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Pedra JHF, Mattner J, Tao J, Kerfoot SM, Davis RJ, Flavell RA, Askenase PW, Yin Z, Fikrig E. c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase 2 inhibits gamma interferon production during Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection. Infect Immun 2008; 76:308-316. [PMID: 17998313 PMCID: PMC2223674 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00599-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2007] [Revised: 06/15/2007] [Accepted: 10/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) plays a critical role in the early eradication of Anaplasma phagocytophilum. However, the mechanisms that regulate IFN-gamma production upon infection remain poorly understood. Here we show that c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase 2 (JNK2) inhibits IFN-gamma production during A. phagocytophilum infection. jnk2-null mice were more refractory to infection with A. phagocytophilum and produced increased levels of IFN-gamma after challenge with the pathogen. The resistance of jnk2-null mice to A. phagocytophilum infection was due to elevated levels of IFN-gamma secreted by conventional and natural killer (NK) T cells. The administration of alpha-galactosylceramide, a strong NK T-cell agonist, increased IFN-gamma release and protected mice from A. phagocytophilum, further demonstrating the inhibitory effect of JNK2 on IFN-gamma production. Collectively, these findings provide strong evidence that JNK2 is an important regulatory protein for IFN-gamma secretion upon challenge with A. phagocytophilum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joao H F Pedra
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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202
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Takatori A, Geh E, Chen L, Zhang L, Meller J, Xia Y. Differential transmission of MEKK1 morphogenetic signals by JNK1 and JNK2. Development 2008; 135:23-32. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.007120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
JNK1 and JNK2 are two ubiquitously expressed isoforms that exert redundant roles in many physiological processes, but the extent of their relative contributions to these processes has not been well characterized. We show that both JNK isoforms transmit MEK kinase 1 (MEKK1)-mediated morphogenetic signals during mouse embryonic eyelid closure. However, JNK1 and JNK2 are not synonymous, because MEKK1 is haploinsufficient for normal eyelid closure in Jnk1-null mice, but is haplosufficient in Jnk2-null mice. In the Mekk1 heterozygous background, a more efficient phosphorylation of JNK1 than JNK2 leads to differential downstream reactions, such as c-Jun phosphorylation and PAI1 expression in the developing eyelid epithelium. Differences in efficiency of phosphorylation are attributed to JNK1 Gly177 and Ser179 - residues that are absent in JNK2 - which promote a less ordered structural conformation. This leads to more favorable JNK phosphorylation by activin B morphogenetic signals mediated by the MEKK1-MKK4 pathway. Interestingly, Mekk1-Jnk1-Jnk2 triple hemizygotes display a partial eye-open phenotype at birth, suggesting that all three genes dose-dependently contribute to morphogenetic eyelid closure. We propose that a MEKK1-JNK1/2 axis governs the JNK activation levels to control downstream transcriptional events and eyelid morphogenesis and that reduction of upstream MEKK1 signals uncovers analogous but differential roles of JNK1 and JNK2 in a biological process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Takatori
- Department of Environmental Health and Center of Environmental Genetics,University of Cincinnati Medical Center, 123 E. Shields Street, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056, USA
| | - Esmond Geh
- Department of Environmental Health and Center of Environmental Genetics,University of Cincinnati Medical Center, 123 E. Shields Street, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056, USA
| | - Liang Chen
- Department of Environmental Health and Center of Environmental Genetics,University of Cincinnati Medical Center, 123 E. Shields Street, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056, USA
| | - Lin Zhang
- Department of Environmental Health and Center of Environmental Genetics,University of Cincinnati Medical Center, 123 E. Shields Street, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056, USA
- Department of Central Lab, Southern Medical University, Tonghe, Guangzhou,People's Republic of China
| | - Jarek Meller
- Department of Environmental Health and Center of Environmental Genetics,University of Cincinnati Medical Center, 123 E. Shields Street, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056, USA
| | - Ying Xia
- Department of Environmental Health and Center of Environmental Genetics,University of Cincinnati Medical Center, 123 E. Shields Street, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056, USA
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203
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204
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c-Jun amino terminal kinase 1 deficient mice are protected from streptozotocin-induced islet injury. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2007; 366:710-6. [PMID: 18082135 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2007] [Accepted: 12/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In vitro studies have implicated the c-Jun amino terminal kinase (JNK) in cytokine-induced pancreatic injury leading to a loss of insulin production and hyperglycemia. We examined the role of JNK1 in the multiple low dose streptozotocin (MLD-STZ) model in which islet injury and hyperglycemia are dependent upon T cell immunity and pro-inflammatory cytokines. MLD-STZ in wild type mice induced islet leukocyte infiltration, cytokine production, beta-cell apoptosis, and hyperglycemia. In contrast, Jnk1-/- mice were substantially protected from a loss of insulin producing cells and hyperglycemia in the MLD-STZ model despite a marked islet T cell and macrophage infiltrate. Based upon several lines of evidence, this protection was attributed to a reduction in TNF-alpha production by infiltrating Jnk1-/- macrophages leading to reduced beta-cell apoptosis. In conclusion, JNK1 signaling plays an essential role in macrophage induced beta-cell apoptosis and the development of hyperglycemia in MLD-STZ induced pancreatic injury.
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205
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Izadi H, Motameni AT, Bates TC, Olivera ER, Villar-Suarez V, Joshi I, Garg R, Osborne BA, Davis RJ, Rincón M, Anguita J. c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 is required for Toll-like receptor 1 gene expression in macrophages. Infect Immun 2007; 75:5027-34. [PMID: 17664270 PMCID: PMC2044510 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00492-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2007] [Revised: 05/14/2007] [Accepted: 07/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The regulation of innate immune responses to pathogens occurs through the interaction of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) with pathogen-associated molecular patterns and the activation of several signaling pathways whose contribution to the overall innate immune response to pathogens is poorly understood. We demonstrate a mechanism of control of murine macrophage responses mediated by TLR1/2 heterodimers through c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) activity. JNK controls tumor necrosis factor alpha production and TLR-mediated macrophage responses to Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, and the TLR1/TLR2-specific agonist PAM(3)CSK(4). JNK1, but not JNK2, activity regulates the expression of the tlr1 gene in the macrophage cell line RAW264.7, as well as in primary CD11b(+) cells. We also show that the proximal promoter region of the human tlr1 gene contains an AP-1 binding site that is subjected to regulation by the kinase and binds two complexes that involve the JNK substrates c-Jun, JunD, and ATF-2. These results demonstrate that JNK1 regulates the response to TLR1/2 ligands and suggest a positive feedback loop that may serve to increase the innate immune response to the spirochete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hooman Izadi
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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206
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Flanc RS, Ma FY, Tesch GH, Han Y, Atkins RC, Bennett BL, Friedman GC, Fan JH, Nikolic-Paterson DJ. A pathogenic role for JNK signaling in experimental anti-GBM glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int 2007; 72:698-708. [PMID: 17597698 DOI: 10.1038/sj.ki.5002404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Activation of the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway is involved in the immune response; however, little is known of its role in immune-induced renal injury. In this study, we examine JNK signaling in the rat anti-glomerular basement membrane (GBM) disease model using CC-401, a specific JNK inhibitor. Animals were given CC-401, vehicle alone or no treatment starting before anti-GBM serum injection and continued treatment until killing. In acute disease, CC-401 blocked JNK signaling and reduced proteinuria in the first 24 h. The transient neutrophil influx seen at 3 h of disease was not affected, however. Continued CC-401 treatment suppressed glomerular and tubulointerstitial damage usually seen at 14 days. The protective effect may be due to modulation of macrophage activation, as CC-401 had no effect upon glomerular macrophage infiltration at day 14 despite the suppression of glomerular lesions and a marked reduction in renal tumor necrosis factor-alpha and inducible nitric oxide synthase messenger RNA levels. Treatment with CC-401 had no apparent effect on T cell or humoral immune responses. These studies suggest that JNK signaling promotes renal injury in acute and progressive rat anti-GBM disease. JNK inhibitors may be a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of human glomerulonephritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R S Flanc
- Department of Nephrology, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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207
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Whitmarsh AJ. Regulation of gene transcription by mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2007; 1773:1285-98. [PMID: 17196680 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2006.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2006] [Revised: 11/14/2006] [Accepted: 11/15/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways are key mediators of eukaryotic transcriptional responses to extracellular signals. These pathways control gene expression in a number of ways including the phosphorylation and regulation of transcription factors, co-regulatory proteins and chromatin proteins. MAPK pathways therefore target multiple components of transcriptional complexes at gene promoters and can regulate DNA binding, protein stability, cellular localization, transactivation or repression, and nucleosome structure. Recent work has uncovered further complexities in the mechanisms by which MAPKs control gene expression including their roles as integral components of transcription factor complexes and their interplay with other post-translational modification pathways. In this review I discuss these advances with particular focus on how MAPK signals are integrated by transcription factor complexes to provide specific transcriptional responses and how this relates to cellular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan J Whitmarsh
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
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208
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Tabata A, Morikawa M, Miyajima M, Bennett BL, Satoh Y, Huang J, Tamura Y, Sato N, Abe T. Suppression of alloreactivity and allograft rejection by SP600125, a small molecule inhibitor of c-Jun N-terminal kinase. Transplantation 2007; 83:1358-64. [PMID: 17519787 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000264196.23944.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is reported to play crucial roles in T-cell activation and differentiation, and SP600125 is a small molecule that inhibits JNK. The aim of this study was to examine immunosuppressive action of this compound. METHODS Rat heterotopic heart transplantation, popliteal lymph node (PLN) hyperplasia bioassay and lymphocyte proliferation assay. RESULTS SP600125 treatment reduced histological rejection, and dose-dependently extended median survival time of cardiac allografts from 7 days (vehicle) up to 20 days (40 mg/kg/day). Alloantigen-induced PLN hyperplasia was also inhibited by SP600125 in a similar fashion. SP600125 suppressed mixed lymphocyte reaction and OX52-positive lymphocyte proliferation (IC50: 1.5-5.7 microM). Thus, SP600125 inhibits both T-lymphocyte expansion in vitro and T-cell-mediated alloimmune responses in vivo. In addition, SP600125 interacted with cyclosporine additively to prolong cardiac allograft survival. CONCLUSION Our data provide the first evidence indicating the potential for JNK as a therapeutic target to inhibit the alloimmune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Tabata
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
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209
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Tong C, Yin Z, Song Z, Dockendorff A, Huang C, Mariadason J, Flavell RA, Davis RJ, Augenlicht LH, Yang W. c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase 1 plays a critical role in intestinal homeostasis and tumor suppression. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 171:297-303. [PMID: 17591974 PMCID: PMC1941582 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.061036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) signal transduction pathway plays important roles in cellular processes and stress. However, the role of JNK1 in intestinal homeostasis and tumorigenesis is unknown. Therefore, we used a JNK1 knockout mouse model to characterize intestinal cell maturation and tumorigenesis. In addition, colon cancer cell lines were used to validate the role of JNK1 and to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms in vitro. To our surprise, we found that mice with targeted inactivation of JNK1 spontaneously developed intestinal tumors. The normal mucosa in JNK1-deficient mice showed decreased cell differentiation and increased cell proliferation. This tumorigenesis was closely linked to the down-regulation of p21(WAF1/cip1), a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, in intestinal epithelial cells. Immunohistochemical staining showed that JNK1 was highly expressed in the differentiation compartment of the intestinal mucosa and that the expression of JNK1 was significantly decreased in both human colonic and mouse intestinal tumors. In the colon cancer cell lines, JNK1 expression was up-regulated during spontaneous differentiation, corresponding to the up-regulation of p21(WAF1/cip1). Moreover, butyrate-induced p21 expression was linked to phosphorylation of JNK1. Reduced JNK1 expression by small interfering RNA suppressed butyrate-induced apoptosis. We concluded that JNK1 plays a critical role in the regulation of homeostasis and in the suppression of tumor formation in the intestine, which was linked to the altered expression of p21(WAF1/cip1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Tong
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Room 113 CSN, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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210
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Kasugai K, Watson SJ, A Flavell R, J Davis R, Todisco A. Crucial role of c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) in cold-restraint stress-induced gastric lesions in mice. Dig Dis Sci 2007; 52:1698-705. [PMID: 17061159 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-006-9155-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2005] [Accepted: 11/14/2005] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase 1 /JNK1, is activated in response to a broad array of cellular stresses. We investigated the role of JNK1 in the pathophysiology of cold-restraint stress-induced gastric lesions in mice. B6/129, wild type (WT) mice, or mutant mice deficient in Jnk1 (Jnk1-/- mice) were exposed to cold-restraint stress for different time periods. Gastric lesions were identified and quantitated by morphometric analysis. JNK1 activity in mucosal homogenates was quantitated by immunoprecipitation and in-vitro kinase assays. JNK1 expression and Akt activation were assessed by Western blots with anti-JNK1 and anti-phospho Akt antibodies, respectively. Gastric mucosal homogenates from Jnk1-/- mice exhibited no significant expression of JNK1 and no detectable level of JNK1 activation. Exposure of WT mice to cold-restraint stress led to the development of significant gastric lesions and to a greater than three-fold induction in JNK1 activity, while no lesions were detected in the gastric mucosa of Jnk1-/- mice. Since cold-restraint stress-induced gastric lesions involve the activation of cholinergic pathways, we tested the effect of atropine on both the development of gastric lesions and JNK1 activation. Pretreatment of WT mice with atropine completely inhibited both cold-restraint stress-induced lesions and JNK1 activation. Cold-restraint stress induced protein kinase B/Akt to a similar level in the gastric mucosa of both WT and Jnk1-/- mice indicating the integrity of other signaling pathways. JNK1 plays a key role in the development of cold-restraint stress-induced gastric lesions in mice through the activation of cholinergic, atropine sensitive pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kasugai
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0682, USA
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211
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Owens DM, Keyse SM. Differential regulation of MAP kinase signalling by dual-specificity protein phosphatases. Oncogene 2007; 26:3203-13. [PMID: 17496916 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1210412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 638] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The regulated dephosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) plays a key role in determining the magnitude and duration of kinase activation and hence the physiological outcome of signalling. In mammalian cells, an important component of this control is mediated by the differential expression and activities of a family of 10 dual-specificity (Thr/Tyr) MAPK phosphatases (MKPs). These enzymes share a common structure in which MAPK substrate recognition is determined by sequences within an amino-terminal non-catalytic domain whereas MAPK binding often leads to a conformational change within the C-terminal catalytic domain resulting in increased enzyme activity. MKPs can either recognize and inactivate a single class of MAP kinase, as in the specific inactivation of extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) by the cytoplasmic phosphatase DUSP6/MKP-3 or can regulate more than one MAPK pathway as illustrated by the ability of DUSP1/MKP-1 to dephosphorylate ERK, c-Jun amino-terminal kinase and p38 in the cell nucleus. These properties, coupled with transcriptional regulation of MKP expression in response to stimuli that activate MAPK signalling, suggest a complex negative regulatory network in which individual MAPK activities can be subject to negative feedback control, but also raise the possibility that signalling through multiple MAPK pathways may be integrated at the level of regulation by MKPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Owens
- Cancer Research UK Stress Response Laboratory, Biomedical Research Centre, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, UK
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212
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Riera-Sans L, Behrens A. Regulation of alphabeta/gammadelta T cell development by the activator protein 1 transcription factor c-Jun. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:5690-700. [PMID: 17442952 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.9.5690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
c-Jun is a member of the AP-1 family of transcription factors, the activity of which is strongly augmented by TCR signaling. To elucidate the functions of c-Jun in mouse thymic lymphopoiesis, we conditionally inactivated c-Jun specifically during early T cell development. The loss of c-Jun resulted in enhanced generation of gammadelta T cells, whereas alphabeta T cell development was partially arrested at the double-negative 3 stage. The increased generation of gammadelta T cells by loss of c-Jun was cell autonomous, because in a competitive reconstitution experiment the knockout-derived cells produced more gammadelta T cells than did the control cells. C-jun-deficient immature T cells failed to efficiently repress transcription of IL-7Ralpha, resulting in augmented IL-7Ralpha mRNA and surface levels. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed binding of c-Jun to AP-1 binding sites present in the IL-7Ralpha promoter, indicating direct transcriptional regulation. Thus, c-Jun controls the transcription of IL-7Ralpha and is a novel regulator of the alphabeta/gammadelta T cell development.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Lineage/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- Integrases/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-jun/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-jun/physiology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/analysis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/analysis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/immunology
- Receptors, Interleukin-7/genetics
- T-Lymphocytes/chemistry
- T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Thymus Gland/cytology
- Thymus Gland/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Lluís Riera-Sans
- London Research Institute, Cancer Research, Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Lincoln's Inn Fields Laboratories, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, UK
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213
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Jeffrey KL, Camps M, Rommel C, Mackay CR. Targeting dual-specificity phosphatases: manipulating MAP kinase signalling and immune responses. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007; 6:391-403. [PMID: 17473844 DOI: 10.1038/nrd2289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Dual-specificity phosphatases (DUSPs) are a subset of protein tyrosine phosphatases, many of which dephosphorylate threonine and tyrosine residues on mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and hence are also referred to as MAPK phosphatases (MKPs). The regulated expression and activity of DUSP family members in different cells and tissues controls MAPK intensity and duration to determine the type of physiological response. For immune cells, DUSPs regulate responses in both positive and negative ways, and DUSP-deficient mice have been used to identify individual DUSPs as key regulators of immune responses. From a drug discovery perspective, DUSP family members are promising drug targets for manipulating MAPK-dependent immune responses in a cell-type and disease-context-dependent manner, to either boost or subdue immune responses in cancers, infectious diseases or inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate L Jeffrey
- Immunology and Inflammation Research Program, The Garvan Institute, Darlinghurst, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
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214
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Liu YC. The E3 ubiquitin ligase Itch in T cell activation, differentiation, and tolerance. Semin Immunol 2007; 19:197-205. [PMID: 17433711 PMCID: PMC2680672 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2007.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2006] [Accepted: 02/16/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Tagging a small molecule ubiquitin to a protein substrate, or protein ubiquitination, plays an important role in the immune responses. This process is catalyzed by a cascade of enzymatic reactions, with the E3 ubiquitin ligases being the critical enzymes that determine the specificity of substrate recognition. The E3 ligase Itch was identified from a mutant mouse which displays skin scratching and abnormal immune disorders. In the past few years, much progress has been made in our understanding of Itch-promoted protein ubiquitination, modulation of its ligase activity by upstream kinases, and the kinase-ligase interaction in T cell differentiation and tolerance induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Cai Liu
- Division of Cell Biololgy, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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215
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Alam M, Beevers RE, Ceska T, Davenport RJ, Dickson KM, Fortunato M, Gowers L, Haughan AF, James LA, Jones MW, Kinsella N, Lowe C, Meissner JWG, Nicolas AL, Perry BG, Phillips DJ, Pitt WR, Platt A, Ratcliffe AJ, Sharpe A, Tait LJ. Synthesis and SAR of aminopyrimidines as novel c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2007; 17:3463-7. [PMID: 17459703 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2007.03.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2007] [Revised: 03/23/2007] [Accepted: 03/24/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The development of a series of novel aminopyrimidines as inhibitors of c-Jun N-terminal kinases is described. The synthesis, in vitro inhibitory values for JNK1, JNK2 and CDK2, and the in vitro inhibitory value for a c-Jun cellular assay are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahbub Alam
- UCB, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GS, UK
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216
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Aoki H, Yoshimura K, Matsuzaki M. Turning back the clock: regression of abdominal aortic aneurysms via pharmacotherapy. J Mol Med (Berl) 2007; 85:1077-88. [PMID: 17522832 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-007-0213-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2006] [Revised: 04/08/2007] [Accepted: 04/25/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a common disease that causes progressive expansion and rupture of the aorta with high mortality. There is a large and unmet need for nonsurgical treatment for AAA. Research has shown that an intricate network of inflammatory cells and interstitial cells contributes to the formation of AAA by producing pro-inflammatory mediators that activate enzymes to degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM) and impair ECM biosynthesis. Pharmacological agents such as statins and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors may promote tissue stabilization in AAA by diminishing pro-inflammatory signaling and normalizing metabolism of the ECM. Our recent experiments in animal models demonstrate that inhibition of c-Jun N terminal kinase (JNK) inhibits multiple pathological processes and causes regression of established AAA. Thus, emerging evidence indicates that pharmacological intervention targeting pro-inflammatory signaling and abnormal ECM metabolism is a promising strategy for treatment of AAA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Aoki
- Department of Molecular Cardiovascular Biology, Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami Kogushi, Ube, Yamaguchi, 755-8505, Japan.
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217
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Krieser RJ, Moore FE, Dresnek D, Pellock BJ, Patel R, Huang A, Brachmann C, White K. The Drosophila homolog of the putative phosphatidylserine receptor functions to inhibit apoptosis. Development 2007; 134:2407-14. [PMID: 17522160 DOI: 10.1242/dev.02860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Exposure of phosphatidylserine is a conserved feature of apoptotic cells and is thought to act as a signal for engulfment of the cell corpse. A putative receptor for phosphatidylserine (PSR) was previously identified in mammalian systems. This receptor is proposed to function in engulfment of apoptotic cells, although gene ablation of PSR has resulted in a variety of phenotypes. We examined the role of the predicted Drosophila homolog of PSR (dPSR) in apoptotic cell engulfment and found no obvious role for dPSR in apoptotic cell engulfment by phagocytes in the embryo. In addition, dPSR is localized to the nucleus, inconsistent with a role in apoptotic cell recognition. However, we were surprised to find that overexpression of dPSR protects from apoptosis, while loss of dPSR enhances apoptosis in the developing eye. The increased apoptosis is mediated by the head involution defective (Wrinkled) gene product. In addition, our data suggest that dPSR acts through the c-Jun-NH(2) terminal kinase pathway to alter the sensitivity to cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald J Krieser
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, 149 13th street, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
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218
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Li LF, Liao SK, Ko YS, Lee CH, Quinn DA. Hyperoxia increases ventilator-induced lung injury via mitogen-activated protein kinases: a prospective, controlled animal experiment. CRITICAL CARE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE CRITICAL CARE FORUM 2007; 11:R25. [PMID: 17316425 PMCID: PMC2151853 DOI: 10.1186/cc5704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2006] [Revised: 01/09/2007] [Accepted: 02/22/2007] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Large-tidal volume (VT) mechanical ventilation and hyperoxia used in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome can damage pulmonary epithelial cells through lung inflammation and apoptotic cell death. Hyperoxia has been shown to increase ventilator-induced lung injury, but the mechanisms regulating interaction between large VT and hyperoxia are unclear. We hypothesized that the addition of hyperoxia to large-VT ventilation would increase neutrophil infiltration by upregulation of the cytokine macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) and would increase apoptosis via the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Methods C57BL/6 mice were exposed to high-VT (30 ml/kg) mechanical ventilation with room air or hyperoxia for one to five hours. Results The addition of hyperoxia to high-VT ventilation augmented lung injury, as demonstrated by increased apoptotic cell death, neutrophil migration into the lung, MIP-2 production, MIP-2 mRNA expression, increased DNA binding activity of activator protein-1, increased microvascular permeability, and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 activation. Hyperoxia-induced augmentation of high-VT-induced lung injury was attenuated in JNK-deficient mice and in mice with pharmacologic inhibition of ERK activity by PD98059. However, only JNK-deficient mice, and not mice with ERK activity inhibition by PD98059, were protected from high-VT-induced lung injury without hyperoxia. Conclusion We conclude that hyperoxia increased high-VT-induced cytokine production, neutrophil influx, and apoptotic cell death through activation of the JNK and ERK1/2 pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Fu Li
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, and Chang Gung University, 5 Fu-Hsing Street, Kweishan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
- Department of Respiratory Therapy, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, 5 Fu-Hsing Street, Kweishan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Shuen-Kuei Liao
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kweishan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Shien Ko
- The First Cardiovascular Division, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, and Chang Gung University, 5 Fu-Hsing Street, Kweishan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Huei Lee
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, and Chang Gung University, 5 Fu-Hsing Street, Kweishan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
- Department of Respiratory Therapy, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, 5 Fu-Hsing Street, Kweishan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Deborah A Quinn
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Units, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA, USA
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219
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Chromik AM, Müller AM, Körner J, Belyaev O, Holland-Letz T, Schmitz F, Herdegen T, Uhl W, Mittelkötter U. Genetic deletion of JNK1 and JNK2 aggravates the DSS-induced colitis in mice. J INVEST SURG 2007; 20:23-33. [PMID: 17365404 DOI: 10.1080/08941930601126140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are considered as novel targets for therapy of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). However, the relevant JNK isoforms have to be elucidated. Here, we analyze the individual contribution of the JNK1 and JNK2 isoforms in a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) model of experimental colitis. JNK1 and JNK2 knockout mice (JNK1 ko, JNK2 ko) and their wild-type controls (WT1, WT2) received three cycles of DSS treatment, each consisting of 1.7% DSS for 5 days, followed by 5 days with water. Animals were daily evaluated by a disease activity index (DAI) comprising measurement of body weight, estimation of stool consistency, and test for occult blood/gross rectal bleeding. After 30 days all animals were sacrificed, and the inflamed intestine was histologically evaluated by a crypt damage score. Unexpectedly, neither JNK1 ko nor JNK2 ko prevented mice from developing a chronic colitis when compared to wild-type controls WT1 and WT2, respectively. On the contrary, DAI and mortality were aggravated in JNK2 ko compared to WT2. DAI and mortality did not differ between JNK1 ko and WT1, but the histological crypt damage score was significantly enhanced in the cecum of JNK1 ko mice. Genetic deletion of JNK2 worsens the disease outcome in an experimental model of murine colitis. We hypothesize that the functional deletion of the otherwise proapoptotic JNK2 prolongs the activity of proinflammatory immune cells with deterioration of disease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Chromik
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, St. Josef Hospital, Ruhr-University of Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
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220
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Tao J, Gao Y, Li MO, He W, Chen L, Harvev B, Davis RJ, Flavell RA, Yin Z. JNK2 negatively regulates CD8+ T cell effector function and anti-tumor immune response. Eur J Immunol 2007; 37:818-29. [PMID: 17301952 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200636726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
JNK1 and JNK2 have distinct effects on activation, differentiation and function of CD8+ T cells. Our early studies demonstrated that JNK1 is required for CD8+ T cell-mediated tumor immune surveillance. However, the role of JNK2 in CD8+ T cell response and effector functions, especially in anti-tumor immune response, is unknown. To define the role of JNK2 in antigen-specific immune response, we have investigated CD8+ T cells from OT-1 CD8+ transgenic mice in response to either high- or low-affinity peptides. JNK2-/- CD8+ T cells proliferated better in response to both peptides, with more cell division and less cell death. In addition, JNK2-/- CD8+ T cells produced higher levels of IFN-gamma, which is associated with increased expression of T-bet and Eomesodermin (Eomes). Moreover, JNK2-/- CD8+ T cells expresses high levels of granzyme B and show increased CTL activity. Finally, the enhanced expansion and effector function of JNK2-/- CD8+ T cells was further evidenced by their capacity to delay tumor growth in vivo. In summary, our results demonstrate that JNK2 negatively regulates antigen-specific CD8+ T cell expansion and effector function, and thus selectively blocking JNK2 in CD8+ T cells may potentially enhance anti-tumor immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Tao
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8031, USA
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Abstract
In 1998, George Vande Woude's lab discovered that anthrax lethal factor (LF), the principal virulence component of anthrax toxin, was a zinc-metalloprotease that cleaved and inactivated mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MKK). It was perhaps not surprising, given the known roles of MKK1 and 2 in cell proliferation, that LF was subsequently found to dramatically inhibit tumor growth in vivo. What was not anticipated, however, was that the tumors treated with LF would have a substantially reduced vascular content. This intriguing result was one of the first indications that MKK signaling plays an important role in promoting tumor vascularization in vivo. In the following short review, we will compare in vitro and in vivo evidence that supports the hypothesis that MKK signaling pathways are essential for vascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Depeille
- Laboratory of Cancer and Developmental Cell Biology, Van Andel Research Institute, 333 Bostwick Avenue, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
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222
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Shen T, Cseresnyés Z, Liu Y, Randall WR, Schneider MF. Regulation of the nuclear export of the transcription factor NFATc1 by protein kinases after slow fibre type electrical stimulation of adult mouse skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol 2007; 579:535-51. [PMID: 17185343 PMCID: PMC2075400 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2006.120048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2006] [Accepted: 12/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT)c1 has been shown to be involved in turning on slow skeletal muscle fibre gene expression. Previous studies from our laboratory have characterized the stimulation pattern-dependent nuclear import and resting shuttling of NFATc1-green fluorescent protein (GFP) in flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) muscle fibres from adult mouse. In this study, we use viral expression of the transcription factor NFATc1-GFP fusion protein to investigate the mechanisms underlying the nuclear export of the NFATc1-GFP that accumulated in the nuclei of cultured dissociated adult mouse FDB muscle fibres during slow-twitch fibre type electrical stimulation. In these studies, we found that inhibition of either glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3beta) or casein kinase 1 or 2 (CK1/2) markedly slowed the decay of nuclear NFATc1-GFP after cessation of muscle fibre electrical stimulation, whereas inhibition of casein kinase 1delta, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase and protein kinase A had little effect. Simultaneous inhibition of GSK3beta and CK1/2 completely blocked the nuclear export of NFATc1-GFP after muscle activity. We also developed a simplified model of NFATc1 phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and nuclear fluxes, and used this model to simulate the observed time courses of nuclear NFATc1-GFP with and without NFATc1 kinase inhibition. Our results suggest that GSK3beta and CK1/2 are the major protein kinases that contribute to the removal of NFATc1 that accumulates in muscle fibre nuclei during muscle activity, and that GSK3beta and CK1/2 are responsible for phosphorylating NFATc1 in muscle nuclei in a complementary or synergistic fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiansheng Shen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 North Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201-1503, USA
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223
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Song Z, Tong C, Liang J, Dockendorff A, Huang C, Augenlicht LH, Yang W. JNK1 is required for sulindac-mediated inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 560:95-100. [PMID: 17292881 PMCID: PMC1852492 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2006] [Revised: 01/04/2007] [Accepted: 01/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Our previous studies demonstrated that sulindac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, suppressed intestinal tumor formation in mouse, which is linked to the induction of wild-type p53-activated fragment 1 (p21WAF1, or p21). Here we showed that sulindac also required c-Jun N-terminal Kinase 1 (JNK1) to inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. First, sulindac inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in colon cancer cell lines HCT116 with wild-type p21 or null p21, which were p21-dependent and were also associated with the induction of p21 and phosphorylation of JNK1. Second, sulindac increased apoptosis in JNK1(+/+) and JNK1(-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells, but, the increase of apoptosis in JNK1(+/+) cells was more than that in JNK1(-/-) cells. More interestingly, sulindac significantly inhibited cell proliferation in JNK1(+/+) cells, but the inhibition in JNK1(-/-) cells markedly decreased. Further studies indicated that JNK1 was dramatically induced by sulindac in the JNK1(+/+) cells which correlated with the induction of p21. However, the induction of p21 in JNK1(-/-) cells was less than that in JNK1(+/+) cells. Finally, we determined the expression of JNK1 in the intestinal mucosa of Apc(+/-), p21(+/+) mice, and found that sulindac significantly induced JNK1 phosphorylation, corresponding to the induction of p21, both in mRNA and protein levels. Our data indicates that sulindac-mediated proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction were not only p21-dependent, but also required JNK1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zibo Song
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Chang Tong
- Department of Oncology, Albert Einstein Cancer Center, Bronx, NY 10467
| | - Jiao Liang
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Ashley Dockendorff
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Chuanshu Huang
- Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, NY 10987
| | | | - Wancai Yang
- Department of Oncology, Albert Einstein Cancer Center, Bronx, NY 10467
- * Address correspondence to: Wancai Yang, M.D., Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 840 S Woods Street, Room 113 CSN, Chicago, IL 60612, Tel: (312) 355-4154, Fax: (312) 996-7586, E-mail:
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224
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Hosokawa H, Kimura MY, Shinnakasu R, Suzuki A, Miki T, Koseki H, van Lohuizen M, Yamashita M, Nakayama T. Regulation of Th2 cell development by Polycomb group gene bmi-1 through the stabilization of GATA3. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 177:7656-64. [PMID: 17114435 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.11.7656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The Polycomb group (PcG) gene products regulate the maintenance of the homeobox gene expression in Drosophila and vertebrates and also the cell cycle progression in thymocytes and Th2 cell differentiation in mature T cells. We herein studied the role of PcG gene bmi-1 product in Th1/Th2 cell differentiation and found that Bmi-1 facilitates Th2 cell differentiation in a Ring finger-dependent manner. Biochemical studies indicate that Bmi-1 interacts with GATA3 in T cells, which is dependent on the Ring finger of Bmi-1. The overexpression of Bmi-1 resulted in a decreased ubiquitination and an increased protein stability of GATA3. In bmi-1-deficient Th cells, the levels of Th2 cell differentiation decreased as the degradation and ubiquitination on GATA3 increased. Therefore, Bmi-1 plays a crucial role in the control of Th2 cell differentiation in a Ring finger-dependent manner by regulating GATA3 protein stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Hosokawa
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
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225
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Lang R, Hammer M, Mages J. DUSP meet immunology: dual specificity MAPK phosphatases in control of the inflammatory response. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 177:7497-504. [PMID: 17114416 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.11.7497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The MAPK family members p38, JNK, and ERK are all activated downstream of innate immunity's TLR to induce the production of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. However, the relative intensity and duration of the activation of different MAPK appears to determine the type of immune response. The mammalian genome encodes a large number of dual specificity phosphatases (DUSP), many of which act as MAPK phosphatases. In this study, we review the emergence of several DUSP as genes that are differentially expressed and regulated in immune cells. Recently, a series of investigations in mice deficient in DUSP1, DUSP2, or DUSP10 revealed specificity in the regulation of the different MAPK proteins, and defined essential roles in models of local and systemic inflammation. The DUSP family is proposed as a set of molecular control devices specifying and modulating MAPK signaling, which may be targeted to unleash or attenuate innate and adaptive immune effector functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Lang
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University Munich, Immunology and Hygiene, Trogerstrasse 30, Munich 81675, Germany.
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226
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Gerits N, Kostenko S, Moens U. In vivo functions of mitogen-activated protein kinases: conclusions from knock-in and knock-out mice. Transgenic Res 2007; 16:281-314. [PMID: 17219248 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-006-9052-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2006] [Accepted: 10/24/2006] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Multicellular organisms achieve intercellular communication by means of signalling molecules whose effect on the target cell is mediated by signal transduction pathways. Such pathways relay, amplify and integrate signals to elicit appropriate biological responses. Protein kinases form crucial intermediate components of numerous signalling pathways. One group of protein kinases, the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAP kinases) are kinases involved in signalling pathways that respond primarily to mitogens and stress stimuli. In vitro studies revealed that the MAP kinases are implicated in several cellular processes, including cell division, differentiation, cell survival/apoptosis, gene expression, motility and metabolism. As such, dysfunction of specific MAP kinases is associated with diseases such as cancer and immunological disorders. However, the genuine in vivo functions of many MAP kinases remain elusive. Genetically modified mouse models deficient in a specific MAP kinase or expressing a constitutive active or a dominant negative variant of a particular MAP kinase offer valuable tools for elucidating the biological role of these protein kinases. In this review, we focus on the current status of MAP kinase knock-in and knock-out mouse models and their phenotypes. Moreover, examples of the application of MAP kinase transgenic mice for validating therapeutic properties of specific MAP kinase inhibitors, and for investigating the role of MAP kinase in pathogen-host interactions will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Gerits
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Institute of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway.
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227
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Ma FY, Flanc RS, Tesch GH, Han Y, Atkins RC, Bennett BL, Friedman GC, Fan JH, Nikolic-Paterson DJ. A Pathogenic Role for c-Jun Amino-Terminal Kinase Signaling in Renal Fibrosis and Tubular Cell Apoptosis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18:472-84. [PMID: 17202416 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2006060604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Renal fibrosis and tubular apoptosis are common mechanisms of progressive kidney disease. In vitro studies have implicated the c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway in these processes. Both of the major JNK isoforms, JNK1 and JNK2, are expressed in the kidney, but their relative contribution to JNK signaling is unknown. This study investigated the role of JNK signaling in renal fibrosis and tubular apoptosis in the unilateral ureteral obstruction model using two different approaches: (1) Mice that were deficient in either JNK1 or JNK2 and (2) a specific inhibitor of all JNK isoforms, CC-401. Western blotting and immunostaining identified a marked increase in JNK signaling in the obstructed kidney, with substantial redundancy between JNK1 and JNK2 isoforms. Administration of CC-401 blocked JNK signaling in the rat obstructed kidney and significantly inhibited renal fibrosis in terms of interstitial myofibroblast accumulation and collagen IV deposition. This effect was attributed to suppression of gene transcription for the profibrotic molecules TGF-beta1 and connective tissue growth factor. CC-401 treatment also significantly reduced tubular apoptosis in the obstructed kidney. Genetic deletion of JNK1 or JNK2 did not protect mice from renal fibrosis in the unilateral ureteral obstruction model, but JNK1 deletion did result in a significant reduction in tubular cell apoptosis. In conclusion, this is the first study to demonstrate that JNK signaling plays a pathogenic role in renal fibrosis and tubular apoptosis. Furthermore, JNK1 plays a nonredundant role in tubular cell apoptosis. These studies identify the JNK pathway as a potential therapeutic target in progressive kidney disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Y Ma
- Department of Nephrology, Monash Medical Centre, 246 Clayton Road, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
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228
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Blonska M, Pappu BP, Matsumoto R, Li H, Su B, Wang D, Lin X. The CARMA1-Bcl10 signaling complex selectively regulates JNK2 kinase in the T cell receptor-signaling pathway. Immunity 2006; 26:55-66. [PMID: 17189706 PMCID: PMC1802095 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2006.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2006] [Revised: 10/18/2006] [Accepted: 11/13/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Members of the c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) family play crucial roles in cell activation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Although many studies have indicated that JNK1 and JNK2 have functional differences and redundancy, the upstream signaling pathway that selectively activates JNK1 or JNK2 remains unknown. In this study, we have revealed a selective mechanism of JNK activation, in which JNK2, but not JNK1, was regulated by CARMA1, a scaffold molecule, after stimulation of the T cell receptor (TCR). This CARMA1-dependent regulation of JNK2 worked through the scaffold molecule Bcl10, which was inducibly associated with JNK2 and served as a JNK-interacting protein (JIP)-like scaffold to assemble the kinases JNK2, MKK7, and TAK1. Finally, we showed that CARMA1- and Bcl10-mediated JNK2 activation had a critical role in regulating the amount of c-Jun protein. Together, our studies provide genetic evidence that JNK1 and JNK2 are differentially regulated in the TCR-signaling pathway and play different functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzenna Blonska
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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229
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Kaneko T, Hosokawa H, Yamashita M, Wang CR, Hasegawa A, Kimura MY, Kitajiama M, Kimura F, Miyazaki M, Nakayama T. Chromatin remodeling at the Th2 cytokine gene loci in human type 2 helper T cells. Mol Immunol 2006; 44:2249-56. [PMID: 17166591 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2006.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2006] [Revised: 11/01/2006] [Accepted: 11/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The differentiation of mouse naïve CD4 T cells into type 2 helper (Th2) cells is accompanied by chromatin remodeling at the nucleosomes associated with the IL-4, IL-13 and IL-5 genes. However, little is known about how chromatin remodeling of these Th2 cytokine gene loci occurs in human Th2 cells. We herein established an in vitro culture system in which both Th1 and Th2 cells are efficiently differentiated from human peripheral blood naïve CD4 T cells. This system allowed us to investigate the chromatin status at the Th2 cytokine gene loci and the IFNgamma locus in human Th2 and Th1 cells, respectively. In typical individuals, the chromatin remodeling indicated by the induction of hyper-acetylation of histone H3 lysine 9 and hyper-methylation of histone H3 lysine 4 was induced at the whole Th2 cytokine gene loci in developing Th2 cells. We more precisely assessed the methylation status of histone H3 lysine 4 at the Th2 cytokine gene loci (IL-5 exon 3, IL-5 promoter, IL-5/RAD50 intergenic region, RAD50 promoter, CGRE, CNS1, IL-13 promoter, IL-4 promoter, and VA enhancer regions) and the IFNgamma locus in developing Th1 and Th2 cells prepared from 20 healthy volunteers. Th2-cell specific chromatin remodeling was induced at most of the Th2 cytokine gene loci. In parallel with the induction of chromatin remodeling, GATA3 mRNA was preferentially expressed in developing Th2 cells, whereas T-bet, HLX and ROG mRNA was selectively expressed in developing Th1 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takaaki Kaneko
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
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230
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Laukeviciene A, Brecht S, Kevelaitis E, Herdegen T. Enhanced contractility of small blood vessels in JNK knockout mice. Eur J Pharm Sci 2006; 29:335-9. [PMID: 16949803 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2006.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2005] [Revised: 06/12/2006] [Accepted: 06/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) form a subfamily of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). These signalling pathways regulate various processes such as mitosis, cellular differentiation, stress response or apoptosis in multicellular organisms. There is rising evidence about the role of JNKs activities in neurodegenerative and metabolic diseases as well as in immunological disorders. The physiological functions of JNKs, however, remain to be elucidated. Recent data have demonstrated an essential role of JNKs in the cardiovascular system and the regulation of carbon hydrate and glucose metabolism. Therefore, we have investigated the contractility of blood vessels in mice with genetically deleted JNK1, JNK2, JNK3 and JNK2+3 isoforms and their respective wildtypes. The contractility of the isolated segments from A. carotis communis was measured by small blood vessel wire myograph. Contraction induced by 80 mM KCl was significantly increased in arteries from JNK2+3 double knockout compared to controls and single knockouts. The maximal contraction generated by the alpha-agonists phenylephrine or noradrenaline (10 microM) was significantly enhanced in JNK2+3 knockout arteries compared with arteries from the remaining strains. Inhibition of NOS by Nw-nitro-l-arginine did not change the pattern of vasoconstriction, but vasoconstriction by noradrenaline following NOS inhibition was significantly enhanced in the arteries from JNK2+3 double knockout mice. In conclusion, genetic deletion of JNK2+3 in mice results in altered contractility of carotid arteries and this might depend on the function of the smooth muscles rather than on the endothelium. These findings have implications for the long-term treatment with pharmacological JNK inhibitors for neurodegenerative or metabolic diseases such as stroke or diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ale Laukeviciene
- Department of Physiology, Kaunas University of Medicine, Mickeviciaus 9, LT-44307 Kaunas, Lithuania.
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231
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Bogoyevitch MA, Kobe B. Uses for JNK: the many and varied substrates of the c-Jun N-terminal kinases. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2006; 70:1061-95. [PMID: 17158707 PMCID: PMC1698509 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00025-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 456] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are members of a larger group of serine/threonine (Ser/Thr) protein kinases from the mitogen-activated protein kinase family. JNKs were originally identified as stress-activated protein kinases in the livers of cycloheximide-challenged rats. Their subsequent purification, cloning, and naming as JNKs have emphasized their ability to phosphorylate and activate the transcription factor c-Jun. Studies of c-Jun and related transcription factor substrates have provided clues about both the preferred substrate phosphorylation sequences and additional docking domains recognized by JNK. There are now more than 50 proteins shown to be substrates for JNK. These include a range of nuclear substrates, including transcription factors and nuclear hormone receptors, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K, and the Pol I-specific transcription factor TIF-IA, which regulates ribosome synthesis. Many nonnuclear substrates have also been characterized, and these are involved in protein degradation (e.g., the E3 ligase Itch), signal transduction (e.g., adaptor and scaffold proteins and protein kinases), apoptotic cell death (e.g., mitochondrial Bcl2 family members), and cell movement (e.g., paxillin, DCX, microtubule-associated proteins, the stathmin family member SCG10, and the intermediate filament protein keratin 8). The range of JNK actions in the cell is therefore likely to be complex. Further characterization of the substrates of JNK should provide clearer explanations of the intracellular actions of the JNKs and may allow new avenues for targeting the JNK pathways with therapeutic agents downstream of JNK itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie A Bogoyevitch
- Cell Signalling Laboratory, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M310), School of Biomedical, Biomolecular and Chemical Sciences, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia.
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232
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Sweeney SE, Firestein GS. Mitogen activated protein kinase inhibitors: where are we now and where are we going? Ann Rheum Dis 2006; 65 Suppl 3:iii83-8. [PMID: 17038480 PMCID: PMC1798373 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2006.058388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Orally bioavailable compounds that target key intracellular signalling molecules are receiving increasing attention for the treatment of rheumatic diseases. The mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinases are especially attractive because they regulate both cytokine production and cytokine action. The MAP kinases are expressed and activated in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovium. Preclinical studies using MAP kinase inhibitors are very effective in animal models of arthritis, supporting their potential utility in human disease. Although the available data suggest a rationale for MAP kinase blockade, development of drugs has been hampered by toxicity and limited efficacy. Alternative strategies, such as targeting other kinases in the cascade or development of allosteric inhibitors have been proposed. These approaches might permit effective use of MAP kinase inhibitors for the treatment of rheumatic and immune-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Sweeney
- University of California San Diego School of Medicine, Mail Code 0656, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0656, USA.
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233
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Sharma P, Ghoshal N. Exploration of a binding mode of benzothiazol-2-yl acetonitrile pyrimidine core based derivatives as potent c-Jun N-terminal kinase-3 inhibitors and 3D-QSAR analyses. J Chem Inf Model 2006; 46:1763-74. [PMID: 16859308 DOI: 10.1021/ci060057q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
C-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is a therapeutic target for inhibitors which may provide clinical benefit in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) as well as in various apoptosis-related disorders. The benzothiazol-2-yl acetonitrile derivatives, recently reported by Pascale et al. (J. Med. Chem. 2005, 48, 4596-4607), are the first generation JNK inhibitors of this class. To understand inhibitory mechanisms and elucidate pharmacophoric properties of these derivatives molecular docking and 3D-QSAR studies were performed on a set of 44 compounds. Ligand Fit module of Cerius2 (4.9) was employed to locate the binding orientations of all the compounds within the JNK-3 ATP binding site. A good correlation (r2=0.810) between the calculated binding free energies (-PMF score) and the experimental inhibitory activities suggests that the identified binding conformations of these potential inhibitors are reliable. Based on the binding conformations, robust and highly predictive 3D-QSAR models were developed with conventional r2 0.886 and 0.802, full cross-validation r2 0.980 and 0.788, and predictive r2 0.965 and 0.968 for MFA and MSA, respectively. The interaction mode was demonstrated taking into consideration inhibitor conformation, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interaction. The 3D-QSAR model built in this study will provide clear guidelines for a novel inhibitor design based on the benzothiazole derivatives against JNK-3 for the treatment of inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Sharma
- Drug Design, Development and Molecular Modeling Division, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology (CSIR), 4 Raja S.C.Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata -700032, India
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234
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Jaeschke A, Karasarides M, Ventura JJ, Ehrhardt A, Zhang C, Flavell RA, Shokat KM, Davis RJ. JNK2 is a positive regulator of the cJun transcription factor. Mol Cell 2006; 23:899-911. [PMID: 16973441 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2006.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2006] [Revised: 06/14/2006] [Accepted: 07/21/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The cJun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) signal transduction pathway is established to be an important mechanism of regulation of the cJun transcription factor. Studies of Jnk1(-/-) and Jnk2(-/-) mice suggest that the JNK1 and JNK2 isoforms have opposite effects on cJun expression and proliferation. Here, we demonstrate, using a chemical genetic approach, that both JNK1 and JNK2 are positive regulators of these processes. We show that competition between JNK1 and JNK2 contributes to the opposite phenotypes caused by JNK1 and JNK2 deficiency. Our analysis illustrates the power of a chemical genetics approach for the analysis of signal transduction pathways and also highlights the limitations of single gene knockout strategies for the analysis of signaling pathways that are formed by a network of interacting proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Jaeschke
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA
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235
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Labuda T, Christensen JP, Rasmussen S, Bonnesen B, Karin M, Thomsen AR, Odum N. MEK kinase 1 is a negative regulator of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells. Eur J Immunol 2006; 36:2076-84. [PMID: 16761309 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200535163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
MEK kinase 1 (MEKK1) is a potent JNK-activating kinase, a regulator of T helper cell differentiation, cytokine production and proliferation in vitro. Using mice deficient for MEKK1 activity (Mekk1(DeltaKD)) exclusively in their hematopoietic system, we show that MEKK1 has a negative regulatory role in the generation of a virus-specific immune response. Mekk1(DeltaKD) mice challenged with vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) showed a fourfold increase in splenic CD8(+) T cell numbers. In contrast, the number of splenic T cells in infected WT mice was only marginally increased. The CD8(+) T cell expansion in Mekk1(DeltaKD) mice following VSV infection is virus-specific and the frequency of virus-specific T cells is significantly higher (more than threefold) in Mekk1(DeltaKD) as compared to WT animals. Moreover, the hyper-expansion of T cells seen in Mekk1(DeltaKD) mice after VSV infection is a result of increased proliferation, since a significantly higher percentage of virus-specific Mekk1(DeltaKD) CD8(+) T cells incorporated BrdU as compared to virus-specific WT CD8(+) T cells. In contrast, similar levels of apoptosis were detected in Mekk1(DeltaKD) and WT T cells following VSV infection. These results strongly suggest that MEKK1 plays a negative regulatory role in the expansion of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tord Labuda
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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236
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Kim HP, Imbert J, Leonard WJ. Both integrated and differential regulation of components of the IL-2/IL-2 receptor system. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2006; 17:349-66. [PMID: 16911870 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2006.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-2 was discovered in 1976 as a T-cell growth factor. It was the first type I cytokine cloned and the first for which a receptor component was cloned. Its importance includes its multiple actions, therapeutic potential, and lessons for receptor biology, with three components differentially combining to form high, intermediate, and low-affinity receptors. IL-2Ralpha and IL-2Rbeta, respectively, are markers for double-negative thymocytes and regulatory T-cells versus memory cells. gamma(c), which is shared by six cytokines, is mutated in patients with X-linked severe-combined immunodeficiency. We now cover an under-reviewed area-the regulation of genes encoding IL-2 and IL-2R components, with an effort to integrate/explain this knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyoung Pyo Kim
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Immunology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1674, United States.
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237
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Shichijo M, Kondo S, Ishimori M, Watanabe S, Helin H, Yamasaki T, Stevens ME, Gantner F, Bacon KB. PAR-2 deficient CD4+ T cells exhibit downregulation of IL-4 and upregulation of IFN-gamma after antigen challenge in mice. Allergol Int 2006; 55:271-8. [PMID: 17075267 DOI: 10.2332/allergolint.55.271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2005] [Accepted: 02/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To investigate the functional role of protease activated receptor (PAR) -2 in T lymphocytes, we analyzed TCR-mediated inflammatory cytokine production using PAR-2 deficient (KO) and wild type (WT) mice. METHODS Production of serum IgE and cytokines by spleen CD4+ T cells was determined in OVA-sensitized and OVA-challenged mice of PAR-2 KO in contrast to WT mice. Phosphorylation of JNK1 and 2 was determined by Western blotting. RESULTS A reduction in serum levels of IgE and IL-4 production by splenic CD4+ T cells from OVA-sensitized and OVA-challenged KO mice compared to WT mice was observed. By contrast, IFN-gamma production was upregulated after antigen stimulation in KO mice. Anti-CD3-mediated phosphorylation of JNK1 was upregulated in splenic CD4+ T cells from KO mice compared to WT mice. CONCLUSIONS PAR-2 participates in the regulation of T cell cytokine production that may be caused by modulation of JNK1 phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michitaka Shichijo
- Respiratory Diseases Research, Research Center Kyoto, Bayer Yakuhin Ltd, Kyoto, Japan.
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238
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Krens SFG, Spaink HP, Snaar-Jagalska BE. Functions of the MAPK family in vertebrate-development. FEBS Lett 2006; 580:4984-90. [PMID: 16949582 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2006.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2006] [Revised: 07/07/2006] [Accepted: 08/15/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, consisting of the extracellular signal regulated protein kinase, c-Jun amino terminal MAPK and p38 subfamilies, is conserved in evolution throughout the plant and animal kingdoms. These proteins have been implicated in diverse cellular processes including cell growth, migration, proliferation, differentiation, survival and development. Gene-targeting approaches in mice, chickens, frogs and zebrafish revealed crucial roles of MAPK in vertebrate development. Gene-disruption or -silencing often lead to lethal effects, therefore the zebrafish ex utero development provides an excellent in vivo model to study the function of MAPK in early embryogenesis. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the MAPK family function in vertebrate-development and place this into the perspective of possibilities for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- S F Gabby Krens
- Institute of Biology, Clusius Laboratory, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 64, 2333 AL Leiden, The Netherlands.
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239
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Tran EH, Azuma YT, Chen M, Weston C, Davis RJ, Flavell RA. Inactivation of JNK1 enhances innate IL-10 production and dampens autoimmune inflammation in the brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:13451-6. [PMID: 16938889 PMCID: PMC1569184 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0601155103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental insults such as microbial pathogens can contribute to the activation of autoreactive T cells, leading to inflammation of target organs and, ultimately, autoimmune disease. Various infections have been linked to multiple sclerosis and its animal counterpart, autoimmune encephalomyelitis. The molecular process by which innate immunity triggers autoreactivity is not currently understood. By using a mouse model of multiple sclerosis, we found that the genetic loss of the MAPK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1), enhances IL-10 production, rendering innate myeloid cells unresponsive to certain microbes and less capable of generating IL-17-producing, encephalitogenic T cells. Moreover, JNK1-deficient central nervous system myeloid cells are unable to respond to effector T cell inflammatory cytokines, preventing further progression to neuroinflammation. Thus, we have identified the JNK1 signal transduction pathway in myeloid cells to be a critical component of a regulatory circuit mediating inflammatory responses in autoimmune disease. Our findings provide further insights into the pivotal MAPK-regulated network of innate and adaptive cytokines in the progression to autoimmunity.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Autoimmunity/genetics
- Brain/immunology
- Brain/pathology
- Crosses, Genetic
- Cytokines/immunology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/prevention & control
- Female
- Freund's Adjuvant/immunology
- Immunity, Innate
- Interleukin-10/biosynthesis
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Mutant Strains
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 8/genetics
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 8/metabolism
- Myelin Proteins
- Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein/immunology
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yasu-Taka Azuma
- Department of Integrated Functional Bioscience, Division of Veterinary Science, Osaka Prefecture University Graduate School of Life and Environmental Science, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan; and
| | | | - Claire Weston
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Roger J. Davis
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Richard A. Flavell
- *Section of Immunobiology and
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, CAB, New Haven, CT 06520. E-mail:
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240
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Tuncman G, Hirosumi J, Solinas G, Chang L, Karin M, Hotamisligil GS. Functional in vivo interactions between JNK1 and JNK2 isoforms in obesity and insulin resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:10741-6. [PMID: 16818881 PMCID: PMC1487172 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0603509103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are key regulators of inflammation and interfere with insulin action in cultured cells and whole animals. Obesity increases total JNK activity, and JNK1, but not JNK2, deficiency results in reduced adiposity and improved insulin sensitivity. Interestingly, a higher-than-normal level of JNK activation is observed in Jnk2(-/-) mice, particularly in the liver, indicating an interaction between the isoforms that might have masked the metabolic activity of JNK2 in isolated mutant mice. To address the role of the JNK2 isoform in metabolic homeostasis, we intercrossed Jnk1(-/-) and Jnk2(-/-) mice and examined body weight and glucose metabolism in the resulting mutant allele combinations. Among all of the viable genotypes examined, we observed only reduced body weight and increased insulin sensitivity in Jnk1(-/-) and Jnk1(+/-)Jnk2(-/-) mice. These two groups of mice also exhibited reduced total JNK activity and cytokine expression in liver tissue compared with all other genotypes examined. These data indicate that the JNK2 isoform is also involved in metabolic regulation, but its function is not obvious when JNK1 is fully expressed because of regulatory crosstalk between the two isoforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gürol Tuncman
- *Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115; and
| | - Jiro Hirosumi
- *Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115; and
| | - Giovanni Solinas
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Signal Transduction, University of California at San Diego, School of Medicine, 9800 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Lufen Chang
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Signal Transduction, University of California at San Diego, School of Medicine, 9800 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Michael Karin
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Signal Transduction, University of California at San Diego, School of Medicine, 9800 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Gökhan S. Hotamisligil
- *Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115; and
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241
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Zhao H, Serby MD, Xin Z, Szczepankiewicz BG, Liu M, Kosogof C, Liu B, Nelson LTJ, Johnson EF, Wang S, Pederson T, Gum RJ, Clampit JE, Haasch DL, Abad-Zapatero C, Fry EH, Rondinone C, Trevillyan JM, Sham HL, Liu G. Discovery of Potent, Highly Selective, and Orally Bioavailable Pyridine Carboxamide c-Jun NH2-Terminal Kinase Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2006; 49:4455-8. [PMID: 16854050 DOI: 10.1021/jm060465l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
C-Jun NH2 terminal kinases (JNKs) are important cell signaling enzymes. JNK1 plays a central role in linking obesity and insulin resistance. JNK2 and JNK3 may be involved in inflammatory and neurological disorders, respectively. Small-molecule JNK inhibitors could be valuable tools to study the therapeutic benefits of inhibiting these enzymes and as leads for potential drugs targeting JNKs. In this report, we disclose a series of potent and highly selective JNK inhibitors with good pharmacokinetic profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyu Zhao
- Metabolic Disease Research, Global Pharmaceutical Research and Development, Abbott Laboratories, 100 Abbott Park Road, Abbott Park, Illinois 60064-6098, USA.
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242
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Aouadi M, Binetruy B, Caron L, Le Marchand-Brustel Y, Bost F. Role of MAPKs in development and differentiation: lessons from knockout mice. Biochimie 2006; 88:1091-8. [PMID: 16854512 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2006.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2006] [Accepted: 06/02/2006] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The ERK, p38MAPK, JNK mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are intracellular signaling pathways that play a pivotal role in many essential cellular processes such as proliferation and differentiation. These cascades are activated by a large variety of stimuli and display a high degree of homology. So far, seven MAPK isoforms have been invalidated in mice leading to the discovery of their important functions in development and differentiation. As we could expect because of their multiple and specific properties in vitro, knockout (KO) of MAPK pathways leads to distinct phenotypes in mice. Surprisingly, into a given cascade, KOs of the various isoforms assign specific non-redundant biological functions to each isoform, without compensation by the others. These results emphasize the notion that, although initiated by the same external stimuli, these intracellular cascades activate kinase isoforms each with its own specific role.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Aouadi
- Inserm U568, faculté de médecine, Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis, avenue de Valombrose, 06107 Nice cedex, France
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243
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Wang Y, Singh R, Lefkowitch JH, Rigoli RM, Czaja MJ. Tumor necrosis factor-induced toxic liver injury results from JNK2-dependent activation of caspase-8 and the mitochondrial death pathway. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:15258-67. [PMID: 16571730 PMCID: PMC3668334 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m512953200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro studies of hepatocytes have implicated over-activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling as a mechanism of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF)-induced apoptosis. However, the functional significance of JNK activation and the role of specific JNK isoforms in TNF-induced hepatic apoptosis in vivo remain unclear. JNK1 and JNK2 function was, therefore, investigated in the TNF-dependent, galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide (GalN/LPS) model of liver injury. The toxin GalN converted LPS-induced JNK signaling from a transient to prolonged activation. Liver injury and mortality from GalN/LPS was equivalent in wild-type and jnk1-/- mice but markedly decreased in jnk2-/- mice. This effect was not secondary to down-regulation of TNF receptor 1 expression or TNF production. In the absence of jnk2, the caspase-dependent, TNF death pathway was blocked, as reflected by the failure of caspase-3 and -7 and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage to occur. JNK2 was critical for activation of the mitochondrial death pathway, as in jnk2-/- mice Bid cleavage and mitochondrial translocation and cytochrome c release were markedly decreased. This effect was secondary to the failure of jnk2-/- mice to activate caspase-8. Liver injury and caspase activation were similarly decreased in jnk2 null mice after GalN/TNF treatment. Ablation of jnk2 did not inhibit GalN/LPS-induced c-Jun kinase activity, although activity was completely blocked in jnk1-/- mice. Toxic liver injury is, therefore, associated with JNK over-activation and mediated by JNK2 promotion of caspase-8 activation and the TNF mitochondrial death pathway through a mechanism independent of c-Jun kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjun Wang
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
- Marion Bessin Liver Research Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Rajat Singh
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
- Marion Bessin Liver Research Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Jay H. Lefkowitch
- Department of Pathology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032
| | - Raina M. Rigoli
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
- Marion Bessin Liver Research Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Mark J. Czaja
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
- Marion Bessin Liver Research Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
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244
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Abstract
Through a regulation cascade via the site-specific phosphorylation of downstream substrates, members of kinase signaling pathways play multiple cellular regulatory roles. Because of the contribution of kinases in a diverse number of cellular processes, members of these pathways have become attractive targets for rational drug design. Members of these kinase signalling families, such as mitogen-activated kinases, tyrosine kinases (receptor and non-receptor) and ras human orthologue kinases among others have been shown to play key roles in the pathogenesis of immune, inflammatory and remodelling events that occur during asthma. This review highlights, through information that has been obtained from transgenic and knockout systems, small-molecule inhibitors and antisense technology, the role of select members of kinase families in the pathogenesis of asthma, and discusses the rationale for developing specific inhibitors of these kinases for the treatment of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Blease
- Celgene, 4550 Towne Centre Court, San Diego, CA 92121, USA.
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245
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Tachibana H, Perrino C, Takaoka H, Davis RJ, Naga Prasad SV, Rockman HA. JNK1 is required to preserve cardiac function in the early response to pressure overload. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 343:1060-6. [PMID: 16579967 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.03.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2006] [Accepted: 03/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac stress consistently activates c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) pathways, however the role of different members of the JNK family is unclear. In this study, we applied pressure overload (TAC) in mice with selective deletion of the three JNK genes (Jnk1(-/-), Jnk2(-/-), and Jnk3(-/-)). Following TAC, all three JNK knockout mouse lines developed cardiac hypertrophy similar to wild-type mice (WT), but only JNK1(-/-) mice displayed a significant reduction in fractional shortening after 3 and 7 days of pressure overload, associated with a significant increase in terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling staining and marked inflammatory infiltrate. After the acute deterioration stage, JNK1(-/-) mice underwent a slow recovery followed by a steady progression of cardiac dysfunction, becoming indistinguishable from WT after 12 weeks of TAC. These data suggest that JNK1 plays a protective role in response to pressure overload, preventing the early deterioration in cardiac function following an acute increase in afterload.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideo Tachibana
- Department of Medicine, Cell Biology and Genetics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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246
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Gazel A, Banno T, Walsh R, Blumenberg M. Inhibition of JNK promotes differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:20530-41. [PMID: 16648634 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m602712200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In inflamed tissue, normal signal transduction pathways are altered by extracellular signals. For example, the JNK pathway is activated in psoriatic skin, which makes it an attractive target for treatment. To define comprehensively the JNK-regulated genes in human epidermal keratinocytes, we compared the transcriptional profiles of control and JNK inhibitor-treated keratinocytes, using DNA microarrays. We identified the differentially expressed genes 1, 4, 24, and 48 h after the treatment with SP600125. Surprisingly, the inhibition of JNK in keratinocyte cultures in vitro induces virtually all aspects of epidermal differentiation in vivo: transcription of cornification markers, inhibition of motility, withdrawal from the cell cycle, stratification, and even production of cornified envelopes. The inhibition of JNK also induces the production of enzymes of lipid and steroid metabolism, proteins of the diacylglycerol and inositol phosphate pathways, mitochondrial proteins, histones, and DNA repair enzymes, which have not been associated with differentiation previously. Simultaneously, basal cell markers, including integrins, hemidesmosome and extracellular matrix components, are suppressed. Promoter analysis of regulated genes finds that the binding sites for the forkhead family of transcription factors are over-represented in the SP600125-induced genes and c-Fos sites in the suppressed genes. The JNK-induced proliferation appears to be secondary to inhibition of differentiation. The results indicate that the inhibition of JNK in epidermal keratinocytes is sufficient to initiate their differentiation program and suggest that augmenting JNK activity could be used to delay cornification and enhance wound healing, whereas attenuating it could be a differentiation therapy-based approach for treating psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alix Gazel
- Department of Dermatology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA
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247
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Bosco A, McKenna KL, Devitt CJ, Firth MJ, Sly PD, Holt PG. Identification of Novel Th2-Associated Genes in T Memory Responses to Allergens. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:4766-77. [PMID: 16585570 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.8.4766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Atopic diseases are associated with hyperexpression of Th2 cytokines by allergen-specific T memory cells. However, clinical trials with recently developed Th2 inhibitors in atopics have proven disappointing, suggesting underlying complexities in atopy pathogenesis which are not satisfactorily explained via the classical Th1/Th2 paradigm. One likely possibility is that additional Th2-associated genes which are central to disease pathogenesis remain unidentified. The aim of the present study was to identify such novel Th2-associated genes in recall responses to the inhalant allergen house dust mite. In contrast to earlier human microarray studies in atopy which focused on mitogen-activated T cell lines and clones, we concentrated on PBMC-derived primary T cells stimulated under more physiological conditions of low dose allergen exposure. We screened initially for allergen-induced gene activation by microarray, and validated novel genes in independent panels of subjects by quantitative RT-PCR. Kinetic analysis of allergen responses in PBMC revealed an early wave of novel atopy-associated genes involved in signaling which were coexpressed with IL-4 and IL-4R, followed by a later wave of genes encoding the classical Th2 effector cytokines. We further demonstrate that these novel activation-associated Th2 genes up-regulate in response to another atopy-associated physiological stimulus bacterial superantigen, but remain quiescent in nonphysiological responses in primary T cells or cell lines driven by potent mitogens, which may account for their failure to be detected in earlier microarray studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Bosco
- Telethon Institute for Child Health Research, and Centre for Child Health Research, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia
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248
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Venuprasad K, Elly C, Gao M, Salek-Ardakani S, Harada Y, Luo JL, Yang C, Croft M, Inoue K, Karin M, Liu YC. Convergence of Itch-induced ubiquitination with MEKK1-JNK signaling in Th2 tolerance and airway inflammation. J Clin Invest 2006; 116:1117-26. [PMID: 16557301 PMCID: PMC1409741 DOI: 10.1172/jci26858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2005] [Accepted: 01/31/2006] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The immune system is capable of mounting robust responses against invading pathogens but refrains from attacking self. Many studies have focused on tolerance induction of Th1 cells, whose failure results in development of autoimmune diseases. However, the molecular mechanisms governing tolerance induction in Th2 cells and its relation to allergic responses remain unclear. Here we used both in vivo and in vitro protocols to demonstrate that Th2 cells either containing a mitogen and extracellular kinase kinase 1 (MEKK1) mutant or lacking JNK1 or the E3 ubiquitin ligase Itch cannot be tolerized. In a mouse allergic model, injection of high-dose tolerizing antigen failed to block the development of airway inflammation in Itch-/- mice. This study suggests that MEKK1-JNK signaling regulates Itch E3 ligase-mediated tolerogenic process in Th2 cells. These findings have therapeutic implications for allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Venuprasad
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chris Elly
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Min Gao
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Shahram Salek-Ardakani
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Yohsuke Harada
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jun-Li Luo
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chun Yang
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael Croft
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kazushi Inoue
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael Karin
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Yun-Cai Liu
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pharmacology, UCSD, La Jolla, California, USA.
Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California, USA.
Department of Pathology and Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
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249
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Himes SR, Sester DP, Ravasi T, Cronau SL, Sasmono T, Hume DA. The JNK are important for development and survival of macrophages. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:2219-28. [PMID: 16455978 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.4.2219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We report in this study that activation of the JNK by the growth factor, CSF-1 is critical for macrophage development, proliferation, and survival. Inhibition of JNK with two distinct classes of inhibitors, the pharmacological agent SP600125, or the peptide D-JNKI1 resulted in cell cycle inhibition with an arrest at the G(2)/M transition and subsequent apoptosis. JNK inhibition resulted in decreased expression of CSF-1R (c-fms) and Bcl-x(L) mRNA in mature macrophages and repressed CSF-1-dependent differentiation of bone marrow cells to macrophages. Macrophage sensitivity to JNK inhibitors may be linked to phosphorylation of the PU.1 transcription factor. Inhibition of JNK disrupted PU.1 binding to an element in the c-fms gene promoter and decreased promoter activity. Promoter activity could be restored by overexpression of PU.1. A comparison of expression profiles of macrophages with 22 other tissue types showed that genes that signal JNK activation downstream of tyrosine kinase receptors, such as focal adhesion kinase, Nck-interacting kinase, and Rac1 and scaffold proteins are highly expressed in macrophages relative to other tissues. This pattern of expression may underlie the novel role of JNK in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Roy Himes
- Cooperative Research Centre for Chronic Inflammatory Disease, Institute for Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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250
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So T, Song J, Sugie K, Altman A, Croft M. Signals from OX40 regulate nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 and T cell helper 2 lineage commitment. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:3740-5. [PMID: 16501042 PMCID: PMC1450148 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0600205103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell helper type 2 (Th2) differentiation is driven by a source of IL-4 receptor (IL-4R) that mobilizes IL-4R signaling pathways and the transcription factor GATA-3. Naïve CD4 cells can secrete IL-4 independently of IL-4R signals, but how this secretion is regulated is not understood. Here we demonstrate that costimulation through the tumor necrosis factor receptor family molecule OX40, in synergy with CD28, is essential for high levels of nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 to accumulate in the nucleus of a recently activated naïve T cell. This action is not dependent on either IL-4R or IL-2R signals and results in OX40 controlling initial naïve T cell IL-4 transcription. OX40 signals subsequently enhance nuclear GATA-3 accumulation through an IL-4R-dependent action, leading to Th2 differentiation. These data show that, in the absence of an exogenous source of IL-4, OX40 provides a critical synergistic and temporal signal with other noncytokine receptors to modulate nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 and to promote optimal Th2 generation.
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MESH Headings
- Active Transport, Cell Nucleus
- Animals
- Base Sequence
- Cell Differentiation
- Interleukin-4/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-4/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- NFATC Transcription Factors/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, Interleukin-4/metabolism
- Receptors, OX40
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/deficiency
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- Th2 Cells/cytology
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Th2 Cells/metabolism
- Transcription, Genetic
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Amnon Altman
- Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, CA 92121
| | - Michael Croft
- Divisions of *Molecular Immunology
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at:
Division of Immunochemistry, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 10355 Science Center Drive, San Diego, CA 92121. E-mail:
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