Comparative metabolite profiling and fingerprinting of medicinal licorice roots using a multiplex approach of GC-MS, LC-MS and 1D NMR techniques

Metabolite Profiling and Classification of DNA-Authenticated Licorice Botanicals

Raw licorice roots represent heterogeneous materials obtained from mainly three Glycyrrhiza species. G. glabra, G. uralensis, and G. inflata exhibit marked metabolite differences in terms of flavanones (Fs), chalcones (Cs), and other phenolic constituents. The principal objective of this work was to develop complementary chemometric models for the metabolite profiling, classification, and quality control of authenticated licorice. A total of 51 commercial and macroscopically verified samples were DNA authenticated. Principal component analysis and canonical discriminant analysis were performed on (1)H NMR spectra and area under the curve values obtained from UHPLC-UV chromatograms, respectively. The developed chemometric models enable the identification and classification of Glycyrrhiza species according to their composition in major Fs, Cs, and species specific phenolic compounds. Further key outcomes demonstrated that DNA authentication combined with chemometric analyses enabled the characterization of mixtures, hybrids, and species outliers. This study provides a new foundation for the botanical and chemical authentication, classification, and metabolomic characterization of crude licorice botanicals and derived materials. Collectively, the proposed methods offer a comprehensive approach for the quality control of licorice as one of the most widely used botanical dietary supplements.

Delivery of liquorice extract by liposomes and hyalurosomes to protect the skin against oxidative stress injuries

Liquorice extract, obtained by percolation in ethanol of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. roots, was incorporated in liposomes and hyalurosomes, new phospholipid-sodium hyaluronate vesicles, and their protective effect against oxidative stress skin damages was probed. As a comparison, raw glycyrrhizin was also tested. All the vesicles were small in size (≤ 100 nm), with a highly negative zeta potential ensuring long-term stability, and able to incorporate a high amount of the extract. In vitro tests showed that the liquorice extract loaded in vesicles was able to scavenge DPPH free radical (80% inhibition) and to protect 3T3 fibroblasts against H2O2-induced oxidative stress, restoring the normal conditions. By contrast, glycyrrhizin showed poor antioxidant activity, and was not able to efficiently counteract the oxidative effect of H2O2. In addition, the incorporation of the liquorice extract into the vesicular systems promoted the proliferation and migration of 3T3 fibroblasts, favouring the closure of the scratched area. In vivo anti-inflammatory tests on mice confirmed the ability of the proposed nanosystems to improve the local efficacy of the extract, favouring the re-epitelization process.

Anti-Inflammatory activities of licorice extract and its active compounds, glycyrrhizic acid, liquiritin and liquiritigenin, in BV2 cells and mice liver

This study provides the scientific basis for the anti-inflammatory effects of licorice extract in a t-BHP (tert-butyl hydrogen peroxide)-induced liver damage model and the effects of its ingredients, glycyrrhizic acid (GA), liquiritin (LQ) and liquiritigenin (LG), in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated microglial cell model. The GA, LQ and LG inhibited the LPS-stimulated elevation of pro-inflammatory mediators, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1beta and interleukin (IL)-6 in BV2 (mouse brain microglia) cells. Furthermore, licorice extract inhibited the expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) in the livers of t-BHP-treated mice models. This result suggested that mechanistic-based evidence substantiating the traditional claims of licorice extract and its three bioactive components can be applied for the treatment of inflammation-related disorders, such as oxidative liver damage and inflammation diseases.

Differential Effects of Glycyrrhiza Species on Genotoxic Estrogen Metabolism: Licochalcone A Downregulates P450 1B1, whereas Isoliquiritigenin Stimulates It

Estrogen chemical carcinogenesis involves 4-hydroxylation of estrone/estradiol (E1/E2) by P450 1B1, generating catechol and quinone genotoxic metabolites that cause DNA mutations and initiate/promote breast cancer. Inflammation enhances this effect by upregulating P450 1B1. The present study tested the three authenticated medicinal species of licorice [Glycyrrhiza glabra (GG), G. uralensis (GU), and G. inflata (GI)] used by women as dietary supplements for their anti-inflammatory activities and their ability to modulate estrogen metabolism. The pure compounds, liquiritigenin (LigF), its chalcone isomer isoliquiritigenin (LigC), and the GI-specific licochalcone A (LicA) were also tested. The licorice extracts and compounds were evaluated for anti-inflammatory activity by measuring inhibition of iNOS activity in macrophage cells: GI ≫ GG > GU and LigC ≅ LicA ≫ LigF. The Michael acceptor chalcone, LicA, is likely responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity of GI. A sensitive LC-MS/MS assay was employed to quantify estrogen metabolism by measuring 2-MeOE1 as nontoxic and 4-MeOE1 as genotoxic biomarkers in the nontumorigenic human mammary epithelial cell line, MCF-10A. GG, GU, and LigC increased 4-MeOE1, whereas GI and LicA inhibited 2- and 4-MeOE1 levels. GG, GU (5 μg/mL), and LigC (1 μM) also enhanced P450 1B1 expression and activities, which was further increased by inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IFN-γ). LicA (1, 10 μM) decreased cytokine- and TCDD-induced P450 1B1 gene expression and TCDD-induced xenobiotic response element luciferase reporter (IC50 = 12.3 μM), suggesting an antagonistic effect on the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which regulates P450 1B1. Similarly, GI (5 μg/mL) reduced cytokine- and TCDD-induced P450 1B1 gene expression. Collectively, these data suggest that, of the three licorice species that are used in botanical supplements, GI represents the most promising chemopreventive licorice extract for women's health. Additionally, the differential effects of the Glycyrrhiza species on estrogen metabolism emphasize the importance of standardization of botanical supplements to species-specific bioactive compounds.

A metabolomic protocol for plant systematics by matrix-assisted laser-desorption/ionization time-of flight mass spectrometry

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has been widely used for the identification and classification of microorganisms based on their proteomic fingerprints. However, the use of MALDI-TOF MS in plant research has been very limited. In the present study, a first protocol is proposed for metabolic fingerprinting by MALDI-TOF MS using three different MALDI matrices with subsequent multivariate data analysis by in-house algorithms implemented in the R environment for the taxonomic classification of plants from different genera, families and orders. By merging the data acquired with different matrices, different ionization modes and using careful algorithms and parameter selection, we demonstrate that a close taxonomic classification can be achieved based on plant metabolic fingerprints, with 92% similarity to the taxonomic classifications found in literature. The present work therefore highlights the great potential of applying MALDI-TOF MS for the taxonomic classification of plants and, furthermore, provides a preliminary foundation for future research.

Integrated comparative metabolite profiling via MS and NMR techniques for Senna drug quality control analysis

Senna alexandrina Mill (Cassia acutifolia and Cassia angustifolia) are used for the laxative medicine Senna. Leaves and pods from two geographically different sources were distinguished from each other via proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) and ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) analysis. Under optimized conditions, we were able to simultaneously quantify and identify 107 metabolites including 21 anthraquinones, 24 bianthrones (including sennosides), 5 acetophenones, 25 C/O-flavonoid conjugates, 5 xanthones, 3 naphthalenes, 2 further phenolics, and 9 fatty acids. Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) were used to define both similarities and differences among samples. For sample classification based on tissue type (leaf and pod), both UPLC-MS and NMR were found to be more effective in separation than on geographical origin. Results reveal that the amounts of the major classes of bioactives in Senna, i.e., flavonoids and sennosides, varied significantly among organs. Leaves contained more flavonoids and ω-3 fatty acids but fewer benzophenone derivatives than pods. In contrast, pods were more enriched in bianthrones (sennosides). PCA analysis was found to be equally effective in predicting the origin of the commercial Senna preparation using NMR and/or UPLC-MS datasets. Furthermore, a selection of six so far uninvestigated Senna species were analyzed by UPLC-MS. Results revealed that the Senna alata leaf in terms of secondary metabolite composition is the most closely related species to S. alexandrina Mill, showing the highest levels of the anthraquinone "rhein" and flavonoid conjugates. To the best of our knowledge, this study provides the first approach utilizing both UPLC-MS and NMR to reveal secondary metabolite compositional differences among Senna species.

Chemical Prospection of Important Ayurvedic Plant Tinospora cordifolia by UPLC-DAD-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS and NMR

A rapid, sensitive, and accurate ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometric method (UPLC-MS) was developed and validated for simultaneous determination of four bioactive compounds, syringin (3), cordifolioside A (4), magnoflorine (6) and tinocordiside (10) in the stem of Tinospora cordifolia. The analysis was performed using an Acquity C18 column and gradient elution of 0.05% formic acid in water and acetonitrile at a detection wavelength of 267 nm in 5 min. A high correlation coefficient (r2 > 0.998) indicated good correlation between investigated compounds concentration and their peak area within the test ranges. The LODs for compounds 3, 4, 6 and 10 were 1.95, 0.97, 3.90 and 0.97 ng/mL, respectively, and LOQs were 6.64, 3.20, 12.87 and 3.20 ng/mL, respectively. The overall intra- and inter-day variations of the four compounds were less than 1%. The variation of these four bioactive compounds in T. cordifolia hosted on fifteen different trees was also determined. The compounds (3, 4, 6 and 10) were found in high amount in the T. cordifolia hosted on Azadirachta indica and Mangifera indica as compared with other plants. Twelve compounds were identified on the basis of their mass and UV-vis spectra. The NMR fingerprinting of the extract revealed the presence of alkaloids, fatty acid methyl esters, polysaccharides and marker components of T. cordifolia.

Characterization of phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. rhizomes and roots

The present work aims to characterize and quantify the phenolic composition and to evaluate the antioxidant activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (commonly known as licorice) rhizomes and roots.

Two dimensional NMR spectroscopic approaches for exploring plant metabolome: A review

Today, most investigations of the plant metabolome tend to be based on either nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy or mass spectrometry (MS), with or without hyphenation with chromatography. Although less sensitive than MS, NMR provides a powerful complementary technique for the identification and quantification of metabolites in plant extracts. NMR spectroscopy, well appreciated by phytochemists as a particularly information-rich method, showed recent paradigm shift for the improving of metabolome(s) structural and functional characterization and for advancing the understanding of many biological processes. Furthermore, two dimensional NMR (2D NMR) experiments and the use of chemometric data analysis of NMR spectra have proven highly effective at identifying novel and known metabolites that correlate with changes in genotype or phenotype. In this review, we provide an overview of the development of NMR in the field of metabolomics with special focus on 2D NMR spectroscopic techniques and their applications in phytomedicines quality control analysis and drug discovery from natural sources, raising more attention at its potential to reduce the gap between the pace of natural products research and modern drug discovery demand.

Natural products in Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) rhizome imaged at the cellular level by atmospheric pressure matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization tandem mass spectrometry imaging

The rhizome of Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) was analyzed by high-resolution mass spectrometry imaging and tandem mass spectrometry imaging. An atmospheric pressure matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization imaging ion source was combined with an orbital trapping mass spectrometer in order to obtain high-resolution imaging in mass and space. Sections of the rhizome were imaged with a spatial resolution of 10 μm in the positive ion mode, and a large number of secondary metabolites were localized and identified based on their accurate mass and MS/MS fragmentation patterns. Major tissue-specific metabolites, including free flavonoids, flavonoid glycosides and saponins, were successfully detected and visualized in images, showing their distributions at the cellular level. The analytical power of the technique was tested in the imaging of two isobaric licorice saponins with a mass difference of only 0.02 Da. With a mass resolving power of 140 000 and a bin width of 5 ppm in the image processing, the two compounds were well resolved in full-scan mode, and appeared with different distributions in the tissue sections. The identities of the compounds and their distributions were validated in a subsequent MS/MS imaging experiment, thereby confirming their identities and excluding possible analyte interference. The use of high spatial resolution, high mass resolution and tandem mass spectrometry in imaging experiments provides significant information about the biosynthetic pathway of flavonoids and saponins in legume species, combing the spatially resolved chemical information with morphological details at the microscopic level. Furthermore, the technique offers a scheme capable of high-throughput profiling of metabolites in plant tissues.

Orthogonal Analysis Underscores the Relevance of Primary and Secondary Metabolites in Licorice

Licorice botanicals are produced from the roots of Glycyrrhiza species (Fabaceae), encompassing metabolites of both plant and rhizobial origin. The composition in both primary and secondary metabolites (1°/2°Ms) reflects the physiologic state of the plant at harvest. Interestingly, the relative abundance of 1°Ms vs 2°Ms in licorice extracts remains undetermined. A centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) method was developed to purify liquiritin derivatives that represent major bioactive 2°Ms and to concentrate the polar 1°Ms from the crude extract of Glycyrrhiza uralensis. One objective was to determine the purity of the generated reference materials by orthogonal UHPLC-UV/LC-MS and qHNMR analyses. The other objectives were to evaluate the presence of 1°Ms in purified 2°Ms and define their mass balance in a crude botanical extract. Whereas most impurities could be assigned to well-known 1°Ms, p-hydroxybenzylmalonic acid, a new natural tyrosine analogue, was also identified. Additionally, in the most polar fraction, sucrose and proline represented 93% (w/w) of all qHNMR-quantified 1°Ms. Compared to the 2°Ms, accounting for 11.9% by UHPLC-UV, 1°Ms quantified by qHNMR defined an additional 74.8% of G. uralensis extract. The combined orthogonal methods enable the mass balance characterization of licorice extracts and highlight the relevance of 1°Ms, and accompanying metabolites, for botanical quality control.

Behavior of the edible seaweed Sargassum fusiforme to copper pollution: short-term acclimation and long-term adaptation

Aquatic agriculture in heavy-metal-polluted coastal areas faces major problems due to heavy metal transfer into aquatic organisms, leading to various unexpected changes in nutrition and primary and/or secondary metabolism. In the present study, the dual role of heavy metal copper (Cu) played in the metabolism of photosynthetic organism, the edible seaweed Sargassum fusiforme, was evaluated by characterization of biochemical and metabolic responses using both 1H NMR and GC-MS techniques under acute (47 µM, 1 day) and chronic stress (8 µM, 7 days). Consequently, photosynthesis may be seriously inhibited by acute Cu exposure, resulting in decreasing levels of carbohydrates, e.g., mannitol, the main products of photosynthesis. Ascorbate may play important roles in the antioxidant system, whose content was much more seriously decreased under acute than that under chronic Cu stress. Overall, these results showed differential toxicological responses on metabolite profiles of S. fusiforme subjected to acute and chronic Cu exposures that allowed assessment of impact of Cu on marine organisms.

Humic acid acts as a natural antidote of graphene by regulating nanomaterial translocation and metabolic fluxes in vivo

Graphene-related research has intensified rapidly in a wide range of disciplines, but few studies have examined ecosystem risks, particularly phytotoxicity. This study revealed that graphene significantly inhibits the number of wheat roots and the biosynthesis of chlorophyll, and altered the morphology of shoots. Humic acid (HA), a ubiquitous form of natural organic matter, significantly (P < 0.05) relieved this phytotoxicity and recovered the sharp morphology of shoot tips. Both graphene and graphene-HA were transferred from wheat roots to shoots and were found in the cytoplasms and chloroplasts. HA increased the disordered structure and surface negative charges, and reduced the aggregation of graphene. HA enhanced the storage of graphene in vacuoles, potentially indicating an effective detoxification path. The content of cadaverine, alkane, glyconic acid, and aconitic acid was up-regulated by graphene, greatly contributing to the observed phytotoxicity. Conversely, inositol, phenylalanine, phthalic acid, and octadecanoic acid were up-regulated by graphene-HA. The metabolic pathway analysis revealed that the direction of metabolic fluxes governed nanotoxicity. This work presents the innovative concept that HA acts as a natural antidote of graphene by regulating its translocation and metabolic fluxes in vivo. This knowledge is critical for avoiding the overestimation of nanomaterial risks and can be used to control nanomaterial contamination.

Seasonal variation and resin composition in the Andean tree Austrocedrus chilensis

Little is known about the changes in resin composition in South American gymnosperms associated with the different seasons of the year. The diterpene composition of 44 resin samples from seven Austrocedrus chilensis (Cupressaceae) trees, including male and female individuals, was investigated in three different seasons of the year (February, June and November). Twelve main diterpenes were isolated by chromatographic means and identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The diterpene composition was submitted to multivariate analysis to find possible associations between chemical composition and season of the year. The principal component analysis showed a clear relation between diterpene composition and season. The most characteristic compounds in resins collected in summer were Z-communic acid (9) and 12-oxo-labda-8(17),13E-dien-19 oic acid methyl ester (10) for male trees and 8(17),12,14-labdatriene (7) for female trees. For the winter samples, a clear correlation of female trees with torulosic acid (6) was observed. In spring, E-communic acid (8) and Z-communic acid (9) were correlated with female trees and 18-hydroxy isopimar-15-ene (1) with male tree resin. A comparison between percent diterpene composition and collection time showed p < 0.05 for isopimara-8(9),15-diene (2), sandaracopimaric acid (4), compound (7) and ferruginol (11).

Unequivocal glycyrrhizin isomer determination and comparative in vitro bioactivities of root extracts in four Glycyrrhiza species

Glycyrrhiza glabra, commonly known as licorice, is a popular herbal supplement used for the treatment of chronic inflammatory conditions and as sweetener in the food industry. This species contains a myriad of phytochemicals including the major saponin glycoside glycyrrhizin (G) of Glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) aglycone. In this study, 2D-ROESY NMR technique was successfully applied for distinguishing 18α and 18β glycyrrhetinic acid (GA). ROESY spectra acquired from G. glabra, Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Glycyrrhiza inflata crude extracts revealed the presence of G in its β-form. Anti-inflammatory activity of four Glycyrrhiza species, G, glabra, G. uralensis, G. inflata, and G. echinata roots was assessed against COX-1 inhibition revealing that phenolics rather than glycyrrhizin are biologically active in this assay. G. inflata exhibits a strong cytotoxic effect against PC3 and HT29 cells lines, whereas other species are inactive. This study presents an effective NMR method for G isomer assignment in licorice extracts that does not require any preliminary chromatography or any other purification step.

Structures of two new flavonoids and effects of licorice phenolics on vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species

Since our previous study revealed that several licorice phenolics have antibacterial effects on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and suppressive effects on the oxacillin resistance of MRSA, we further investigated effectiveness of licorice constituents on vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) bacteria, and purified 32 phenolic compounds. Two flavonoids among them were characterized structurally, and identified their structures as demethylglycyrol (31) and 5,7-di-O-methylluteone (32), respectively. Examination of antibacterial effects of licorice phenolics showed that 3-arylcoumarins such as licoarylcoumarin (9) and glycycoumarin (26), and 2-arylcoumarones such as gancaonin I (17), have moderate to potent antibacterial effects on the VRE strains used in this study.

Metabolite profiling and fingerprinting of Suillus species (Basidiomycetes) by electrospray mass spectrometry

The genus Suillus is known for the occurrence of a series of prenylated phenols and boviquinones. The extracts of four different Suillus species [S. bovinus, S. granulatus, S. tridentinus and S.variegatus) were investigated by using rapid ultra-performance Liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-MS) and direct infusion electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (ESI-FT-ICR-MS). While direct infusion ESI-FT-ICR mass spectra give a fast overview concerning the elemental compositions of the compounds and, therefore, hints to the main metabolites, UPLC/ESI-tandem mass spectrometry is shown to be a useful tool for their identification. A principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) based on the UPLC/ESI-MS clearly showed that the metabolite profiles can be used not only for the identification and classification of such fungi but also as a sophisticated and powerful tool for the chemotaxonomy of fungi. Furthermore, a clear discrimination of various types of biological samples (fruiting bodies versus mycelial cultures) is also possible. The orthogonal partial least squares (OPLS) two-class models of both UPLC/ESI-MS and ESI-FT-ICR-MS possess a clear differentiation of two compared Suillus species representing the between class variation and the within class variation. Based on generated S-plots and Loading plots, statistically significant metabolites could be identified as potential biomarker for one species.

Phytochemical, phylogenetic, and anti-inflammatory evaluation of 43 Urtica accessions (stinging nettle) based on UPLC-Q-TOF-MS metabolomic profiles

Several species of the genus Urtica (especially Urtica dioica, Urticaceae), are used medicinally to treat a variety of ailments. To better understand the chemical diversity of the genus and to compare different accessions and different taxa of Urtica, 63 leaf samples representing a broad geographical, taxonomical and morphological diversity were evaluated under controlled conditions. A molecular phylogeny for all taxa investigated was prepared to compare phytochemical similarity with phylogenetic relatedness. Metabolites were analyzed via UPLC-PDA-MS and multivariate data analyses. In total, 43 metabolites were identified, with phenolic compounds and hydroxy fatty acids as the dominant substance groups. Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) provides a first structured chemotaxonomy of the genus. The molecular data present a highly resolved phylogeny with well-supported clades and subclades. U. dioica is retrieved as both para- and polyphyletic. European members of the U. dioica group and the North American subspecies share a rather similar metabolite profile and were largely retrieved as one, nearly exclusive cluster by metabolite data. This latter cluster also includes - remotely related - Urtica urens, which is pharmaceutically used in the same way as U. dioica. However, most highly supported phylogenetic clades were not retrieved in the metabolite cluster analyses. Overall, metabolite profiles indicate considerable phytochemical diversity in the genus, which largely falls into a group characterized by high contents of hydroxy fatty acids (e.g., most Andean-American taxa) and another group characterized by high contents of phenolic acids (especially the U. dioica-clade). Anti-inflammatory in vitro COX1 enzyme inhibition assays suggest that bioactivity may be predicted by gross metabolic profiling in Urtica.

Phytochemical analysis and anti-inflammatory potential of Hyphaene thebaica L. fruit

Metabolite profiling and biological activity are reported from organic and aqueous extracts of the fruit from the desert palm Hyphaene thebaica. Phenolics and oxylipids profiles were determined using UPLC-PDA-TOF (ultra performance-photodiode array-time of flight) high-resolution mass spectrometry in order to obtain the molecular formula and exact mass Under optimized conditions, 17 compounds were simultaneously identified and quantified including 2 cinnamic acid derivatives, 5 flavonoids, 6 fatty acids, 2 sphingolipids, a lignan, and a stilbene. Sugars composition in the fruit was characterized and quantified by (1) H-NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) with sucrose detected as the major component in fruit at a level of 219 mg/g. Fruit organic extracts anti-inflammatory potential was assessed in vitro by cyclooxygenase-1 enzyme inhibition.

Synergistic inhibition of lipid oxidation by pea protein hydrolysate coupled with licorice extract in a liposomal model system

Fourteen pea protein hydrolysates (PPHs) were prepared using different proteases and tested for antioxidant activity in a liposomal model system under oxidative stress (100 μM FeCl3/2 mM ascorbate). Almost all PPHs inhibited lipid oxidation, and those prepared from heated protein with Flavourzyme (Fla-PPH) or Protamex (Pro-PPH) were the most effective. Remarkable synergistic effects were observed on both Fla-PPH and Pro-PPH with licorice extract (LE). Electron microscopy revealed a self-assembled network that appeared to provide crucial protection of liposome against oxidation. The presence of LE enhanced the antioxidant potential by producing a more compact network apparently via PPH-LE complexation. Zeta-potential measurements suggested electrostatic interactions are important driving forces for the accumulation of active peptides at the liposome interface. Peptides rich in leucine, lysine, glutamic acid, glutamine, valine, or proline with a hydrophobic N-terminus, as identified by mass spectrometry, were implicated in the antioxidative protection.

Using UPLC-QTOF-MS to analyze the chemical changes between traditional and dispensing granule decoctions of San-Ao-Tang

In the present study, a chemical profiling approach based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode array detection and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-PDA-TOF-MS) was proposed to rapidly evaluate the chemical consistency between traditional and dispensing granule decoctions of traditional medicine combinatorial formulae and validated using San-Ao-Tang (SAT) as a model combinatorial formula. SAT is an effective traditional Chinese medicine, which is usually used in treating asthma and other diseases of the respiratory system. Two decoctions were prepared: traditional decoction, which is a water extract of three mixed constituent herbs of SAT; and dispensing granule decoction, which is a mixed water extract of each individual herb of SAT. Batches of these two decoction samples were subjected to UPLC-PDA-TOF-MS analysis and the data sets of t(R)-m/z pairs, ion intensities and sample codes were processed with supervised orthogonal partial least squared discriminant analysis to holistically compare their differences. Once a clear classification trend was found in the score plot, further statistics were performed to generate points at the two ends of S, and the components that correlated to these ions were regarded as the most changed components during decoction of the combinatorial formula. The changed components were identified by comparing the mass/ultraviolet spectra and retention times with those of reference compounds and/or tentatively assigned by matching empirical molecular formulae with those of the known compounds published in the literature. Using the proposed approach, global chemical differences were found between traditional and dispensing granule decoctions, like ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, norpseudoephedrine, licorice saponine H2, licorice saponine G2 and amygdalin.

HPLC-DAD-Q-TOF-MS/MS analysis and HPLC quantitation of chemical constituents in traditional Chinese medicinal formula Ge-Gen Decoction

Ge-Gen Decoction (GGD) is a classical formula of traditional Chinese medicine. It is generally used for treating common cold, fever and influenza in China and South East Asia. In this study, a systematic method was established for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the major constituents in GGD. For qualitative analysis, a method of liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (Q-TOF MS/MS) was developed for identification of multi-constituents. Based on the UV spectra, retention time and MS spectra, sixty compounds in GGD extract were identified or tentatively characterized by comparing with reference substances or literatures. According to the qualitative results, a new quantitative analysis method of GGD was established by HPLC-DAD. Fourteen representative compounds unequivocally identified were chosen as marker components which were derived from five herbs in GGD excluding Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens and Jujubae Fructus. The analytical method was validated through intra- and inter-day precision, repeatability and stability, and the R.S.D. was less than 3.18%, 4.48%, 3.36% and 3.54%, respectively. The LODs and the LOQs for the analytes were less than 1.06 and 3.12μgmL(-1), respectively. The overall recoveries ranged from 94.8% to 105.6%, with the R.S.D. ranging from 0.68% to 3.23%. Then the new method was applied to determine twelve batches of GGD commercial products of three dosage forms. The results indicated that the new approach was applicable in the routine analysis and quality control of GGD products. The study might provide a basis for quality control of GGD, and further study of GGD in vivo.

UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS fingerprinting of Traditional Chinese Formula SiJunZiTang

SiJunZiTang (SJZT), a classic Traditional Chinese Formula (TCMF) consisting of four herbs, Radix Ginseng, Atractylodes macrocephala, Poria cocos and Glycyrrhiza uralensis, has been demonstrated to show protective effects on intestine and stomach injure. The chromatographic quality control is needed. UPLC-Q-TOF-MS is a rapid and efficient technique for analysis of complex sample in combination with UPLC and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). In this paper, UPLC-MS fingerprinting of SJZT was developed. As a result, 66 compounds including ginsenosides, flavonoids, triterpenoid and coumarins were detected, 58 of them were tentatively identified. The major constituents of SJZT were ginsenosides and flavonoids that coming from Radix Ginseng and Glycyrrhiza uralensis.

Plant roots and spectroscopic methods - analyzing species, biomass and vitality

In order to understand plant functioning, plant community composition, and terrestrial biogeochemistry, it is decisive to study standing root biomass, (fine) root dynamics, and interactions belowground. While most plant taxa can be identified by visual criteria aboveground, roots show less distinctive features. Furthermore, root systems of neighboring plants are rarely spatially segregated; thus, most soil horizons and samples hold roots of more than one species necessitating root sorting according to taxa. In the last decades, various approaches, ranging from anatomical and morphological analyses to differences in chemical composition and DNA sequencing were applied to discern species' identity and biomass belowground. Among those methods, a variety of spectroscopic methods was used to detect differences in the chemical composition of roots. In this review, spectroscopic methods used to study root systems of herbaceous and woody species in excised samples or in situ will be discussed. In detail, techniques will be reviewed according to their usability to discern root taxa, to determine root vitality, and to quantify root biomass non-destructively or in soil cores holding mixtures of plant roots. In addition, spectroscopic methods which may be able to play an increasing role in future studies on root biomass and related traits are highlighted.