future due to their endless possibilities. This group of advanced materials can be sensitive to changes or the presence of various chemical, physical, and biological stimuli, e.g., light, temperature, pH, magnetic/electric field, pressure, microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, toxic substances, and many others. This review concerns the newest achievements in the area of smart polymeric materials. The recent advances in the designing of stimuli-responsive polymers are described in this paper.

Natural Regenerative Hydrogels for Wound Healing

Regenerative hydrogels from natural polymers have come forth as auspicious materials for use in regenerative medicine, with interest attributed to their intrinsic biodegradability, biocompatibility, and ability to reassemble the extracellular matrix. This review covers the latest advances in regenerative hydrogels used for wound healing, focusing on their chemical composition, cross-linking mechanisms, and functional properties. Key carbohydrate polymers, including alginate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and polysaccharide gums, including agarose, carrageenan, and xanthan gum, are discussed in terms of their sources, chemical structures and specific properties suitable for regenerative applications. The review further explores the categorization of hydrogels based on ionic charge, response to physiological stimuli (i.e., pH, temperature) and particularized roles in wound tissue self-healing. Various methods of cross-linking used to enhance the mechanical and biological performance of these hydrogels are also examined. By highlighting recent innovations and ongoing challenges, this article intends to give a detailed understanding of natural hydrogels and their potential to revolutionize regenerative medicine and improve patient healing outcomes.

Innovative approaches to wound healing: insights into interactive dressings and future directions

The objective of this review is to provide an up-to-date and all-encompassing account of the recent advancements in the domain of interactive wound dressings. Considering the gap between the achieved and desired clinical outcomes with currently available or under-study wound healing therapies, newer more specific options based on the wound type and healing phase are reviewed. Starting from the comprehensive description of the wound healing process, a detailed classification of wound dressings is presented. Subsequently, we present an elaborate and significant discussion describing interactive (unconventional) wound dressings. Latter includes biopolymer-based, bioactive-containing and biosensor-based smart dressings, which are discussed in separate sections together with their applications and limitations. Moreover, recent (2-5 years) clinical trials, patents on unconventional dressings, marketed products, and other information on advanced wound care designs and techniques are discussed. Subsequently, the future research direction is highlighted, describing peptides, proteins, and human amniotic membranes as potential wound dressings. Finally, we conclude that this field needs further development and offers scope for integrating information on the healing process with newer technologies.

Biomaterial-Based Sustained-Release Drug Formulations for Localized Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has revolutionized clinical cancer treatments by taking advantage of the immune system to selectively and effectively target and kill cancer cells. However, clinical cancer immunotherapy treatments often have limited efficacy and/or present severe adverse effects associated primarily with their systemic administration. Localized immunotherapy has emerged to overcome these limitations by directly targeting accessible tumors via local administration, reducing potential systemic drug distribution that hampers drug efficacy and safety. Sustained-release formulations can prolong drug activity at target sites, which maximizes the benefits of localized immunotherapy to increase the therapeutic window using smaller dosages than those used for systemic injection, avoiding complications of frequent dosing. The performance of sustained-release formulations for localized cancer immunotherapy has been validated preclinically using various implantable and injectable scaffold platforms. This review introduces the sustained-release formulations developed for localized cancer immunotherapy and highlights their biomaterial-based platforms for representative classes, including inorganic scaffolds, natural hydrogels, synthetic hydrogels, and microneedle patches. The design rationale and other considerations are summarized for further development of biomaterials for the construction of optimal sustained-release formulations.

Preparation and Characterization of Hydrogels Fabricated From Chitosan and Poly(vinyl alcohol) for Tissue Engineering Applications

In this study, we report on the preparation, characterization, and cytocompatibility of hydrogels for biomedical applications made from two different molecular weights of chitosan (CS) blended with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and chemically cross-linked with tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) followed by freeze-drying. A series of CS-PVA hydrogels were synthesized with different amounts of chitosan (1%, 2%, and 3% by weight). The structure of these CS-PVA hydrogels was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The hydrogel samples were also characterized for tensile strength, contact angle, swelling behavior, and degradation at physiological body temperature. Their physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and cell viability when cultured with human dermal fibroblasts were assessed using alamarBlue and live/dead assays and compared to optimize their functionality. SEM analysis showed that the concentration and molecular weight of the chitosan component affected the pore size. Furthermore, the contact angle decreased with increasing chitosan content, indicating that chitosan increased its hydrophilic properties. The in vitro degradation study revealed a nonlinear time-dependent relationship between chitosan concentration or molecular weight, and the rate of degradation was affected by the pore size of the hydrogel. All of the CS-PVA hydrogels exhibited good cell proliferation, particularly with the high molecular weight chitosan samples.

Integrating Cellulose Microfibrils and Ellagitannins from Rambutan Peel with Gelatin for Production of Synergistic Biobased Hydrogels

The pursuit of renewable and eco-friendly raw materials for biobased materials is a growing field. This study utilized ellagitannin and cellulose microfibrils derived from rambutan peel waste alongside gelatin to develop eco-conscious hydrogels. The cellulose/gelatin hydrogels were formulated in two weight ratios (0.5:1 to 1:1), and the influence of gelatin on the chemical composition and rheology was studied. Composite hydrogels, functionalized with an ellagitannin-rich extract, exhibited a remarkable enhancement of up to 14-fold in compressive strength. The hydrogels also demonstrated antimicrobial properties, reducing the Staphylococcus aureus colony count within 24 h. The hydrogel, derived from rambutan peel waste, is biocompatible and could potentially be explored for biomedical applications such as drug delivery systems, and wound dressings. This suggests that it might offer significant value for sustainable materials science, although specific applications have yet to be tested.

Advances in Hydrogel Polymers for Microbial Control in Water Systems

Every year, contaminated water is responsible for over one million deaths globally. Microbiology leads other fields in the development of solutions to water contamination to reduce these deaths while advancing the achievement of SDG 6, which aims to ensure universal access to water and sanitation. This article explores hydrogel polymers as a solution to water contamination through microbial control. Using a systematic approach, this study collects, reviews, analyzes, and synthesizes the findings of studies on the structure, properties, and mechanisms used by hydrogel polymers in pathogen control in water systems, emphasizing recent advances in microbiology that have improved the antimicrobial properties of hydrogel polymers, enhanced their synthetic properties, and improved their overall ability to control the spread of pathogens in water. Other additional notable findings, including the applications of hydrogel polymers in water systems, the environmental implications of using the method to decontaminate and purify water for various purposes, and the regulatory standards needed to reinforce the viability and effectiveness of the adaptation of hydrogel polymers for the control of harmful or unwanted microorganisms in water systems, inform the presented inferences on the future of hydrogel technologies and new opportunities for the expansion of their commercial use.

Chitosan: An overview of biological activities, derivatives, properties, and current advancements in biomedical applications

The second and most often utilized natural polymer is chitosan (CS), a naturally existing amino polysaccharide that is produced by deacetylating chitin. Numerous applications have been the subject of in-depth investigation due to its non-hazardous, biologically compatible, and biodegradable qualities. Chitosan's characteristics, such as mucoadhesion, improved permeability, controlled release of drugs, in situ gelation process, and antibacterial activity, depend on its amino (-NH2) and hydroxyl groups (-OH). This study examines the latest findings in chitosan research, including its characteristics, derivatives, preliminary research, toxic effects, pharmaceutical kinetics and chitosan nanoparticles (CS-NPs) based for non-parenteral delivery of drugs. Chitosan and its derivatives have a wide range of physical and chemical properties that make them highly promising for use in the medicinal and pharmaceutical industries. The characteristics and biological activities of chitosan and its derivative-based nanomaterials for the delivery of drugs, therapeutic gene transfer, delivery of vaccine, engineering tissues, evaluations, and other applications in medicine are highlighted in detail in the current review. Together with the techniques for binding medications to nanoparticles, the application of the nanoparticles was also dictated by their physical properties that were classified and specified. The most recent research investigations on delivery of drugs chitosan nanoparticle-based medication delivery methods applied topically, through the skin, and through the eyes were considered.

Functional Bio-Based Polymeric Hydrogels for Wastewater Treatment: From Remediation to Sensing Applications

In recent years, many researchers have focused on designing hydrogels with specific functional groups that exhibit high affinity for various contaminants, such as heavy metals, organic pollutants, pathogens, or nutrients, or environmental parameters. Novel approaches, including cross-linking strategies and the use of nanomaterials, have been employed to enhance the structural integrity and performance of the desired hydrogels. The evolution of these hydrogels is further highlighted, with an emphasis on fine-tuning features, including water absorption capacity, environmental pollutant/factor sensing and selectivity, and recyclability. Furthermore, this review investigates the emerging topic of stimuli-responsive smart hydrogels, underscoring their potential in both sorption and detection of water pollutants. By critically assessing a wide range of studies, this review not only synthesizes existing knowledge, but also identifies advantages and limitations, and describes future research directions in the field of chemically engineered hydrogels for water purification and monitoring with a low environmental impact as an important resource for chemists and multidisciplinary researchers, leading to improvements in sustainable water management technology.

High-Altitude Medicinal Plants as Promising Source of Phytochemical Antioxidants to Combat Lifestyle-Associated Oxidative Stress-Induced Disorders

Oxidative stress, driven by reactive oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur species (ROS, RNS, RSS), poses a significant threat to cellular integrity and human health. Generated during mitochondrial respiration, inflammation, UV exposure and pollution, these species damage cells and contribute to pathologies like cardiovascular issues, neurodegeneration, cancer, and metabolic syndromes. Lifestyle factors exert a substantial influence on oxidative stress levels, with mitochondria emerging as pivotal players in ROS generation and cellular equilibrium. Phytochemicals, abundant in plants, such as carotenoids, ascorbic acid, tocopherols and polyphenols, offer diverse antioxidant mechanisms. They scavenge free radicals, chelate metal ions, and modulate cellular signalling pathways to mitigate oxidative damage. Furthermore, plants thriving in high-altitude regions are adapted to extreme conditions, and synthesize secondary metabolites, like flavonoids and phenolic compounds in bulk quantities, which act to form a robust antioxidant defence against oxidative stress, including UV radiation and temperature fluctuations. These plants are promising sources for drug development, offering innovative strategies by which to manage oxidative stress-related ailments and enhance human health. Understanding and harnessing the antioxidant potential of phytochemicals from high-altitude plants represent crucial steps in combating oxidative stress-induced disorders and promoting overall wellbeing. This study offers a comprehensive summary of the production and physio-pathological aspects of lifestyle-induced oxidative stress disorders and explores the potential of phytochemicals as promising antioxidants. Additionally, it presents an appraisal of high-altitude medicinal plants as significant sources of antioxidants, highlighting their potential for drug development and the creation of innovative antioxidant therapeutic approaches.

Hydrogel-Based Therapies for Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke: A Comprehensive Review

Stroke remains the second leading cause of death and a major cause of disability worldwide, significantly impacting individuals, families, and healthcare systems. This neurological emergency can be triggered by ischemic events, including small vessel arteriolosclerosis, cardioembolism, and large artery atherothromboembolism, as well as hemorrhagic incidents resulting from macrovascular lesions, venous sinus thrombosis, or vascular malformations, leading to significant neuronal damage. The resultant motor impairment, cognitive dysfunction, and emotional disturbances underscore the urgent need for effective therapeutic interventions. Recent advancements in biomaterials, particularly hydrogels, offer promising new avenues for stroke management. Hydrogels, composed of three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic polymers, are notable for their ability to absorb and retain substantial amounts of water. Commonly used polymers in hydrogel formulations include natural polymers like alginate, chitosan, and collagen, as well as synthetic polymers such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and polyacrylamide. Their customizable characteristics-such as their porosity, swelling behavior, mechanical strength, and degradation rates-make hydrogels ideal for biomedical applications, including drug delivery, cell delivery, tissue engineering, and the controlled release of therapeutic agents. This review comprehensively explores hydrogel-based approaches to both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke therapy, elucidating the mechanisms by which hydrogels provide neuroprotection. It covers their application in drug delivery systems, their role in reducing inflammation and secondary injury, and their potential to support neurogenesis and angiogenesis. It also discusses current advancements in hydrogel technology and the significant challenges in translating these innovations from research into clinical practice. Additionally, it emphasizes the limited number of clinical trials utilizing hydrogel therapies for stroke and addresses the associated limitations and constraints, underscoring the need for further research in this field.

Stimulus-Responsive Hydrogels for Targeted Cancer Therapy

Cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease and remains a global health challenge affecting millions of human lives worldwide. Despite advancements in conventional treatments like surgery, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, the rise of multidrug resistance, tumor recurrence, and their severe side effects and the complex nature of the tumor microenvironment (TME) necessitates innovative therapeutic approaches. Recently, stimulus-responsive nanomedicines designed to target TME characteristics (e.g., pH alterations, redox conditions, enzyme secretion) have gained attention for their potential to enhance anticancer efficacy while minimizing the adverse effects of chemotherapeutics/bioactive compounds. Among the various nanocarriers, hydrogels are intriguing due to their high-water content, adjustable mechanical characteristics, and responsiveness to external and internal stimuli, making them promising candidates for cancer therapy. These properties make hydrogels an ideal nanocarrier for controlled drug release within the TME. This review comprehensively surveys the latest advancements in the area of stimulus-responsive hydrogels for cancer therapy, exploring various stimuli-responsive mechanisms, including biological (e.g., pH, redox), chemical (e.g., enzymes, glucose), and physical (e.g., temperature, light), as well as dual- or multi-stimuli responsiveness. Furthermore, this review addresses the current developments and challenges in hydrogels in cancer treatment. Our aim is to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of stimulus-responsive hydrogels for cancer treatment, offering novel perspectives on their development for cancer therapy and other medical applications.

Synthesis and Evaluation of Gelatin-Chitosan Biofilms Incorporating Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and 5-Fluorouracil for Cancer Treatment

In this study, a novel multifunctional biofilm was fabricated using a straightforward casting process. The biofilm comprised gelatin, chitosan, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-conjugated zinc oxide nanoparticles, and polyvinyl alcohol plasticized with glycerol. The 5-FU-conjugated nanoparticles were synthesized via a single-step co-precipitation process, offering a unique approach. Characterization confirmed successful drug conjugation, revealing bar-shaped nanoparticles with sizes ranging from 90 to 100 nm. Drug release kinetics followed the Korsmeyer-Peppas model, indicating controlled release behavior. Maximum swelling ratio studies of the gelatin-chitosan film showed pH-dependent characteristics, highlighting its versatility. Comprehensive analysis using SEM, FT-IR, Raman, and EDX spectra confirmed the presence of gelatin, chitosan, and 5-FU/ZnO nanoparticles within the biofilms. These biofilms exhibited non-cytotoxicity to human fibroblasts and significant anticancer activity against skin cancer cells, demonstrating their potential for biomedical applications. This versatility positions the 5-FU/ZnO-loaded sheets as promising candidates for localized topical patches in skin and oral cancer treatment, underscoring their practicality and adaptability for therapeutic applications.

Unveiling the Impact of Gelation Temperature on the Rheological and Microstructural Properties of Type A Gelatin Hydrogels

Gelatin-based hydrogels have garnered significant attention in the fields of drug delivery systems and tissue engineering owing to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, elasticity, flexibility and nontoxic nature. However, there is a lack of information regarding type-A-gelatin-based hydrogels. In this sense, the main aim of this work was the evaluation of the properties of type-A-gelatin-based hydrogel achieved using two different gelation temperatures (4 °C and 20 °C). Thus, the main novelty of this study lies in the analysis of the impact of gelation time on the rheological and microstructural properties of type-A-gelatin-based hydrogels. Moreover, the addition of a drug was also analyzed in order to evaluate the hydrogels' behavior as a drug delivery system. For this purpose, rheological (strain, frequency sweep tests and flow curves) and microstructural (SEM) characterizations were carried out. The results demonstrated that lowering the gelation temperature improved the rheological properties of the systems, obtaining hydrogels with an elastic modulus of 20 kPa when processing at 4 °C. On the other hand, the increase in the gelation temperature improved the critical strain of the systems at low temperatures. In conclusion, this work showed the feasibility of producing hydrogels with potential application in drug delivery with different properties, varying the testing temperature and incorporating tetracycline into their formulation.

Chitosan-Type-A-Gelatin Hydrogels Used as Potential Platforms in Tissue Engineering for Drug Delivery

Hydrogels are materials made of crosslinked 3D networks of hydrophilic polymer chains that can absorb and retain significant amounts of water due to their hydrophilic structure without being dissolved. In relation to alternative biomaterials, hydrogels offer increased biocompatibility and biodegradability, giving them distinct advantages. Thus, hydrogel platforms are considered to have the potential for the development of biomedical applications. In this study, the main objective was the development of hybrid hydrogels to act as a drug delivery platform. These hydrogels were made from chitosan (CH) and type A gelatin (G), two natural polymers that provide a supportive environment for cellular attachment, viability, and growth, thanks to their unique properties. Particularly, the use of gelatins for drug delivery systems provides biodegradability, biocompatibility, and non-toxicity, which are excellent properties to be used in the human body. However, gelatins have some limitations, such as thermal instability and poor mechanical properties. In order to improve those properties, the aim of this work was the development and characterization of hybrid hydrogels with different ratios of CH-G (100-0, 75-25, 50-50, 25-75, 0-100). Hydrogels were characterized through multiple techniques, including Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, rheological and microstructural studies, among others. Moreover, a model hydrophilic drug molecule (tetracycline) was incorporated to evaluate the feasibility of this platform to sustain the release of hydrophilic drugs, by being tested in a solution of Phosphate Buffer Solution at a pH of 7.2 and at 37 °C. The results revealed that the synergy between chitosan and type A gelatin improved the mechanical properties as well as the thermal stability of it, revealing that the best ratios of the biopolymers are 50-50 CH-G and 75-25 CH-G. Thereby, these systems were evaluated in a controlled release of tetracycline, showing a controlled drug delivery of 6 h and highlighting their promising application as a platform for controlled drug release.

Tamarind seed polysaccharide-metformin insert: Higher ocular retention, slow-release, and efficacy against corneal burn

Metformin (MET) can be an alternative therapeutic strategy for managing ocular burn primarily because of its pleiotropic mechanism. Longer retention on the ocular surface and sustained release are necessary to ensure the efficacy of MET for ocular application. Although the high aqueous solubility of MET is good for formulation and biocompatibility, it makes MET prone to high nasolacrimal drainage. This limits ocular residence and may be a challenge in its application. To address this, polymers approved for ophthalmic application with natural origin were analyzed through in silico methods to determine their ability to bind to mucin and interact with MET. An ocular insert of MET (3 mg/6 mm) was developed using a scalable solvent casting method without using preservatives. The relative composition of the insert was 58 ± 2.06 %w/w MET with approximately 14 %w/w tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP), and 28 %w/w propylene glycol (PG). Its stability was demonstrated as per the ICH Q1A (R2) guidelines. Compatibility, ocular retention, drug release, and other functional parameters were evaluated. In rabbits, efficacy was demonstrated in the 'corneal alkali burn preclinical model'. TSP showed potential for mucoadhesion and interaction with MET. With adequate stability and sterility, the insert contributed to adequate retention of MET (10-12 h) in vivo and slow release (30 h) in vitro. This resulted in significant efficacy in vivo.

In Vitro/In Vivo Correlation of Two Extended-Release Cilostazol Formulations

This study aims to evaluate and determine the correlation between in vitro release and in vivo pharmacokinetics of two extended-release dosage forms of Cilostazol. In vitro release profiles for two dosage forms, tablet and capsule, were analyzed under physiologically mimicked medium conditions using the paddle and basket USP release apparatus. A single-dose, two-period crossover study design in beagle dogs was applied for the pharmacokinetic study. The fed and fast effects were considered for evaluation. Pseudo gastric release medium transfer setup study from pH 1.2 to pH 6.8 (+0.5% SLS) and pH 1.2 to pH 6.8 (+1.0% SLS) demonstrated that Pletaal® SR 200 mg capsules have higher drug release rates than Cilostan® CR 200 mg tablets. Similarly, in vivo study showed Cilostazol concentration in plasma and AUC was lower under the fast state than the fed state. The ratio of least squared geometric mean values, Cmax, AUC0-t, and AUC0-inf of Cilostazol were 2.53-fold, 2.89-fold, and 2.87-fold higher for Pletaal® SR 200 mg capsules compared with Cilostan® CR 200 mg tablets, respectively. Correlation of in vitro/in vivo data indicated that Pletal® SR 200 mg capsules have better release and pharmacodynamic effect than Cilostan® CR 200 mg tablets.

Development of bilayer tissue-engineered scaffolds: combination of 3D printing and electrospinning methodologies

Although different fabrication methods and biomaterials are used in scaffold development, hydrogels and electrospun materials that provide the closest environment to the extracellular matrix have recently attracted considerable interest in tissue engineering applications. However, some of the limitations encountered in the application of these methods alone in scaffold fabrication have increased the tendency to use these methods together. In this study, a bilayer scaffold was developed using 3D-printed gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel containing ciprofloxacin (CIP) and electrospun polycaprolactone (PCL)-collagen (COL) patches. The bilayer scaffolds were characterized in terms of chemical, morphological, mechanical, swelling, and degradation properties; drug release, antibacterial properties, and cytocompatibility of the scaffolds were also studied. In conclusion, bilayer GelMA-CIP/PCL-COL scaffolds, which exhibit sufficient porosity, mechanical strength, and antibacterial properties and also support cell growth, are promising potential substitutes in tissue engineering applications.

A superabsorbent and pH-responsive copolymer-hydrogel based on acemannan from Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis M.): A smart material for drug delivery

Combining natural polysaccharides with synthetic materials improves their functional properties which are essential for designing sustained-release drug delivery systems. In this context, the Aloe vera leaf mucilage/hydrogel (ALH) was reacted with acrylic acid (AA) to synthesize a copolymerized hydrogel, i.e., ALH-grafted-Polyacrylic acid (ALH-g-PAA) through free radical copolymerization. Concentrations of the crosslinker N,N'-methylene-bis-acrylamide (MBA), and the initiator potassium persulfate (KPS) were optimized to study their effects on ALH-g-PAA swelling. The FTIR and solid-state NMR (CP/MAS 13C NMR) spectra witnessed the formation of ALH-g-PAA. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed superporous nature of ALH-g-PAA. The gel fraction (%) of ALH-g-PAA was directly related to the concentrations of AA and MBA whereas the sol fraction was inversely related to the concentrations of AA and MBA. The porosity (%) of ALH-g-PAA directly depends on the concentration of AA and MBA. The ALH-g-PAA swelled admirably at pH 7.4 and insignificantly at pH 1.2. The ALH-g-PAA offered on/off switching properties at pH 7.4/1.2. The metoprolol tartrate was loaded on different formulations of ALH-g-PAA. The ALH-g-PAA showed pH, time, and swelling-dependent release of metoprolol tartrate (MT) for 24 h following the first-order kinetic and Korsmeyer-Peppas model. Haemocompatibility studies ascertained the non-thrombogenic and non-hemolytic behavior of ALH-g-PAA.

Injectable Hydrogel Delivery System with High Drug Loading for Prolonging Local Anesthesia

Peripheral nerve block is performed for precise pain control and lesser side effects after surgery by reducing opioid consumption. Injectable hydrogel delivery systems with high biosafety and moisture content have good clinical application prospects for local anesthetic delivery. However, how to achieve high drug loading and long-term controlled release of water-soluble narcotic drugs remains a big challenge. In this study, heterogeneous microspheres and an injectable gel-matrix composite drug delivery system are designed in two steps. First, heterogeneous hydrogel microspheres loaded with ropivacaine (HMS-ROP) are prepared using a microfluidic chip and in situ alkalization. An injectable self-healing hydrogel matrix (Gel) is then prepared from modified carboxymethylcellulose (CMC-ADH) and oxidized hyaluronic acid (OHA). A local anesthetic delivery system, Gel/HMS-ROP/dexmedetomidine (DEX), with long-term retention and drug release in vivo is prepared by combining HMS-ROP and Gel/DEX. The drug loading of HMS-ROP reached 41.1%, with a drug release time of over 160 h in vitro, and sensory and motor blockade times in vivo of 48 and 36 h, respectively. In summary, the sequential release and synergistic analgesic effects of the two anesthetics are realized using core-shell microspheres, DEX, and an injectable gel, providing a promising strategy for long-acting postoperative pain management.

Mucoadhesive phenylboronic acid-grafted carboxymethyl cellulose hydrogels containing glutathione for treatment of corneal epithelial cells exposed to benzalkonium chloride

Benzalkonium chloride (BAK) is the most commonly-used preservative in topical ophthalmic medications that may cause ocular surface inflammation associated with oxidative stress and dry eye syndrome. Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant in human tears and able to decrease the proinflammatory cytokine release from cells and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a hydrophilic polymer, is one of most commonly used artificial tears and can promote the corneal epithelial cell adhesion, migration and re-epithelialization. However, most of commercial artificial tears provide only temporary relief of irritation symptoms and show the short-term treatment effects. In the study, 3-aminophenylboronic acid was grafted to CMC for increase of mucoadhesive properties that might increase the precorneal retention time and maintain the effective therapeutic concentration on the ocular surface. CMC was modified with different degree of substitution (DS) and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Phenylboronic acid (PBA)-grafted CMC hydrogels have interconnected porous structure and shear thinning behavior. Modification of CMC with high DS (H-PBA-CMC) shows the strong bioadhesive force. The optimal concentration of GSH to treat corneal epithelial cells (CECs) was evaluated by cell viability assay. H-PBA-CMC hydrogels could sustained release GSH and decrease the ROS level. H-PBA-CMC hydrogels containing GSH shows the therapeutic effects in BAK-damaged CECs via improvement of inflammation, apoptosis and cell viability. After topical administration of developed hydrogels, there was no ocular irritation in rabbits. These results suggested that PBA-grafted CMC hydrogels containing GSH might have potential applications for treatment of dry eye disease.

Co-assembly of cisplatin and dasatinib in hyaluronan nanogel to combat triple negative breast cancer with reduced side effects

Treatment for triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains a huge challenge due to the lack of targeted therapeutics and tumor heterogenicity. Cisplatin (Cis) have demonstrated favorable therapeutic response in TNBC and thus is used together with various kinase inhibitors to fight the heterogenicity of TNBC. The combination of Cis with SRC inhibitor dasatinib (DAS) has shown encouraging anti-TNBC efficacy although the additive toxicity was commonly observed. To overcome the severe side effects of this Cis involved therapy, here we co-encapsulated Cis and DAS into a self-assembled hyaluronan (HA) nanogel (designated as HA/Cis/DAS (HCD) nanogel) to afford the TNBC targeted delivery by using the 4T1 mouse model. The acquired HCD nanogel was around 181 nm in aqueous solution, demonstrating the pharmacological activities of both Cis and DAS. Taking advantages of HA's targeting capability towards CD44 that is overexpressed on many TNBC cells, the HCD could well maintain the anticancer efficacy of the Cis and DAS combination, significantly increase the maximum tolerated dose and relieve the renal toxicity in vivo. The current HCD nanogel provides a potent strategy to improve the therapeutic outcome of Cis and DAS combination and thus representing a new targeted treatment option for TNBC.

Evaluation of decellularized caprine small intestine submucosa encapsulated with nano-formulations of cerium oxide and curcumin in the management of burn wound

The management of burn injuries presents a significant challenge in clinical settings, yet an optimal solution remains elusive. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a topical therapeutic formulation to address the complex issues hindering burn wound healing. Emphasizing the sustained presence of bioactive principles, we synthesized a bioactive gel derived from decellularized caprine small intestine submucosa (D-CIS) and encapsulated it with nano-formulations of cerium oxide and curcumin to create a burn wound dressing material with enhanced properties. The choice of encapsulated components was guided by their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immune-modulating characteristics, along with their inherent ability to gradually release bioactive substances. The encapsulated (cerium oxide and curcumin) D-CIS bioactive gel demonstrated a range of properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects, along with sustained release kinetics of bioactive molecules. These combined effects facilitated accelerated burn wound healing by mitigating oxidative stress, reducing inflammation, and promoting cell recruitment for epithelial and vascular regeneration. This study contributes to the development of a novel bioactive gel incorporating cerium oxide and curcumin, offering a promising approach to enhance burn wound healing.

3D Printing of Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogel Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications: A Review

In tissue engineering, 3D printing represents a versatile technology employing inks to construct three-dimensional living structures, mimicking natural biological systems. This technology efficiently translates digital blueprints into highly reproducible 3D objects. Recent advances have expanded 3D printing applications, allowing for the fabrication of diverse anatomical components, including engineered functional tissues and organs. The development of printable inks, which incorporate macromolecules, enzymes, cells, and growth factors, is advancing with the aim of restoring damaged tissues and organs. Polysaccharides, recognized for their intrinsic resemblance to components of the extracellular matrix have garnered significant attention in the field of tissue engineering. This review explores diverse 3D printing techniques, outlining distinctive features that should characterize scaffolds used as ideal matrices in tissue engineering. A detailed investigation into the properties and roles of polysaccharides in tissue engineering is highlighted. The review also culminates in a profound exploration of 3D polysaccharide-based hydrogel applications, focusing on recent breakthroughs in regenerating different tissues such as skin, bone, cartilage, heart, nerve, vasculature, and skeletal muscle. It further addresses challenges and prospective directions in 3D printing hydrogels based on polysaccharides, paving the way for innovative research to fabricate functional tissues, enhancing patient care, and improving quality of life.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Drug Delivery Systems for Precision Targeting in Oncology

Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative force in oncology, facilitating advancements in site-specific cancer therapy and personalized oncomedicine. The development of nanomedicines explicitly targeted to cancer cells represents a pivotal breakthrough, allowing the development of precise interventions. These cancer-cell-targeted nanomedicines operate within the intricate milieu of the tumour microenvironment, further enhancing their therapeutic efficacy. This comprehensive review provides a contemporary perspective on precision cancer medicine and underscores the critical role of nanotechnology in advancing site-specific cancer therapy and personalized oncomedicine. It explores the categorization of nanoparticle types, distinguishing between organic and inorganic variants, and examines their significance in the targeted delivery of anticancer drugs. Current insights into the strategies for developing actively targeted nanomedicines across various cancer types are also provided, thus addressing relevant challenges associated with drug delivery barriers. Promising future directions in personalized cancer nanomedicine approaches are delivered, emphasising the imperative for continued optimization of nanocarriers in precision cancer medicine. The discussion underscores translational research's need to enhance cancer patients' outcomes by refining nanocarrier technologies in nanotechnology-driven, site-specific cancer therapy.

Advanced Dressings for Chronic Wound Management

Wound healing, particularly for chronic wounds, presents a considerable difficulty due to differences in biochemical and cellular processes that occur in different types of wounds. Recent technological breakthroughs have notably advanced the understanding of diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to wound healing. The evolution in wound care has seen a transition from traditional textile dressings to a variety of advanced alternatives, including self-healing hydrogels, hydrofibers, foams, hydrocolloids, environment responsive dressings, growth factor-based therapy, bioengineered skin substitutes, and stem cell and gene therapy. Technological advancements, such as 3D printing and electronic skin (e-skin) therapy, contribute to the customization of wound healing. Despite these advancements, effectively managing chronic wounds remains challenging. This necessitates the development of treatments that consider performance, risk-benefit balance, and cost-effectiveness. This review discusses innovative strategies for the healing of chronic wounds. Incorporating biomarkers into advanced dressings, coupled with corresponding biosensors and drug delivery formulations, enables the theranostic approach to the treatment of chronic wounds. Furthermore, integrating advanced dressings with power sources and user interfaces like near-field communication, radio frequency identification, and Bluetooth enhances real-time monitoring and on-demand drug delivery. It also provides a thorough evaluation of the advantages, patient compliance, costs, and durability of advanced dressings, emphasizing smart formulations and their preparation methods.

A Review of Recent Developments in Biopolymer Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems with Antioxidative Properties: Insights into the Last Five Years

In recent years, biopolymer-based nano-drug delivery systems with antioxidative properties have gained significant attention in the field of pharmaceutical research. These systems offer promising strategies for targeted and controlled drug delivery while also providing antioxidant effects that can mitigate oxidative stress-related diseases. Generally, the healthcare landscape is constantly evolving, necessitating the continual development of innovative therapeutic approaches and drug delivery systems (DDSs). DDSs play a pivotal role in enhancing treatment efficacy, minimizing adverse effects, and optimizing patient compliance. Among these, nanotechnology-driven delivery approaches have garnered significant attention due to their unique properties, such as improved solubility, controlled release, and targeted delivery. Nanomaterials, including nanoparticles, nanocapsules, nanotubes, etc., offer versatile platforms for drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. Additionally, biopolymer-based DDSs hold immense promise, leveraging natural or synthetic biopolymers to encapsulate drugs and enable targeted and controlled release. These systems offer numerous advantages, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low immunogenicity. The utilization of polysaccharides, polynucleotides, proteins, and polyesters as biopolymer matrices further enhances the versatility and applicability of DDSs. Moreover, substances with antioxidative properties have emerged as key players in combating oxidative stress-related diseases, offering protection against cellular damage and chronic illnesses. The development of biopolymer-based nanoformulations with antioxidative properties represents a burgeoning research area, with a substantial increase in publications in recent years. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent developments within this area over the past five years. It discusses various biopolymer materials, fabrication techniques, stabilizers, factors influencing degradation, and drug release. Additionally, it highlights emerging trends, challenges, and prospects in this rapidly evolving field.

Biopolymer-Based Hydrogel Incorporated with Naproxen Sodium and Lidocaine Hydrochloride for Controlled Drug Delivery

Sodium hyaluronate (HA) is a natural polysaccharide. This biopolymer occurs in many tissues of living organisms. The regenerating, nourishing, and moisturizing properties as well as the rheological properties of HA enable its application in the pharmaceutical industry as a carrier of medicinal substances. The aim of this work was to assess the release of naproxen sodium (Nap) in the presence of lidocaine hydrochloride (Lid) from the biopolymer-based hydrogels and to determine the respective kinetic parameters of this process. The possible interaction between the HA polysaccharide carrier and the selected drugs was also investigated. Three hydrogels containing Nap and Lid with different concentrations of the biopolymer were prepared. The release of Nap was studied by employing USP apparatus 5. The infrared study and differential scanning calorimetry analysis of physical mixtures and dried formulations were performed. The highest amount of Nap was released from the formulation with the lowest concentration of the biopolymer. The most representative kinetic model that described the dissolution of Nap was obtained through the Korsmeyer-Peppas equation. The release rate constants were in the range of 1.0 ± 0.1 × 10-2 min-n-1.7 ± 0.1 × 10-2 min-n. Lid did not influence the dissolution of Nap from the formulations tested; however, in the desiccated samples of assessed formulations, the interaction between the polysaccharide and both drugs was observed.

Evaluation of drug release efficiency and antibacterial property of a pH-responsive dextran-based silver nanocomposite hydrogel

The bioavailability of curcumin (CUR), a highly lipophilic and commonly used anticancer drug, is mainly affected by its poor solubility in aqueous environment and quick metabolism. These challenges can be met by employing delivery systems. Nanocomposite materials have been used as delivery systems to enhance the solubility and dissolution rate of the drug. This study aims to develop dextran-graft-poly(4-acryloylmorpholine) silver nanocomposite using a microwave-assisted method to evaluate its drug-release efficiency and antimicrobial activity. The materials were characterized by FT-IR, FE-SEM, EDS, XRD, HR-TEM, TGA, and BET techniques. Drug loading and release efficiency were evaluated using CUR as the model drug. The swelling and drug release studies were conducted in buffer solutions of pH 1.2 and 7.4. Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were employed to evaluate the antibacterial activity. The cytotoxicity was assessed by MTT assay against the breast MCF-10. Higher swelling and drug release were observed at pH 1.2 than 7.4. Nanocomposite hydrogel exhibited antibacterial activity against the tested bacterial strains. Cytotoxicity study proved the safety of the developed matrix. The results suggest the developed nanocomposite hydrogel to be a promising polymer matrix for the sustained release of CUR for cancer treatment that requires infectious control.

Development and Characterization of Gelatin-Based Hydrogels Containing Triblock Copolymer and Phytic Acid

In recent research, significant interest has been directed towards gelatin-based hydrogels due to their affordable price, extensive availability, and biocompatibility, making them promising candidates for various biomedical applications. The development and characterization of novel hydrogels formed from varying ratios of gelatin, triblock copolymer Pluronic F-127, and phytic acid have been presented. Swelling properties were examined at different pH levels. The morphology of hydrogels and their thermal properties were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TG), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) analysis of the hydrogels was also performed. The introduction of phytic acid in the hydrogel plays a crucial role in enhancing the intermolecular interactions within gelatin-based hydrogels, contributing to a more stable, elastic, and robust network structure.

Exploring the Model of Cefazolin Released from Jellyfish Gelatin-Based Hydrogels as Affected by Glutaraldehyde

Due to its excellent biocompatibility and ease of biodegradation, jellyfish gelatin has gained attention as a hydrogel. However, hydrogel produced from jellyfish gelatin has not yet been sufficiently characterized. Therefore, this research aims to produce a jellyfish gelatin-based hydrogel. The gelatin produced from desalted jellyfish by-products varied with the part of the specimen and extraction time. Hydrogels with gelatin: glutaraldehyde ratios of 10:0.25, 10:0.50, and 10:1.00 (v/v) were characterized, and their cefazolin release ability was determined. The optimal conditions for gelatin extraction and chosen for the development of jellyfish hydrogels (JGel) included the use of the umbrella part of desalted jellyfish by-products extracted for 24 h (WU24), which yielded the highest gel strength (460.02 g), viscosity (24.45 cP), gelling temperature (12.70 °C), and melting temperature (22.48 °C). The quantities of collagen alpha-1(XXVIII) chain A, collagen alpha-1(XXI) chain, and collagen alpha-2(IX) chain in WU24 may influence its gel properties. Increasing the glutaraldehyde content in JGel increased the gel fraction by decreasing the space between the protein chains and gel swelling, as glutaraldehyde binds with lateral amino acid residues and produces a stronger network. At 8 h, more than 80% of the cefazolin in JGel (10:0.25) was released, which was higher than that released from bovine hydrogel (52.81%) and fish hydrogel (54.04%). This research is the first report focused on the production of JGel using glutaraldehyde as a cross-linking agent.

Advances in Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Hydrogels, with their distinctive three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic polymers, drive innovations across various biomedical applications. The ability of hydrogels to absorb and retain significant volumes of water, coupled with their structural integrity and responsiveness to environmental stimuli, renders them ideal for drug delivery, tissue engineering, and wound healing. This review delves into the classification of hydrogels based on cross-linking methods, providing insights into their synthesis, properties, and applications. We further discuss the recent advancements in hydrogel-based drug delivery systems, including oral, injectable, topical, and ocular approaches, highlighting their significance in enhancing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, we address the challenges faced in the clinical translation of hydrogels and propose future directions for leveraging their potential in personalized medicine and regenerative healthcare solutions.

Fine-Tuning the Amphiphilic Properties of Carbosilane Dendritic Networks towards High-Swelling Thermogels

Dendritic hydrogels based on carbosilane crosslinkers are promising drug delivery systems, as their amphiphilic nature improves the compatibility with poorly water-soluble drugs. In this work, we explored the impact of the complementary polymer on the amphiphilic properties of the dendritic network. Different polymers were selected as precursors, from the highly lipophilic propylene glycol (PPG) to the hydrophilic polyethylene glycol (PEG), including amphiphilic Pluronics L31, L35 and L61. The dithiol polymers reacted with carbosilane crosslinkers through UV-initiated thiol-ene coupling (TEC), and the resultant materials were classified as non-swelling networks (for PPG, PLUL31 and PLUL61) and high-swelling hydrogels (for PEG and PLUL35). The hydrogels exhibited thermo-responsive properties, shrinking at higher temperatures, and exhibited an intriguing drug release pattern due to internal nanostructuring. Furthermore, we fine-tuned the dendritic crosslinker, including hydroxyl and azide pendant groups in the focal point, generating functional networks that can be modified through degradable (ester) and non-degradable (triazol) bonds. Overall, this work highlighted the crucial role of the amphiphilic balance in the design of dendritic hydrogels with thermo-responsive behavior and confirmed their potential as functional networks for biomedical applications.

Advancements in Regenerative Hydrogels in Skin Wound Treatment: A Comprehensive Review

This state-of-the-art review explores the emerging field of regenerative hydrogels and their profound impact on the treatment of skin wounds. Regenerative hydrogels, composed mainly of water-absorbing polymers, have garnered attention in wound healing, particularly for skin wounds. Their unique properties make them well suited for tissue regeneration. Notable benefits include excellent water retention, creating a crucially moist wound environment for optimal healing, and facilitating cell migration, and proliferation. Biocompatibility is a key feature, minimizing adverse reactions and promoting the natural healing process. Acting as a supportive scaffold for cell growth, hydrogels mimic the extracellular matrix, aiding the attachment and proliferation of cells like fibroblasts and keratinocytes. Engineered for controlled drug release, hydrogels enhance wound healing by promoting angiogenesis, reducing inflammation, and preventing infection. The demonstrated acceleration of the wound healing process, particularly beneficial for chronic or impaired healing wounds, adds to their appeal. Easy application and conformity to various wound shapes make hydrogels practical, including in irregular or challenging areas. Scar minimization through tissue regeneration is crucial, especially in cosmetic and functional regions. Hydrogels contribute to pain management by creating a protective barrier, reducing friction, and fostering a soothing environment. Some hydrogels, with inherent antimicrobial properties, aid in infection prevention, which is a crucial aspect of successful wound healing. Their flexibility and ability to conform to wound contours ensure optimal tissue contact, enhancing overall treatment effectiveness. In summary, regenerative hydrogels present a promising approach for improving skin wound healing outcomes across diverse clinical scenarios. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the benefits, mechanisms, and challenges associated with the use of regenerative hydrogels in the treatment of skin wounds. In this review, the authors likely delve into the application of rational design principles to enhance the efficacy and performance of hydrogels in promoting wound healing. Through an exploration of various methodologies and approaches, this paper is poised to highlight how these principles have been instrumental in refining the design of hydrogels, potentially revolutionizing their therapeutic potential in addressing skin wounds. By synthesizing current knowledge and highlighting potential avenues for future research, this review aims to contribute to the advancement of regenerative medicine and ultimately improve clinical outcomes for patients with skin wounds.

Evolution of Hybrid Hydrogels: Next-Generation Biomaterials for Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering

Hydrogels, being hydrophilic polymer networks capable of absorbing and retaining aqueous fluids, hold significant promise in biomedical applications owing to their high water content, permeability, and structural similarity to the extracellular matrix. Recent chemical advancements have bolstered their versatility, facilitating the integration of the molecules guiding cellular activities and enabling their controlled activation under time constraints. However, conventional synthetic hydrogels suffer from inherent weaknesses such as heterogeneity and network imperfections, which adversely affect their mechanical properties, diffusion rates, and biological activity. In response to these challenges, hybrid hydrogels have emerged, aiming to enhance their strength, drug release efficiency, and therapeutic effectiveness. These hybrid hydrogels, featuring improved formulations, are tailored for controlled drug release and tissue regeneration across both soft and hard tissues. The scientific community has increasingly recognized the versatile characteristics of hybrid hydrogels, particularly in the biomedical sector. This comprehensive review delves into recent advancements in hybrid hydrogel systems, covering the diverse types, modification strategies, and the integration of nano/microstructures. The discussion includes innovative fabrication techniques such as click reactions, 3D printing, and photopatterning alongside the elucidation of the release mechanisms of bioactive molecules. By addressing challenges, the review underscores diverse biomedical applications and envisages a promising future for hybrid hydrogels across various domains in the biomedical field.

A Comprehensive Review of Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems: Classification, Properties, Recent Trends, and Applications

As adaptable biomaterials, hydrogels have shown great promise in several industries, which include the delivery of drugs, engineering of tissues, biosensing, and regenerative medicine. These hydrophilic polymer three-dimensional networks have special qualities like increased content of water, soft, flexible nature, as well as biocompatibility, which makes it excellent candidates for simulating the extracellular matrix and promoting cell development and tissue regeneration. With an emphasis on their design concepts, synthesis processes, and characterization procedures, this review paper offers a thorough overview of hydrogels. It covers the various hydrogel material types, such as natural polymers, synthetic polymers, and hybrid hydrogels, as well as their unique characteristics and uses. The improvements in hydrogel-based platforms for controlled drug delivery are examined. It also looks at recent advances in bioprinting methods that use hydrogels to create intricate tissue constructions with exquisite spatial control. The performance of hydrogels is explored through several variables, including mechanical properties, degradation behaviour, and biological interactions, with a focus on the significance of customizing hydrogel qualities for particular applications. This review paper also offers insights into future directions in hydrogel research, including those that promise to advance the discipline, such as stimuli-responsive hydrogels, self-healing hydrogels, and bioactive hydrogels. Generally, the objective of this review paper is to provide readers with a detailed grasp of hydrogels and all of their potential uses, making it an invaluable tool for scientists and researchers studying biomaterials and tissue engineering.

Injectable Hydrogels for Nervous Tissue Repair-A Brief Review

The repair of nervous tissue is a critical research field in tissue engineering because of the degenerative process in the injured nervous system. In this review, we summarize the progress of injectable hydrogels using in vitro and in vivo studies for the regeneration and repair of nervous tissue. Traditional treatments have not been favorable for patients, as they are invasive and inefficient; therefore, injectable hydrogels are promising for the treatment of damaged tissue. This review will contribute to a better understanding of injectable hydrogels as potential scaffolds and drug delivery system for neural tissue engineering applications.

Nano/Micro-Structural Supramolecular Biopolymers: Innovative Networks with the Boundless Potential in Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture plays a crucial role in meeting the growing global demand for food while minimizing adverse environmental impacts from the overuse of synthetic pesticides and conventional fertilizers. In this context, renewable biopolymers being more sustainable offer a viable solution to improve agricultural sustainability and production. Nano/micro-structural supramolecular biopolymers are among these innovative biopolymers that are much sought after for their unique features. These biomaterials have complex hierarchical structures, great stability, adjustable mechanical strength, stimuli-responsiveness, and self-healing attributes. Functional molecules may be added to their flexible structure, for enabling novel agricultural uses. This overview scrutinizes how nano/micro-structural supramolecular biopolymers may radically alter farming practices and solve lingering problems in agricultural sector namely improve agricultural production, soil health, and resource efficiency. Controlled bioactive ingredient released from biopolymers allows the tailored administration of agrochemicals, bioactive agents, and biostimulators as they enhance nutrient absorption, moisture retention, and root growth. Nano/micro-structural supramolecular biopolymers may protect crops by appending antimicrobials and biosensing entities while their eco-friendliness supports sustainable agriculture. Despite their potential, further studies are warranted to understand and optimize their usage in agricultural domain. This effort seeks to bridge the knowledge gap by investigating their applications, challenges, and future prospects in the agricultural sector. Through experimental investigations and theoretical modeling, this overview aims to provide valuable insights into the practical implementation and optimization of supramolecular biopolymers in sustainable agriculture, ultimately contributing to the development of innovative and eco-friendly solutions to enhance agricultural productivity while minimizing environmental impact.

pNIPAm-Based pH and Thermoresponsive Copolymer Hydrogel for Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Drug Delivery

The regulated and targeted administration of hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs is both promising and challenging in the field of drug delivery. Developing a hydrogel which is responsive to dual stimuli is considered a promising and exciting research area of study. In this work, melamine functionalized poly-N-isopropyl acrylamide-co-glycidyl methacrylate copolymer has been developed by copolymerizing glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) monomer with N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAm) and further functionalized with melamine units (pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela). The prepared pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela copolymer hydrogel was characterized using various characterization techniques, including 1H NMR, FTIR, SEM, zeta potential, and particle size analysis. A hydrophobic drug (ibuprofen, Ibu) and hydrophilic drug (5-fluorouracil, 5-Fu) were selected as model drugs. Dual pH and temperature stimuli-responsive drug release behavior of the pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela hydrogel was evaluated under different pH (pH 7.4 and 4.0) and temperature (25 °C, 37 °C, and 45 °C) conditions. Furthermore, the in vitro biocompatibility of the developed pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela copolymer hydrogel was determined on MDA-MB-231 cells. The pH and temperature-responsive drug delivery study results reveal that the pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela hydrogel system is responsive to both pH and temperature stimuli and exhibits about ~100% of Ibu and 5-Fu, respectively, released at pH 4.0/45 °C. Moreover, the MTT assay and hemocompatibility analysis results proved that the pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela hydrogel system is biocompatible and hemocompatible, suggesting that that it could be used for drug delivery applications. The experimental results suggest that the proposed pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela hydrogel system is responsive to dual pH and temperature stimuli, and could be a promising drug carrier system for both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drug delivery applications.

Alginate and Chitosan-Based Hydrogel Enhance Antibacterial Agent Activity on Topical Application

Untreated topical infections can become chronic, posing serious health issues. Optimal skin adherence is crucial in addressing such infections. In this context, chitosan and alginate emerge as promising candidates for use as a foundation in the development of topical hydrogels. The aim of this review is to examine the literature on topical hydrogel formulations that use chitosan and alginate as foundations, specifically in the context of topical antibacterial agents. The research methodology involves a literature review by examining articles published in databases such as PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. The keywords employed during the research were "Alginate", "Chitosan", "Hydrogel", and "Antibacterial". Chitosan and alginate serve as bases in topical hydrogels to deliver various active ingredients, particularly antibacterial agents, as indicated by the search results. Both have demonstrated significant antibacterial effectiveness, as evidenced by a reduction in bacterial colony counts and an increase in inhibition zones. This strongly supports the idea that chitosan and alginate could be used together to make topical hydrogels that kill bacteria that work well. In conclusion, chitosan and alginate-based hydrogels show great potential in treating bacterial infections on the skin surface. The incorporation of chitosan and alginate into hydrogel formulations aids in retaining antibacterial agents, allowing for their gradual release over an optimal period. Therefore, hydrogels specifically formulated with chitosan and alginate have the potential to serve as a solution to address challenges in the treatment of topical bacterial infections.

Emerging horizons and prospects of polysaccharide-constructed gels in the realm of wound healing

Polysaccharides, with the abundant availability, biodegradability, and inherent safety, offer a vast array of promising applications. Leveraging the remarkable attributes of polysaccharides, biomimetic and multifunctional hydrogels have emerged as a compelling avenue for efficacious wound dressing. The gels emulate the innate extracellular biomatrix as well as foster cellular proliferation. The distinctive structural compositions and profusion of functional groups within polysaccharides confer excellent physical/chemical traits as well as distinct restorative involvements. Gels crafted from polysaccharide matrixes serve as a robust defense against bacterial threats, effectively shielding wounds from harm. This comprehensive review delves into wound physiology, accentuating the significance of numerous polysaccharide-based gels in the wound healing context. The discourse encompasses an exploration of polysaccharide hydrogels tailored for diverse wound types, along with an examination of various therapeutic agents encapsulated within hydrogels to facilitate wound repair, incorporating recent patent developments. Within the scope of this manuscript, the perspective of these captivating gels for promoting optimal healing of wounds is vividly depicted. Nevertheless, the pursuit of knowledge remains ongoing, as further research is warranted to bioengineer progressive polysaccharide gels imbued with adaptable features. Such endeavors hold the promise of unlocking substantial potential within the realm of wound healing, propelling us toward multifaceted and sophisticated solutions.

Semi-solid functionalized nanostructured lipid carriers loading thymol for skin disorders

Acne constitutes one of the most prevalent skin disorder affecting both skin and mental health of patients. However, no cure has been developed so far. In this area, Thymol constitutes a potential candidate since it is able to restore the healthy microbiota of the skin. However, its permeation properties cause its fast elimination and, to avoid this problem, thymol has been loaded into nanostructured lipid carriers (TH-NLCs). Moreover, to increase the suitability of these systems for skin applications, several surface functionalization strategies of TH-NLCs had been assessed. Among the different molecules, phosphatidylcholine-TH-NLCs demonstrated to be safe as well as to provide high antioxidant activity in cellular studies. Therefore, to administer these systems to the skin, functionalized TH-NLCs were dispersed into a carbomer gel developing semi-solid formulations. Rheological properties, porosity and extensibility of TH dispersed in carbomer as well as phosphatidylcholine-TH-NLCs were assessed demonstrating suitable properties for dermal applications. Moreover, both formulations were applied in healthy volunteers demonstrating that gel-phosphatidylcholine-TH-NLCs were able to increase in skin hydration, decrease water loss and reduce skin sebum. Therefore, gel-phosphatidylcholine-TH-NLCs proved to be a suitable system for skin pathologies linked with high sebum generation, loss of hydration and high oxidation, such as acne vulgaris.