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Nicklin EF, Cohen KE, Cooper RL, Mitchell G, Fraser GJ. Evolution, development, and regeneration of tooth-like epithelial appendages in sharks. Dev Biol 2024; 516:221-236. [PMID: 39154741 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 08/05/2024] [Accepted: 08/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Sharks and their relatives are typically covered in highly specialized epithelial appendages embedded in the skin called dermal denticles; ancient tooth-like units (odontodes) composed of dentine and enamel-like tissues. These 'skin teeth' are remarkably similar to oral teeth of vertebrates and share comparable morphological and genetic signatures. Here we review the histological and morphological data from embryonic sharks to uncover characters that unite all tooth-like elements (odontodes), including teeth and skin denticles in sharks. In addition, we review the differences between the skin and oral odontodes that reflect their varied capacity for renewal. Our observations have begun to decipher the developmental and genetic shifts that separate these seemingly similar dental units, including elements of the regenerative nature in both oral teeth and the emerging skin denticles from the small-spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) and other chondrichthyan models. Ultimately, we ask what defines a tooth at both the molecular and morphological level. These insights aim to help us understand how nature makes, replaces and evolves a vast array of odontodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella F Nicklin
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Karly E Cohen
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA; Department of Biology, California State University Fullerton, Fullerton, USA
| | - Rory L Cooper
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Gianna Mitchell
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Gareth J Fraser
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
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2
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Ou KL, Chen CK, Huang JJ, Chang WW, Hsieh Li SM, Jiang TX, Widelitz RB, Lansford R, Chuong CM. Adaptive patterning of vascular network during avian skin development: Mesenchymal plasticity and dermal vasculogenesis. Cells Dev 2024; 179:203922. [PMID: 38688358 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdev.2024.203922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
A vasculature network supplies blood to feather buds in the developing skin. Does the vasculature network during early skin development form by sequential sprouting from the central vasculature or does local vasculogenesis occur first that then connect with the central vascular tree? Using transgenic Japanese quail Tg(TIE1p.H2B-eYFP), we observe that vascular progenitor cells appear after feather primordia formation. The vasculature then radiates out from each bud and connects with primordial vessels from neighboring buds. Later they connect with the central vasculature. Epithelial-mesenchymal recombination shows local vasculature is patterned by the epithelium, which expresses FGF2 and VEGF. Perturbing noggin expression leads to abnormal vascularization. To study endothelial origin, we compare transcriptomes of TIE1p.H2B-eYFP+ cells collected from the skin and aorta. Endothelial cells from the skin more closely resemble skin dermal cells than those from the aorta. The results show developing chicken skin vasculature is assembled by (1) physiological vasculogenesis from the peripheral tissue, and (2) subsequently connects with the central vasculature. The work implies mesenchymal plasticity and convergent differentiation play significant roles in development, and such processes may be re-activated during adult regeneration. SUMMARY STATEMENT: We show the vasculature network in the chicken skin is assembled using existing feather buds as the template, and endothelia are derived from local bud dermis and central vasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuang-Ling Ou
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America; Ostrow School of Dentistry of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America; Burn Center, Department of Surgery, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Biochemistry, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Kuan Chen
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Junxiang J Huang
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 1501 San Pablo Street, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America; Graduate Programs in Biomedical and Biological Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - William Weijen Chang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America; Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Institute of Physiology, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Shu-Man Hsieh Li
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America; Ostrow School of Dentistry of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Randall B Widelitz
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Rusty Lansford
- Department of Radiology and Developmental Neuroscience Program, Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America; Department of Radiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America.
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3
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Aman AJ, Parichy DM. Anatomy, development and regeneration of zebrafish elasmoid scales. Dev Biol 2024; 510:1-7. [PMID: 38458375 PMCID: PMC11015963 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Vertebrate skin appendages - particularly avian feathers and mammalian hairs, glands and teeth - are perennially useful systems for investigating fundamental mechanisms of development. The most common type of skin appendage in teleost fishes is the elasmoid scale, yet this structure has received much less attention than the skin appendages of tetrapods. Elasmoid scales are thin, overlapping plates of partially mineralized extracellular matrices, deposited in the skin in a hexagonal pattern by a specialized population of dermal cells in cooperation with the overlying epidermis. Recent years have seen rapid progress in our understanding of elasmoid scale development and regeneration, driven by the deployment of developmental genetics, live imaging and transcriptomics in larval and adult zebrafish. These findings are reviewed together with histological and ultrastructural approaches to understanding scale development and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Aman
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA.
| | - David M Parichy
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA; Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA.
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4
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Tseng CC, Woolley TE, Jiang TX, Wu P, Maini PK, Widelitz RB, Chuong CM. Gap junctions in Turing-type periodic feather pattern formation. PLoS Biol 2024; 22:e3002636. [PMID: 38743770 PMCID: PMC11161087 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Periodic patterning requires coordinated cell-cell interactions at the tissue level. Turing showed, using mathematical modeling, how spatial patterns could arise from the reactions of a diffusive activator-inhibitor pair in an initially homogeneous 2D field. Most activators and inhibitors studied in biological systems are proteins, and the roles of cell-cell interaction, ions, bioelectricity, etc. are only now being identified. Gap junctions (GJs) mediate direct exchanges of ions or small molecules between cells, enabling rapid long-distance communications in a cell collective. They are therefore good candidates for propagating nonprotein-based patterning signals that may act according to the Turing principles. Here, we explore the possible roles of GJs in Turing-type patterning using feather pattern formation as a model. We found 7 of the 12 investigated GJ isoforms are highly dynamically expressed in the developing chicken skin. In ovo functional perturbations of the GJ isoform, connexin 30, by siRNA and the dominant-negative mutant applied before placode development led to disrupted primary feather bud formation. Interestingly, inhibition of gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) in the ex vivo skin explant culture allowed the sequential emergence of new feather buds at specific spatial locations relative to the existing primary buds. The results suggest that GJIC may facilitate the propagation of long-distance inhibitory signals. Thus, inhibition of GJs may stimulate Turing-type periodic feather pattern formation during chick skin development, and the removal of GJ activity would enable the emergence of new feather buds if the local environment were competent and the threshold to form buds was reached. We further propose Turing-based computational simulations that can predict the sequential appearance of these ectopic buds. Our models demonstrate how a Turing activator-inhibitor system can continue to generate patterns in the competent morphogenetic field when the level of intercellular communication at the tissue scale is modulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Chih Tseng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | | | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Philip K. Maini
- Wolfson Centre for Mathematical Biology, Mathematical Institute, Andrew Wiles Building, University of Oxford, Radcliffe Observatory Quarter, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Randall B. Widelitz
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
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5
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Dhouailly D. The avian ectodermal default competence to make feathers. Dev Biol 2024; 508:64-76. [PMID: 38190932 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Feathers originate as protofeathers before birds, in pterosaurs and basal dinosaurs. What characterizes a feather is not only its outgrowth, but its barb cells differentiation and a set of beta-corneous proteins. Reticula appear concomitantly with feathers, as small bumps on plantar skin, made only of keratins. Avian scales, with their own set of beta-corneous proteins, appear more recently than feathers on the shank, and only in some species. In the chick embryo, when feather placodes form, all the non-feather areas of the integument are already specified. Among them, midventral apterium, cornea, reticula, and scale morphogenesis appear to be driven by negative regulatory mechanisms, which modulate the inherited capacity of the avian ectoderm to form feathers. Successive dermal/epidermal interactions, initiated by the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and involving principally Eda/Edar, BMP, FGF20 and Shh signaling, are responsible for the formation not only of feather, but also of scale placodes and reticula, with notable differences in the level of Shh, and probably FGF20 expressions. This sequence is a dynamic and labile process, the turning point being the FGF20 expression by the placode. This epidermal signal endows its associated dermis with the memory to aggregate and to stimulate the morphogenesis that follows, involving even a re-initiation of the placode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Dhouailly
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, University Grenoble-Alpes, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, 38700, La Tronche, France.
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6
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Sin SYW, Ke F, Chen G, Huang PY, Enbody ED, Karubian J, Webster MS, Edwards SV. Genetic Basis and Evolution of Structural Color Polymorphism in an Australian Songbird. Mol Biol Evol 2024; 41:msae046. [PMID: 38415852 PMCID: PMC10962638 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msae046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Island organisms often evolve phenotypes divergent from their mainland counterparts, providing a useful system for studying adaptation under differential selection. In the white-winged fairywren (Malurus leucopterus), subspecies on two islands have a black nuptial plumage whereas the subspecies on the Australian mainland has a blue nuptial plumage. The black subspecies have a feather nanostructure that could in principle produce a blue structural color, suggesting a blue ancestor. An earlier study proposed independent evolution of melanism on the islands based on the history of subspecies divergence. However, the genetic basis of melanism and the origin of color differentiation in this group are still unknown. Here, we used whole-genome resequencing to investigate the genetic basis of melanism by comparing the blue and black M. leucopterus subspecies to identify highly divergent genomic regions. We identified a well-known pigmentation gene ASIP and four candidate genes that may contribute to feather nanostructure development. Contrary to the prediction of convergent evolution of island melanism, we detected signatures of a selective sweep in genomic regions containing ASIP and SCUBE2 not in the black subspecies but in the blue subspecies, which possesses many derived SNPs in these regions, suggesting that the mainland subspecies has re-evolved a blue plumage from a black ancestor. This proposed re-evolution was likely driven by a preexisting female preference. Our findings provide new insight into the evolution of plumage coloration in island versus continental populations, and, importantly, we identify candidate genes that likely play roles in the development and evolution of feather structural coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Yung Wa Sin
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Fushi Ke
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Guoling Chen
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Pei-Yu Huang
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Erik D Enbody
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Jordan Karubian
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Michael S Webster
- Cornell Lab of Ornithology and Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Scott V Edwards
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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7
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Sudderick ZR, Glover JD. Periodic pattern formation during embryonic development. Biochem Soc Trans 2024; 52:75-88. [PMID: 38288903 PMCID: PMC10903485 DOI: 10.1042/bst20230197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
During embryonic development many organs and structures require the formation of series of repeating elements known as periodic patterns. Ranging from the digits of the limb to the feathers of the avian skin, the correct formation of these embryonic patterns is essential for the future form and function of these tissues. However, the mechanisms that produce these patterns are not fully understood due to the existence of several modes of pattern generation which often differ between organs and species. Here, we review the current state of the field and provide a perspective on future approaches to studying this fundamental process of embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe R. Sudderick
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K
| | - James D. Glover
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K
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8
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Larson BT. Perspectives on Principles of Cellular Behavior from the Biophysics of Protists. Integr Comp Biol 2023; 63:1405-1421. [PMID: 37496203 PMCID: PMC10755178 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icad106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Cells are the fundamental unit of biological organization. Although it may be easy to think of them as little more than the simple building blocks of complex organisms such as animals, single cells are capable of behaviors of remarkable apparent sophistication. This is abundantly clear when considering the diversity of form and function among the microbial eukaryotes, the protists. How might we navigate this diversity in the search for general principles of cellular behavior? Here, we review cases in which the intensive study of protists from the perspective of cellular biophysics has driven insight into broad biological questions of morphogenesis, navigation and motility, and decision making. We argue that applying such approaches to questions of evolutionary cell biology presents rich, emerging opportunities. Integrating and expanding biophysical studies across protist diversity, exploiting the unique characteristics of each organism, will enrich our understanding of general underlying principles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben T Larson
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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9
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Banavar SP, Nelson CM. Mechanical properties pattern the skin. Science 2023; 382:880. [PMID: 37995222 DOI: 10.1126/science.adl2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Morphogens induce variations in tissue mechanics to promote feather budding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samhita P Banavar
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Celeste M Nelson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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10
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Yang S, Palmquist KH, Nathan L, Pfeifer CR, Schultheiss PJ, Sharma A, Kam LC, Miller PW, Shyer AE, Rodrigues AR. Morphogens enable interacting supracellular phases that generate organ architecture. Science 2023; 382:eadg5579. [PMID: 37995219 DOI: 10.1126/science.adg5579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
During vertebrate organogenesis, increases in morphological complexity are tightly coupled to morphogen expression. In this work, we studied how morphogens influence self-organizing processes at the collective or "supra"-cellular scale in avian skin. We made physical measurements across length scales, which revealed morphogen-enabled material property differences that were amplified at supracellular scales in comparison to cellular scales. At the supracellular scale, we found that fibroblast growth factor (FGF) promoted "solidification" of tissues, whereas bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) promoted fluidity and enhanced mechanical activity. Together, these effects created basement membrane-less compartments within mesenchymal tissue that were mechanically primed to drive avian skin tissue budding. Understanding this multiscale process requires the ability to distinguish between proximal effects of morphogens that occur at the cellular scale and their functional effects, which emerge at the supracellular scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sichen Yang
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Karl H Palmquist
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Levy Nathan
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Charlotte R Pfeifer
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Paula J Schultheiss
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Anurag Sharma
- Electron Microscopy Resource Center, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Lance C Kam
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Pearson W Miller
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - Amy E Shyer
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Alan R Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
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11
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Ji G, Zhang M, Tu Y, Liu Y, Shan Y, Ju X, Zou J, Shu J, Sheng Z, Li H. Molecular Regulatory Mechanisms in Chicken Feather Follicle Morphogenesis. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1646. [PMID: 37628697 PMCID: PMC10454116 DOI: 10.3390/genes14081646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In China, the sale of freshly slaughtered chickens is becoming increasingly popular in comparison with that of live chickens, and due to this emerging trend, the skin and feather follicle traits of yellow-feathered broilers have attracted a great deal of research attention. The feather follicle originates from the interaction between the epidermis and dermis in the early embryonic stage. Feather follicle morphogenesis is regulated by the Wnt, ectodysplasin (Eda), epidermal growth factor (EGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), sonic hedgehog (Shh), Notch, and other signaling pathways that exist in epithelial and mesenchymal cells. The Wnt pathway is essential for feather follicle and feather morphogenesis. Eda interacts with Wnt to induce FGF expression, which attracts mesenchymal cell movement and aggregates to form feather follicle primordia. BMP acts as an inhibitor of the above signaling pathways to limit the size of the feather tract and distance between neighboring feather primordia in a dose-dependent manner. The Notch/Delta pathway can interact with the FGF pathway to promote feather bud formation. While not a part of the early morphogenesis of feather follicles, Shh and BMP signaling are involved in late feather branching. This review summarizes the roles of miRNAs/lncRNA in the regulation of feather follicle and feather growth and development and suggests topics that need to be solved in a future study. This review focuses on the regulatory mechanisms involved in feather follicle morphogenesis and analyzes the impact of SNP sites on feather follicle traits in poultry. This work may help us to understand the molecular regulatory networks influencing feather follicle growth and provide basic data for poultry carcass quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaige Ji
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Ming Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Yunjie Tu
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Yifan Liu
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Yanju Shan
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Xiaojun Ju
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Jianmin Zou
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Jingting Shu
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Zhongwei Sheng
- Key Laboratory for Poultry Genetics and Breeding of Jiangsu Province, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Institute of Poultry Science, Yangzhou 225125, China
| | - Hua Li
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China
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12
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Schnörr D, Schnörr C. Learning system parameters from turing patterns. Mach Learn 2023; 112:3151-3190. [PMID: 37575882 PMCID: PMC10415500 DOI: 10.1007/s10994-023-06334-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
The Turing mechanism describes the emergence of spatial patterns due to spontaneous symmetry breaking in reaction-diffusion processes and underlies many developmental processes. Identifying Turing mechanisms in biological systems defines a challenging problem. This paper introduces an approach to the prediction of Turing parameter values from observed Turing patterns. The parameter values correspond to a parametrized system of reaction-diffusion equations that generate Turing patterns as steady state. The Gierer-Meinhardt model with four parameters is chosen as a case study. A novel invariant pattern representation based on resistance distance histograms is employed, along with Wasserstein kernels, in order to cope with the highly variable arrangement of local pattern structure that depends on the initial conditions which are assumed to be unknown. This enables us to compute physically plausible distances between patterns, to compute clusters of patterns and, above all, model parameter prediction based on training data that can be generated by numerical model evaluation with random initial data: for small training sets, classical state-of-the-art methods including operator-valued kernels outperform neural networks that are applied to raw pattern data, whereas for large training sets the latter are more accurate. A prominent property of our approach is that only a single pattern is required as input data for model parameter predicion. Excellent predictions are obtained for single parameter values and reasonably accurate results for jointly predicting all four parameter values.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Schnörr
- School of Life Sciences, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Christoph Schnörr
- Institute for Applied Mathematics, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 205, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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13
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Dhouailly D. Evo Devo of the Vertebrates Integument. J Dev Biol 2023; 11:25. [PMID: 37367479 DOI: 10.3390/jdb11020025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
All living jawed vertebrates possess teeth or did so ancestrally. Integumental surface also includes the cornea. Conversely, no other anatomical feature differentiates the clades so readily as skin appendages do, multicellular glands in amphibians, hair follicle/gland complexes in mammals, feathers in birds, and the different types of scales. Tooth-like scales are characteristic of chondrichthyans, while mineralized dermal scales are characteristic of bony fishes. Corneous epidermal scales might have appeared twice, in squamates, and on feet in avian lineages, but posteriorly to feathers. In contrast to the other skin appendages, the origin of multicellular glands of amphibians has never been addressed. In the seventies, pioneering dermal-epidermal recombination between chick, mouse and lizard embryos showed that: (1) the clade type of the appendage is determined by the epidermis; (2) their morphogenesis requires two groups of dermal messages, first for primordia formation, second for appendage final architecture; (3) the early messages were conserved during amniotes evolution. Molecular biology studies that have identified the involved pathways, extending those data to teeth and dermal scales, suggest that the different vertebrate skin appendages evolved in parallel from a shared placode/dermal cells unit, present in a common toothed ancestor, c.a. 420 mya.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Dhouailly
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, University Grenoble-Alpes, 38700 La Tronche, France
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14
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Cooper RL, Milinkovitch MC. Transient agonism of the sonic hedgehog pathway triggers a permanent transition of skin appendage fate in the chicken embryo. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg9619. [PMID: 37196093 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg9619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Vertebrate skin appendage early development is mediated by conserved molecular signaling composing a dynamical reaction-diffusion-like system. Variations to such systems contribute to the remarkable diversity of skin appendage forms within and among species. Here, we demonstrate that stage-specific transient agonism of sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway signaling in chicken triggers a complete and permanent transition from reticulate scales to feathers on the ventral surfaces of the foot and digits. Resulting ectopic feathers are developmentally comparable to feathers adorning the body, with down-type feathers transitioning into regenerative, bilaterally symmetric contour feathers in adult chickens. Crucially, this spectacular transition of skin appendage fate (from nodular reticulate scales to bona fide adult feathers) does not require sustained treatment. Our RNA sequencing analyses confirm that smoothened agonist treatment specifically promotes the expression of key Shh pathway-associated genes. These results indicate that variations in Shh pathway signaling likely contribute to the natural diversity and regionalization of avian integumentary appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rory L Cooper
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution (LANE), Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Michel C Milinkovitch
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution (LANE), Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
- SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Geneva, Switzerland
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15
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Tseng CC, Woolley TE, Jiang TX, Wu P, Maini PK, Widelitz RB, Chuong CM. Gap junctions in Turing-type periodic feather pattern formation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.15.537019. [PMID: 37090608 PMCID: PMC10120740 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.15.537019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Periodic patterning requires coordinated cell-cell interactions at the tissue level. Turing showed, using mathematical modeling, how spatial patterns could arise from the reactions of a diffusive activator-inhibitor pair in an initially homogenous two-dimensional field. Most activators and inhibitors studied in biological systems are proteins, and the roles of cell-cell interaction, ions, bioelectricity, etc. are only now being identified. Gap junctions (GJs) mediate direct exchanges of ions or small molecules between cells, enabling rapid long-distance communications in a cell collective. They are therefore good candidates for propagating non-protein-based patterning signals that may act according to the Turing principles. Here, we explore the possible roles of GJs in Turing-type patterning using feather pattern formation as a model. We found seven of the twelve investigated GJ isoforms are highly dynamically expressed in the developing chicken skin. In ovo functional perturbations of the GJ isoform, connexin 30, by siRNA and the dominant-negative mutant applied before placode development led to disrupted primary feather bud formation, including patches of smooth skin and buds of irregular sizes. Later, after the primary feather arrays were laid out, inhibition of gap junctional intercellular communication in the ex vivo skin explant culture allowed the emergence of new feather buds in temporal waves at specific spatial locations relative to the existing primary buds. The results suggest that gap junctional communication may facilitate the propagation of long-distance inhibitory signals. Thus, the removal of GJ activity would enable the emergence of new feather buds if the local environment is competent and the threshold to form buds is reached. We propose Turing-based computational simulations that can predict the appearance of these ectopic bud waves. Our models demonstrate how a Turing activator-inhibitor system can continue to generate patterns in the competent morphogenetic field when the level of intercellular communication at the tissue scale is modulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Chih Tseng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, U.S.A
- Current address: Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, U.S.A
| | - Thomas E. Woolley
- School of Mathematics, Cardiff University, Senghennydd Road, Cardiff, CF24 4AG, U.K
| | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, U.S.A
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, U.S.A
| | - Philip K. Maini
- Wolfson Centre for Mathematical Biology, Mathematical Institute, Andrew Wiles Building, University of Oxford, Radcliffe Observatory Quarter, Woodstock Road, Oxford OX2 6GG, U.K
| | - Randall B. Widelitz
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, U.S.A
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, U.S.A
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16
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Zimm R, Berio F, Debiais-Thibaud M, Goudemand N. A shark-inspired general model of tooth morphogenesis unveils developmental asymmetries in phenotype transitions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2216959120. [PMID: 37027430 PMCID: PMC10104537 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2216959120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Developmental complexity stemming from the dynamic interplay between genetic and biomechanic factors canalizes the ways genotypes and phenotypes can change in evolution. As a paradigmatic system, we explore how changes in developmental factors generate typical tooth shape transitions. Since tooth development has mainly been researched in mammals, we contribute to a more general understanding by studying the development of tooth diversity in sharks. To this end, we build a general, but realistic, mathematical model of odontogenesis. We show that it reproduces key shark-specific features of tooth development as well as real tooth shape variation in small-spotted catsharks Scyliorhinus canicula. We validate our model by comparison with experiments in vivo. Strikingly, we observe that developmental transitions between tooth shapes tend to be highly degenerate, even for complex phenotypes. We also discover that the sets of developmental parameters involved in tooth shape transitions tend to depend asymmetrically on the direction of that transition. Together, our findings provide a valuable base for furthering our understanding of how developmental changes can lead to both adaptive phenotypic change and trait convergence in complex, phenotypically highly diverse, structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Zimm
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5242, Lyon Cedex07 69364, France
| | - Fidji Berio
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5242, Lyon Cedex07 69364, France
- Institut des Sciences de l’Evolution de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Institut de la Recherche pour le Développement, Montpellier34095, France
| | - Mélanie Debiais-Thibaud
- Institut des Sciences de l’Evolution de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Institut de la Recherche pour le Développement, Montpellier34095, France
| | - Nicolas Goudemand
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5242, Lyon Cedex07 69364, France
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17
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Cooper RL, Nicklin EF, Rasch LJ, Fraser GJ. Teeth outside the mouth: The evolution and development of shark denticles. Evol Dev 2023; 25:54-72. [PMID: 36594351 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Vertebrate skin appendages are incredibly diverse. This diversity, which includes structures such as scales, feathers, and hair, likely evolved from a shared anatomical placode, suggesting broad conservation of the early development of these organs. Some of the earliest known skin appendages are dentine and enamel-rich tooth-like structures, collectively known as odontodes. These appendages evolved over 450 million years ago. Elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, and rays) have retained these ancient skin appendages in the form of both dermal denticles (scales) and oral teeth. Despite our knowledge of denticle function in adult sharks, our understanding of their development and morphogenesis is less advanced. Even though denticles in sharks appear structurally similar to oral teeth, there has been limited data directly comparing the molecular development of these distinct elements. Here, we chart the development of denticles in the embryonic small-spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) and characterize the expression of conserved genes known to mediate dental development. We find that shark denticle development shares a vast gene expression signature with developing teeth. However, denticles have restricted regenerative potential, as they lack a sox2+ stem cell niche associated with the maintenance of a dental lamina, an essential requirement for continuous tooth replacement. We compare developing denticles to other skin appendages, including both sensory skin appendages and avian feathers. This reveals that denticles are not only tooth-like in structure, but that they also share an ancient developmental gene set that is likely common to all epidermal appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rory L Cooper
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, The University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ella F Nicklin
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Liam J Rasch
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Gareth J Fraser
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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18
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Abstract
The Turing model (or reaction-diffusion model), first published in 1952, is a mathematical model that can account for autonomy in the morphogenesis of organisms. Although initially controversial, the model has gradually gained wider acceptance among experimental embryologists due to the accumulation of experimental data to support it. More recently, this model and others based on it have been used not only to explain biological phenomena conceptually but also as working hypotheses for molecular-level experiments and as internal components of more-complex 3D models. In this Spotlight, I will provide a personal perspective from an experimental biologist on some of the recent developments of the Turing model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Kondo
- Osaka University, Faculty of Frontia Bioscience, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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19
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Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Genes Contributed to Min Pig Villi Hair Follicle in Different Seasons. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9110639. [DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9110639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Min pig, a local pig breed in China, has a special trait which has intermittent villus and coat hair regeneration. However, the regulation and mechanism of villus in Min pigs have not yet been described. We observed and described the phenotype of Min pig dermal villi in detail and sequenced the mRNA transcriptome of Min pig hair follicles. A total of 1520 differentially expressed genes (DEG) were obtained.K-means hierarchical clustering showed that there was a significant expression pattern difference in winter compared with summer. Gene enrichment and network analysis results showed that the hair growth in Min pigs was closely related to the composition of desmosomes and regulated by an interaction network composed of eight core genes, namely DSP, DSC3, DSG4, PKP1, TGM1, KRT4, KRT15, and KRT84. Methylation analysis of promoters of target genes showed that the PKP1 gene was demethylated. Our study will help to supplement current knowledge of the growth mechanism of different types of hair.
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20
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Wang L, Zhou S, Liu G, Lyu T, Shi L, Dong Y, He S, Zhang H. The Mechanisms of Fur Development and Color Formation in American Mink Revealed Using Comparative Transcriptomics. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12223088. [PMID: 36428316 PMCID: PMC9686883 DOI: 10.3390/ani12223088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
American mink fur is an important economic product, but the molecular mechanisms underlying its color formation and fur development remain unclear. We used RNA-seq to analyze the skin transcriptomes of young and adult mink with two different hair colors. The mink comprised black adults (AB), white adults (AW), black juveniles (TB), and white juveniles (TW) (three each). Through pair comparison and cross-screening among different subgroups, we found that 13 KRTAP genes and five signaling pathways (the JAK-STAT signaling pathway (cfa04630), signaling pathways regulating pluripotency of stem cells (cfa04550), ECM-receptor interaction (cfa04512), focal adhesion (cfa04510), and the Ras signaling pathway (cfa04014)) were related to mink fur development. We also found that members of a tyrosinase family (TYR, TYRP1, and TYRP2) are involved in mink hair color formation. The expression levels of TYR were higher in young black mink than in young white mink, but this phenomenon was not observed in adult mink. Our study found significant differences in adult and juvenile mink skin transcriptomes, which may shed light on the mechanisms of mink fur development. At the same time, the skin transcriptomes of black and white mink also showed differences, with the results varying by age, suggesting that the genes regulating hair color are active in early development rather than in adulthood. The results of this study provide molecular support in breeding for mink coat color and improving fur quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidong Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Shengyang Zhou
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Guangshuai Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Tianshu Lyu
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Lupeng Shi
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Yuehuan Dong
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Shangbin He
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
| | - Honghai Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China
- Correspondence:
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21
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Zimm R, Oberdick D, Gnetneva A, Schneider P, Cebra-Thomas J, Moustakas-Verho JE. Turing's turtles all the way down: A conserved role of EDAR in the carapacial ridge suggests a deep homology of prepatterns across ectodermal appendages. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2022; 306:1201-1213. [PMID: 36239299 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The scutes of the turtle shell are epidermal shields that begin their formation during the early stages of shell development. Like other skin appendages, turtle scutes are hypothesized to be patterned by reaction-diffusion systems. We have previously established ex vivo and in silico systems to study these mechanisms experimentally and have further shown that mathematical models can explain the dynamics of the induction of turtle scute primordia and the generation of final scute architecture. Using these foundations, we expand our current knowledge and test the roles of ectodysplasin and activin signaling in the development of turtle scutes. We find that these molecules play important roles in the prepatterning of scute primordia along the carapacial ridge and show that blocking Edar signaling may lead to a complete loss of marginal scute primordia. We show that it is possible to reproduce these observations using simple mathematical modeling, thereby suggesting a stabilizing role for ectodysplasin within the reaction-diffusion mechanisms. Finally, we argue that our findings further entrench turtle scutes within a class of developmental systems composed of hierarchically nested reaction-diffusion mechanisms, which is conserved across ectodermal organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Zimm
- Institute of Functional Genomics, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Danielle Oberdick
- Department of Biology, Millersville University, Millersville, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Anna Gnetneva
- Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Pascal Schneider
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Judith Cebra-Thomas
- Department of Biology, Millersville University, Millersville, Pennsylvania, USA
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22
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Curantz C, Bailleul R, Castro-Scherianz M, Hidalgo M, Durande M, Graner F, Manceau M. Cell shape anisotropy contributes to self-organized feather pattern fidelity in birds. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001807. [PMID: 36215298 PMCID: PMC9584522 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Developing tissues can self-organize into a variety of patterned structures through the stabilization of stochastic fluctuations in their molecular and cellular properties. While molecular factors and cell dynamics contributing to self-organization have been identified in vivo, events channeling self-organized systems such that they achieve stable pattern outcomes remain unknown. Here, we described natural variation in the fidelity of self-organized arrays formed by feather follicle precursors in bird embryos. By surveying skin cells prior to and during tissue self-organization and performing species-specific ex vivo drug treatments and mechanical stress tests, we demonstrated that pattern fidelity depends on the initial amplitude of cell anisotropy in regions of the developing dermis competent to produce a pattern. Using live imaging, we showed that cell shape anisotropy is associated with a limited increase in cell motility for sharp and precisely located primordia formation, and thus, proper pattern geometry. These results evidence a mechanism through which initial tissue properties ensure stability in self-organization and thus, reproducible pattern production. A study of natural variation in feather pattern geometry and a combination of pharmacological and mechanical manipulations ex vivo provides evidence for a mechanism by which initial tissue properties ensure stability in self-organization and species-specific pattern production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Curantz
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris, France
- Sorbonne University, UPMC Paris VI, Paris, France
- Centre for Chromosome Biology, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Richard Bailleul
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris, France
- Sorbonne University, UPMC Paris VI, Paris, France
- Developmental Biology & Cell Biology and Biophysics Units, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - María Castro-Scherianz
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris, France
| | - Magdalena Hidalgo
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris, France
| | - Melina Durande
- Matière et Systèmes Complexes, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR 7057, Paris, France
| | - François Graner
- Matière et Systèmes Complexes, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR 7057, Paris, France
| | - Marie Manceau
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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23
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Morita W, Morimoto N, Otsu K, Miura T. Stripe and spot selection in cusp patterning of mammalian molar formation. Sci Rep 2022; 12:9149. [PMID: 35701484 PMCID: PMC9197828 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-13539-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Tooth development is governed largely by epithelial-mesenchymal interactions and is mediated by numerous signaling pathways. This type of morphogenetic processes has been explained by reaction-diffusion systems, especially in the framework of a Turing model. Here we focus on morphological and developmental differences between upper and lower molars in mice by modeling 2D pattern formation in a Turing system. Stripe vs. spot patterns are the primary types of variation in a Turing model. We show that the complexity of the cusp cross-sections can distinguish between stripe vs. spot patterns, and mice have stripe-like upper and spot-like lower molar morphologies. Additionally, our computational modeling that incorporates empirical data on tooth germ growth traces the order of cusp formation and relative position of the cusps in upper and lower molars in mice. We further propose a hypothetical framework of developmental mechanism that could help us understand the evolution of the highly variable nature of mammalian molars associated with the acquisition of the hypocone and the increase of lophedness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wataru Morita
- Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | - Naoki Morimoto
- Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Keishi Otsu
- Division of Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Anatomy, Iwate Medical University, Iwate, Japan
| | - Takashi Miura
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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24
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Palmquist KH, Tiemann SF, Ezzeddine FL, Yang S, Pfeifer CR, Erzberger A, Rodrigues AR, Shyer AE. Reciprocal cell-ECM dynamics generate supracellular fluidity underlying spontaneous follicle patterning. Cell 2022; 185:1960-1973.e11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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25
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Gao J, Wang X, Gu C, Shen C, Yang H. Irregular spots on body surfaces of vertebrates induced by supercritical pitchfork bifurcations. CHAOS (WOODBURY, N.Y.) 2022; 32:013129. [PMID: 35105114 DOI: 10.1063/5.0070325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The classical Turing mechanism containing a long-range inhibition and a short-range self-enhancement provides a type of explanation for the formation of patterns on body surfaces of some vertebrates, e.g., zebras, giraffes, and cheetahs. For other type of patterns (irregular spots) on body surfaces of some vertebrates, e.g., loaches, finless eels, and dalmatian dogs, the classical Turing mechanism no longer applies. Here, we propose a mechanism, i.e., the supercritical pitchfork bifurcation, which may explain the formation of this type of irregular spots, and present a method to quantify the similarity of such patterns. We assume that, under certain conditions, the only stable state of "morphogen" loses its stability and transitions to two newly generated stable states with the influence of external noise, thus producing such ruleless piebald patterns in space. The difference between the competitiveness of these two states may affect the resulting pattern. Moreover, we propose a mathematical model based on this conjecture and obtain this type of irregular patterns by numerical simulation. Furthermore, we also study the influence of parameters in the model on pattern structures and obtain the corresponding pattern structures of some vertebrates in nature, which verifies our conjecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Gao
- School of Mathematics and Physics, Anqing Normal University, Anqing 246011, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Wang
- School of Mathematics and Physics, Anqing Normal University, Anqing 246011, People's Republic of China
| | - Changgui Gu
- Business School, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, People's Republic of China
| | - Chuansheng Shen
- School of Mathematics and Physics, Anqing Normal University, Anqing 246011, People's Republic of China
| | - Huijie Yang
- Business School, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, People's Republic of China
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26
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Painter KJ, Ptashnyk M, Headon DJ. Systems for intricate patterning of the vertebrate anatomy. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2021; 379:20200270. [PMID: 34743605 PMCID: PMC8580425 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2020.0270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Periodic patterns form intricate arrays in the vertebrate anatomy, notably the hair and feather follicles of the skin, but also internally the villi of the gut and the many branches of the lung, kidney, mammary and salivary glands. These tissues are composite structures, being composed of adjoined epithelium and mesenchyme, and the patterns that arise within them require interaction between these two tissue layers. In embryonic development, cells change both their distribution and state in a periodic manner, defining the size and relative positions of these specialized structures. Their placement is determined by simple spacing mechanisms, with substantial evidence pointing to a variety of local enhancement/lateral inhibition systems underlying the breaking of symmetry. The nature of the cellular processes involved, however, has been less clear. While much attention has focused on intercellular soluble signals, such as protein growth factors, experimental evidence has grown for contributions of cell movement or mechanical forces to symmetry breaking. In the mesenchyme, unlike the epithelium, cells may move freely and can self-organize into aggregates by chemotaxis, or through generation and response to mechanical strain on their surrounding matrix. Different modes of self-organization may coexist, either coordinated into a single system or with hierarchical relationships. Consideration of a broad range of distinct biological processes is required to advance understanding of biological pattern formation. This article is part of the theme issue 'Recent progress and open frontiers in Turing's theory of morphogenesis'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J. Painter
- Dipartimento Interateneo di Scienze, Progetto e Politiche del Territorio, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Mariya Ptashnyk
- School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences and Maxwell Institute, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
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27
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Leyshon T, Tonello E, Schnoerr D, Siebert H, Stumpf MPH. The design principles of discrete turing patterning systems. J Theor Biol 2021; 531:110901. [PMID: 34530030 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The formation of spatial structures lies at the heart of developmental processes. However, many of the underlying gene regulatory and biochemical processes remain poorly understood. Turing patterns constitute a main candidate to explain such processes, but they appear sensitive to fluctuations and variations in kinetic parameters, raising the question of how they may be adopted and realised in naturally evolved systems. The vast majority of mathematical studies of Turing patterns have used continuous models specified in terms of partial differential equations. Here, we complement this work by studying Turing patterns using discrete cellular automata models. We perform a large-scale study on all possible two-species networks and find the same Turing pattern producing networks as in the continuous framework. In contrast to continuous models, however, we find these Turing pattern topologies to be substantially more robust to changes in the parameters of the model. We also find that diffusion-driven instabilities are substantially weaker predictors for Turing patterns in our discrete modelling framework in comparison to the continuous case, in the sense that the presence of an instability does not guarantee a pattern emerging in simulations. We show that a more refined criterion constitutes a stronger predictor. The similarity of the results for the two modelling frameworks suggests a deeper underlying principle of Turing mechanisms in nature. Together with the larger robustness in the discrete case this suggests that Turing patterns may be more robust than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Leyshon
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, UK
| | - Elisa Tonello
- FB Mathematik und Informatik, Freine Universität Berlin, Germany
| | - David Schnoerr
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, UK
| | - Heike Siebert
- FB Mathematik und Informatik, Freine Universität Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael P H Stumpf
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, UK; Melbourne Integrated Genomics, University of Melbourne, Australia; School of BioScience, University of Melbourne, Australia; School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Melbourne, Australia.
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Price-Waldman R, Stoddard MC. Avian Coloration Genetics: Recent Advances and Emerging Questions. J Hered 2021; 112:395-416. [PMID: 34002228 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esab015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The colorful phenotypes of birds have long provided rich source material for evolutionary biologists. Avian plumage, beaks, skin, and eggs-which exhibit a stunning range of cryptic and conspicuous forms-inspired early work on adaptive coloration. More recently, avian color has fueled discoveries on the physiological, developmental, and-increasingly-genetic mechanisms responsible for phenotypic variation. The relative ease with which avian color traits can be quantified has made birds an attractive system for uncovering links between phenotype and genotype. Accordingly, the field of avian coloration genetics is burgeoning. In this review, we highlight recent advances and emerging questions associated with the genetic underpinnings of bird color. We start by describing breakthroughs related to 2 pigment classes: carotenoids that produce red, yellow, and orange in most birds and psittacofulvins that produce similar colors in parrots. We then discuss structural colors, which are produced by the interaction of light with nanoscale materials and greatly extend the plumage palette. Structural color genetics remain understudied-but this paradigm is changing. We next explore how colors that arise from interactions among pigmentary and structural mechanisms may be controlled by genes that are co-expressed or co-regulated. We also identify opportunities to investigate genes mediating within-feather micropatterning and the coloration of bare parts and eggs. We conclude by spotlighting 2 research areas-mechanistic links between color vision and color production, and speciation-that have been invigorated by genetic insights, a trend likely to continue as new genomic approaches are applied to non-model species.
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Morales JS, Raspopovic J, Marcon L. From embryos to embryoids: How external signals and self-organization drive embryonic development. Stem Cell Reports 2021; 16:1039-1050. [PMID: 33979592 PMCID: PMC8185431 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Embryonic development has been traditionally seen as an inductive process directed by exogenous maternal inputs and extra-embryonic signals. Increasing evidence, however, is showing that, in addition to exogenous signals, the development of the embryo involves endogenous self-organization. Recently, this self-organizing potential has been highlighted by a number of stem cell models known as embryoids that can recapitulate different aspects of embryogenesis in vitro. Here, we review the self-organizing behaviors observed in different embryoid models and seek to reconcile this new evidence with classical knowledge of developmental biology. This analysis leads to reexamine embryonic development as a guided self-organizing process, where patterning and morphogenesis are controlled by a combination of exogenous signals and endogenous self-organization. Finally, we discuss the multidisciplinary approach required to investigate the genetic and cellular basis of self-organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Serrano Morales
- Andalusian Center for Developmental Biology (CABD), CSIC - UPO - JA, Seville, Spain
| | - Jelena Raspopovic
- Andalusian Center for Developmental Biology (CABD), CSIC - UPO - JA, Seville, Spain.
| | - Luciano Marcon
- Andalusian Center for Developmental Biology (CABD), CSIC - UPO - JA, Seville, Spain.
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30
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Harn HIC, Wang SP, Lai YC, Van Handel B, Liang YC, Tsai S, Schiessl IM, Sarkar A, Xi H, Hughes M, Kaemmer S, Tang MJ, Peti-Peterdi J, Pyle AD, Woolley TE, Evseenko D, Jiang TX, Chuong CM. Symmetry breaking of tissue mechanics in wound induced hair follicle regeneration of laboratory and spiny mice. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2595. [PMID: 33972536 PMCID: PMC8110808 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22822-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue regeneration is a process that recapitulates and restores organ structure and function. Although previous studies have demonstrated wound-induced hair neogenesis (WIHN) in laboratory mice (Mus), the regeneration is limited to the center of the wound unlike those observed in African spiny (Acomys) mice. Tissue mechanics have been implicated as an integral part of tissue morphogenesis. Here, we use the WIHN model to investigate the mechanical and molecular responses of laboratory and African spiny mice, and report these models demonstrate opposing trends in spatiotemporal morphogenetic field formation with association to wound stiffness landscapes. Transcriptome analysis and K14-Cre-Twist1 transgenic mice show the Twist1 pathway acts as a mediator for both epidermal-dermal interactions and a competence factor for periodic patterning, differing from those used in development. We propose a Turing model based on tissue stiffness that supports a two-scale tissue mechanics process: (1) establishing a morphogenetic field within the wound bed (mm scale) and (2) symmetry breaking of the epidermis and forming periodically arranged hair primordia within the morphogenetic field (μm scale). Thus, we delineate distinct chemo-mechanical events in building a Turing morphogenesis-competent field during WIHN of laboratory and African spiny mice and identify its evo-devo advantages with perspectives for regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans I-Chen Harn
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- International Research Center of Wound Repair and Regeneration (iWRR), National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Pei Wang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- International Research Center of Wound Repair and Regeneration (iWRR), National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chih Lai
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Ben Van Handel
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ya-Chen Liang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Stephanie Tsai
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- School of Dentistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ina Maria Schiessl
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Arijita Sarkar
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Haibin Xi
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Michael Hughes
- International Research Center of Wound Repair and Regeneration (iWRR), National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Stefan Kaemmer
- Park Systems Inc., 3040 Olcott Street, Santa Clara, CA, 95054, USA
| | - Ming-Jer Tang
- International Research Center of Wound Repair and Regeneration (iWRR), National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Physiology, Medical College, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Janos Peti-Peterdi
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - April D Pyle
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Thomas E Woolley
- Cardiff School of Mathematics, Cardiff University, Senghennydd Road, Cardiff, UK
| | - Denis Evseenko
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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31
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Vargesson N. Lewis Wolpert (1929-2021). Cells Dev 2021; 166:203673. [PMID: 34051671 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdev.2021.203673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Lewis Wolpert was a brilliant and inspiring scientist who made hugely significant contributions which underpin and influence our understanding of developmental biology today. He spent his career interested in how the fertilised egg can give rise to the whole embryo (and ultimately the adult) with one head, two arms, two legs, all its organs and importantly how cells become different from each other and how they 'know' what to become. His ideas revolutionised the way developmental biology was perceived and also reinvigorated, in particular, the key question of how pattern formation in embryonic development is achieved. He published over 200 scientific articles and received many accolades over his career for his work and services to science in the UK. These included a CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) from the Queen, being elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. He was also a recipient of the Waddington Medal from the British Society for Developmental Biology and was awarded The Royal Society's top honour, the Royal Medal in 2018. Lewis was also a gifted teacher and communicator, including being the author of a textbook on developmental biology used around the world to train the next generation of developmental biologists. This contribution was recognised in 2003, by the award of the Viktor Hamburger Outstanding Educator Award from the Society of Developmental Biology in the USA. Lewis always enjoyed giving talks and lectures, having an infectious and persuasive enthusiasm coupled with a sharp sense of humour. He also published articles in popular science journals (aimed at the public) such as New Scientist, Scientific American and The Scientist. Lewis also wrote several popular science books. He was a passionate advocate for the public understanding of science and was the Chair of The Royal Society/Royal Institution/British Association for the Advancement of Science Committee for Public Understanding of Science (1994-1998). For this contribution he was awarded The Royal Society Michael Faraday Medal for "excellence in communicating science to UK audiences". He presented the prestigious Royal Institution Christmas Lectures in 1986 entitled 'Frankenstein's Quest: development of life'. These lectures, six in total, are presented by leading scientists and aimed at the general public and broadcast on national television. On a personal level, Lewis influenced all who came into contact with him, shaped his students and postdocs careers and instilled in them, and the community as whole, a life-long love of developmental biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil Vargesson
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK.
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32
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Kataoka K, Fujita H, Isa M, Gotoh S, Arasaki A, Ishida H, Kimura R. The human EDAR 370V/A polymorphism affects tooth root morphology potentially through the modification of a reaction-diffusion system. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5143. [PMID: 33664401 PMCID: PMC7933414 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84653-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Morphological variations in human teeth have long been recognized and, in particular, the spatial and temporal distribution of two patterns of dental features in Asia, i.e., Sinodonty and Sundadonty, have contributed to our understanding of the human migration history. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying such dental variations have not yet been completely elucidated. Recent studies have clarified that a nonsynonymous variant in the ectodysplasin A receptor gene (EDAR 370V/A; rs3827760) contributes to crown traits related to Sinodonty. In this study, we examined the association between the EDAR polymorphism and tooth root traits by using computed tomography images and identified that the effects of the EDAR variant on the number and shape of roots differed depending on the tooth type. In addition, to better understand tooth root morphogenesis, a computational analysis for patterns of tooth roots was performed, assuming a reaction-diffusion system. The computational study suggested that the complicated effects of the EDAR polymorphism could be explained when it is considered that EDAR modifies the syntheses of multiple related molecules working in the reaction-diffusion dynamics. In this study, we shed light on the molecular mechanisms of tooth root morphogenesis, which are less understood in comparison to those of tooth crown morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiichi Kataoka
- Department of Human Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Functional Rehabilitation, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Hironori Fujita
- Astrobiology Center, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
- National Institute for Basic Biology, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Aichi, Japan
- Department of Basic Biology, School of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate School for Advanced Studies), Aichi, Japan
| | - Mutsumi Isa
- Department of Human Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan
| | - Shimpei Gotoh
- Department of Human Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Functional Rehabilitation, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Akira Arasaki
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Functional Rehabilitation, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Hajime Ishida
- Department of Human Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Kimura
- Department of Human Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan.
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33
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Transcriptome profiling towards understanding of the morphogenesis in the scale development of blunt snout bream (Megalobrama amblycephala). Genomics 2021; 113:983-991. [PMID: 33640463 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2020.12.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Skin appendages in vertebrates have individual morphological differences, but share the same evolutionary origin. In this study, we used Megalobrama amblycephala as a fish model to study the developmental regulation mechanism of a common skin appendage in fish: scales. By combining in-toto live imaging method and transcriptomic analysis during the scale development, we elucidated core features of scale patterning containing three distinct regions and experiencing four stages. Differentially expressed genes in skin tissues at the initial site before and after scale development were analyzed and some key regulatory genes (Wnt3, Wnt6, Fgf8, Fgf10, Fgf16, Fgfr1a, Ihhb and BMP6) which are crucial for scale morphogenesis were selected. This study provides a strong reference for further exploration of the function of genes related to the molecular regulation mechanism of scale development in M. amblycephala, as well as in other fishes.
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34
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Soukup V, Tazaki A, Yamazaki Y, Pospisilova A, Epperlein HH, Tanaka EM, Cerny R. Oral and Palatal Dentition of Axolotl Arises From a Common Tooth-Competent Zone Along the Ecto-Endodermal Boundary. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 8:622308. [PMID: 33505974 PMCID: PMC7829593 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.622308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Vertebrate dentitions arise at various places within the oropharyngeal cavity including the jaws, the palate, or the pharynx. These dentitions develop in a highly organized way, where new tooth germs are progressively added adjacent to the initiator center, the first tooth. At the same time, the places where dentitions develop house the contact zones between the outer ectoderm and the inner endoderm, and this colocalization has instigated various suggestions on the roles of germ layers for tooth initiation and development. Here, we study development of the axolotl dentition, which is a complex of five pairs of tooth fields arranged into the typically tetrapod outer and inner dental arcades. By tracking the expression patterns of odontogenic genes, we reason that teeth of both dental arcades originate from common tooth-competent zones, one present on the mouth roof and one on the mouth floor. Progressive compartmentalization of these zones and a simultaneous addition of new tooth germs distinct for each prospective tooth field subsequently control the final shape and composition of the axolotl dentition. Interestingly, by following the fate of the GFP-labeled oral ectoderm, we further show that, in three out of five tooth field pairs, the first tooth develops right at the ecto-endodermal boundary. Our results thus indicate that a single tooth-competent zone gives rise to both dental arcades of a complex tetrapod dentition. Further, we propose that the ecto-endodermal boundary running through this zone should be accounted for as a potential source of instruction factors instigating the onset of the odontogenic program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimír Soukup
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Akira Tazaki
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics (MPI-CBG), Dresden, Germany.,Center for Regenerative Therapies, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Yosuke Yamazaki
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Anna Pospisilova
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | | | - Elly M Tanaka
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics (MPI-CBG), Dresden, Germany.,Center for Regenerative Therapies, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Robert Cerny
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
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35
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Wang Y, Guo Z, Meng J, Chen X, Yang Z, Yang H, Wang Z. Effect of Supplementary Methionine on Feather Growth and Related Indicators of Pigeon Squabs. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF POULTRY SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/1806-9061-2021-1468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Y Wang
- Yangzhou University, P. R. China
| | - Z Guo
- Yangzhou University, P. R. China
| | - J Meng
- Changzhou Institute of Integrated Special Poultry, P.R. China
| | - X Chen
- Yangzhou University, P. R. China
| | - Z Yang
- Yangzhou University, P. R. China
| | - H Yang
- Yangzhou University, P. R. China
| | - Z Wang
- Yangzhou University, P. R. China
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36
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Economou AD, Monk NAM, Green JBA. Perturbation analysis of a multi-morphogen Turing reaction-diffusion stripe patterning system reveals key regulatory interactions. Development 2020; 147:dev190553. [PMID: 33033117 PMCID: PMC7648603 DOI: 10.1242/dev.190553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Periodic patterning is widespread in development and can be modelled by reaction-diffusion (RD) processes. However, minimal two-component RD descriptions are vastly simpler than the multi-molecular events that actually occur and are often hard to relate to real interactions measured experimentally. Addressing these issues, we investigated the periodic striped patterning of the rugae (transverse ridges) in the mammalian oral palate, focusing on multiple previously implicated pathways: FGF, Hh, Wnt and BMP. For each, we experimentally identified spatial patterns of activity and distinct responses of the system to inhibition. Through numerical and analytical approaches, we were able to constrain substantially the number of network structures consistent with the data. Determination of the dynamics of pattern appearance further revealed its initiation by 'activators' FGF and Wnt, and 'inhibitor' Hh, whereas BMP and mesenchyme-specific-FGF signalling were incorporated once stripes were formed. This further limited the number of possible networks. Experimental constraint thus limited the number of possible minimal networks to 154, just 0.004% of the number of possible diffusion-driven instability networks. Together, these studies articulate the principles of multi-morphogen RD patterning and demonstrate the utility of perturbation analysis for constraining RD systems.This article has an associated 'The people behind the papers' interview.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Economou
- Department of Craniofacial Development & Stem Cell Biology, King's College London, London, SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Nicholas A M Monk
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S3 7RH, UK
| | - Jeremy B A Green
- Department of Craniofacial Development & Stem Cell Biology, King's College London, London, SE1 9RT, UK
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37
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Kindberg A, Hu JK, Bush JO. Forced to communicate: Integration of mechanical and biochemical signaling in morphogenesis. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2020; 66:59-68. [PMID: 32569947 PMCID: PMC7577940 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2020.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Morphogenesis is a physical process that requires the generation of mechanical forces to achieve dynamic changes in cell position, tissue shape, and size as well as biochemical signals to coordinate these events. Mechanical forces are also used by the embryo to transmit detailed information across space and detected by target cells, leading to downstream changes in cellular properties and behaviors. Indeed, forces provide signaling information of complementary quality that can both synergize and diversify the functional outputs of biochemical signaling. Here, we discuss recent findings that reveal how mechanical signaling and biochemical signaling are integrated during morphogenesis and the possible context-specific advantages conferred by the interactions between these signaling mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Kindberg
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jimmy K Hu
- School of Dentistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Molecular Biology Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Jeffrey O Bush
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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38
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Li HM, Liu P, Zhang XJ, Li LM, Jiang HY, Yan H, Hou FH, Chen JP. Combined proteomics and transcriptomics reveal the genetic basis underlying the differentiation of skin appendages and immunity in pangolin. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14566. [PMID: 32884035 PMCID: PMC7471334 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71513-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pangolin (Mains javanica) is an interesting endangered mammal with special morphological characteristics. Here, we applied proteomics and transcriptomics to explore the differentiation of pangolin skin appendages at two developmental stages and to compare gene expression profiles between abdomen hair and dorsal scale tissues. We identified 4,311 genes and 91 proteins differentially expressed between scale-type and hair-type tissue, of which 6 genes were shared by the transcriptome and proteome. Differentiation altered the abundance of hundreds of proteins and mRNA in the two types of skin appendages, many of which are involved in keratinocyte differentiation, epidermal cell differentiation, and multicellular organism development based on GO enrichment analysis, and FoxO, MAPK, and p53 signalling pathways based on KEGG enrichment analysis. DEGs in scale-type tissues were also significantly enriched in immune-related terms and pathways compared with that in hair-type tissues. Thus, we propose that pangolins have a normal skin innate immune system. Compared with the abdomen, the back skin of pangolins had more genes involved in the regulation of immune function, which may be an adaptive adjustment for the vulnerability of scaly skin to infection and injury. This investigation provides a scientific basis for the study of development and immunity of pangolin skin, which may be helpful in the protection of wild pangolin in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Ming Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Ping Liu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Xiu-Juan Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Lin-Miao Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Hai-Ying Jiang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Hua Yan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Silviculture, Protection and Utilization, Guangdong Academy of Forestry, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Fang-Hui Hou
- Guangdong Provincial Wildlife Rescue Centre, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jin-Ping Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China.
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39
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Li HM, Yang BZ, Zhang XJ, Jiang HY, Li LM, Ahmad HI, Chen JP. Transcriptome analysis reveals the genetic basis underlying the development of skin appendages and immunity in hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris). Sci Rep 2020; 10:13920. [PMID: 32811876 PMCID: PMC7435191 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70844-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The expression of hair features is an evolutionary adaptation resulting from interactions between many organisms and their environment. Elucidation of the mechanisms that underlie the expression of such traits is a topic in evolutionary biology research. Therefore, we assessed the de novo transcriptome of Atelerix albiventris at three developmental stages and compared gene expression profiles between abdomen hair and dorsal spine tissues. We identified 328,576 unigenes in our transcriptome, among which 4,435 were differentially expressed between hair- and spine-type tissues. Dorsal and abdomen skin tissues 5 days after birth were compared and the resulting DEGs were mainly enriched in keratin filament, epithelium cell differentiation, and epidermis development based on GO enrichment analysis, and tight junction, p53, and cell cycle signaling pathways based on KEGG enrichment analysis. MBP8, SFN, Wnt1 and KRT1 gene may involve in the development of hedgehog skin and its appendages. Strikingly, DEGs in hair-type tissues were also significantly enriched in immune-related terms and pathways with hair-type tissues exhibiting more upregulated immune genes than spine-type tissues. Our study provided a list of potential genes involved in skin appendage development and differentiation in A. albiventris, and the candidate genes provided valuable information for further studies of skin appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Ming Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Bi-Ze Yang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Xiu-Juan Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Hai-Ying Jiang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Lin-Miao Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Hafiz Ishfaq Ahmad
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China
| | - Jin-Ping Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, 510260, China.
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Giffin JL, Franz-Odendaal TA. Quantitative gene expression dynamics of key placode signalling factors in the embryonic chicken scleral ossicle system. Gene Expr Patterns 2020; 38:119131. [PMID: 32755633 DOI: 10.1016/j.gep.2020.119131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Development of the scleral ossicles, a ring of bony elements within the sclera, is directed by a series of papillae that arise from placodes in the conjunctival epithelium over a 1.5-day induction period in the chicken embryo. The regular spacing of the papillae around the corneal-scleral limbus suggests that their induction may be regulated by a reaction-diffusion mechanism, similar to other epithelial appendages. Some key placode signalling molecules, including β-catenin, are known to be expressed throughout the induction period. However, others have been studied only at certain stages or have not been successfully detected. Here we use qPCR to study the gene expression patterns of the wingless integration (WNT)/β-catenin, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), ectodysplasin (EDA), fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and hedgehog (HH) signalling families in discrete regions of the eye throughout the complete conjunctival placode and papillae induction period. This comprehensive analysis revealed a variable level of gene expression within specific eye regions, with some genes exhibiting high, moderate or low changes. Most genes exhibited an initial increase in gene expression, followed by a decrease or plateau as development proceeded, suggesting that some genes are important for a brief initial period whilst the sustained elevated expression level of other genes is needed for developmental progression. The timing or magnitude of these changes, and/or the overall gene expression trend differed in the temporal, nasal and/or dorsal eye regions for some, but not all genes, demonstrating that gene expression may vary across different eye regions. Temporal and nasal EDA receptor (EDAR) had the greatest number of strong correlations (r > 0.700) with other genes and β-catenin had the greatest number of moderate correlations (r = 0.400-0.700), while EDA had the greatest range in correlation strengths. Among the strongly correlated genes, two distinct signalling modules were identified, connected by some intermediate genes. The dynamic gene expression patterns of the five signalling pathways studied here from conjunctival placode formation through to papillae development is consistent with other epithelial appendages and confirms the presence of a conserved induction and patterning signalling network. Two unique gene expression patterns and corresponding gene interaction modules suggest functionally distinct roles throughout placode development. Furthermore, spatial differences in gene expression patterns among the temporal, nasal and dorsal regions of the eye may indicate that the expression of certain genes is influenced by mechanical forces exerted throughout development. Therefore, this study identifies key placode signalling factors and their interactions, as well as some potential region-specific features of gene expression in the scleral ossicle system and provides a basis for further exploration of the spatial expression of these genes and the patterning mechanism(s) active throughout conjunctival placode and papillae formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Giffin
- Department of Biology, Mount Saint Vincent University, 166 Bedford Highway, Halifax, NS, B3M 2J6, Canada.
| | - Tamara A Franz-Odendaal
- Department of Biology, Mount Saint Vincent University, 166 Bedford Highway, Halifax, NS, B3M 2J6, Canada.
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Chen MJ, Xie WY, Jiang SG, Wang XQ, Yan HC, Gao CQ. Molecular Signaling and Nutritional Regulation in the Context of Poultry Feather Growth and Regeneration. Front Physiol 2020; 10:1609. [PMID: 32038289 PMCID: PMC6985464 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The normal growth and regeneration of feathers is important for improving the welfare and economic value of poultry. Feather follicle stem cells are the basis for driving feather development and are regulated by various molecular signaling pathways in the feather follicle microenvironment. To date, the roles of the Wnt, Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP), Notch, and Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathways in the regulation of feather growth and regeneration are among the best understood. While these pathways regulate feather morphogenesis in different stages, their dysregulation results in a low feather growth rate, poor quality of plumage, and depilation. Additionally, exogenous nutrient intervention can affect the feather follicle cycle, promote the formation of the feather shaft and feather branches, preventing plumage abnormalities. This review focuses on our understanding of the signaling pathways involved in the transcriptional control of feather morphogenesis and explores the impact of nutritional factors on feather growth and regeneration in poultry. This work may help to develop novel mechanisms by which follicle stem cells can be manipulated to produce superior plumage that enhances poultry carcass quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Jie Chen
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wen-Yan Xie
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shi-Guang Jiang
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiu-Qi Wang
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hui-Chao Yan
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chun-Qi Gao
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
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Hu X, Zhang X, Liu Z, Li S, Zheng X, Nie Y, Tao Y, Zhou X, Wu W, Yang G, Zhao Q, Zhang Y, Xu Q, Mou C. Exploration of key regulators driving primary feather follicle induction in goose skin. Gene 2020; 731:144338. [PMID: 31923576 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2020.144338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The primary feather follicles are universal skin appendages widely distributed in the skin of feathered birds. The morphogenesis and development of the primary feather follicles in goose skin remain largely unknown. Here, the induction of primary feather follicles in goose embryonic skin (pre-induction vs induction) was investigated by de novo transcriptome analyses to reveal 409 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The DEGs were characterized to potentially regulate the de novo formation of feather follicle primordia consisting of placode (4 genes) and dermal condensate (12 genes), and the thickening of epidermis (5 genes) and dermal fibroblasts (17 genes), respectively. Further analyses enriched DEGs into GO terms represented as cell adhesion and KEGG pathways including Wnt and Hedgehog signaling pathways that are highly correlated with cell communication and molecular regulation. Six selected Wnt pathway genes were detected by qPCR with up-regulation in goose skin during the induction of primary feather follicles. The localization of WNT16, SFRP1 and FRZB by in situ hybridization showed weak expression in the primary feather primordia, whereas FZD1, LEF1 and DKK1 were expressed initially in the inter-follicular skin and feather follicle primordia, then mainly restricted in the feather primordia. The spatial-temporal expression patterns indicate that Wnt pathway genes DKK1, FZD1 and LEF1 are the important regulators functioned in the induction of primary feather follicle in goose skin. The dynamic molecular changes and specific gene expression patterns revealed in this report provide the general knowledge of primary feather follicle and skin development in waterfowl, and contribute to further understand the diversity of hair and feather development beyond the mouse and chicken models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuewen Hu
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Xiaokang Zhang
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Zhiwei Liu
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Shaomei Li
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Xinting Zheng
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Yangfan Nie
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Yingfeng Tao
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Xiaoliu Zhou
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Wenqing Wu
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Ge Yang
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Qianqian Zhao
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Qi Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Chunyan Mou
- Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China.
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Bailleul R, Curantz C, Desmarquet-Trin Dinh C, Hidalgo M, Touboul J, Manceau M. Symmetry breaking in the embryonic skin triggers directional and sequential plumage patterning. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000448. [PMID: 31577791 PMCID: PMC6791559 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Revised: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of an organism involves the formation of patterns from initially homogeneous surfaces in a reproducible manner. Simulations of various theoretical models recapitulate final states of natural patterns, yet drawing testable hypotheses from those often remains difficult. Consequently, little is known about pattern-forming events. Here, we surveyed plumage patterns and their emergence in Galliformes, ratites, passerines, and penguins, together representing the three major taxa of the avian phylogeny, and built a unified model that not only reproduces final patterns but also intrinsically generates shared and varying directionality, sequence, and duration of patterning. We used in vivo and ex vivo experiments to test its parameter-based predictions. We showed that directional and sequential pattern progression depends on a species-specific prepattern: an initial break in surface symmetry launches a travelling front of sharply defined, oriented domains with self-organising capacity. This front propagates through the timely transfer of increased cell density mediated by cell proliferation, which controls overall patterning duration. These results show that universal mechanisms combining prepatterning and self-organisation govern the timely emergence of the plumage pattern in birds. A survey of plumage patterns and their emergence in Galliformes, ratites, passerines, and penguins shows that their formation depends on a species-specific prepattern in the embryo and demonstrates that universal mechanisms govern the timely emergence of natural patterns in birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Bailleul
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris Sciences et Lettres University, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions, Paris, France
| | - Camille Curantz
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris Sciences et Lettres University, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions, Paris, France
| | - Carole Desmarquet-Trin Dinh
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris Sciences et Lettres University, Paris, France
| | - Magdalena Hidalgo
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris Sciences et Lettres University, Paris, France
| | - Jonathan Touboul
- Department of Mathematics and Volen National Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MM); (JT)
| | - Marie Manceau
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, CNRS UMR7241, INSERM U1050, Collège de France, Paris Sciences et Lettres University, Paris, France
- * E-mail: (MM); (JT)
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Feather Evolution from Precocial to Altricial Birds. Zool Stud 2019; 58:e24. [PMID: 31966325 DOI: 10.6620/zs.2019.58-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Birds are the most abundant terrestrial vertebrates and their diversity is greatly shaped by the feathers. How avian evolution is linked to feather evolution has long been a fascinating question. Numerous excellent studies have shed light on this complex relationship by investigating feather diversity and its underlying molecular mechanisms. However, most have focused on adult domestic birds, and the contribution of feather diversity to environmental adaptation has not been well-studied. In this review, we described bird diversity using the traditional concept of the altricial-precocial spectrum in bird hatchlings. We combined the spectrum with a recently published avian phylogeny to profile the spectrum evolution. We then focused on the discrete diagnostic character of the spectrum, the natal down, and propose a hypothesis for the precocial-to-altricial evolution. For the underlying molecular mechanisms in feather diversity and bird evolution, we reviewed the literature and constructed the known mechanisms for feather tract definition and natal down development. Finally, we suggested some future directions for research on altricial-precocial divergence, which may expand our understanding of the relationship between natal down diversity and bird evolution.
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A Comprehensive Network Atlas Reveals That Turing Patterns Are Common but Not Robust. Cell Syst 2019; 9:243-257.e4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cels.2019.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Wu Z, Rao Y, Zhang S, Kim EJ, Oki S, Harada H, Cheung M, Jung HS. Cis-control of Six1 expression in neural crest cells during craniofacial development. Dev Dyn 2019; 248:1264-1272. [PMID: 31464047 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Six1 is a transcriptional factor that plays an important role in embryonic development. Mouse and chick embryos deficient for Six1 have multiple craniofacial anomalies in the facial bones and cartilages. Multiple Six1 enhancers have been identified, but none of them has been reported to be active in the maxillary and mandibular process. RESULTS We studied two Six1 enhancers in the chick neural crest tissues during craniofacial development. We showed that two evolutionarily conserved enhancers, Six1E1 and Six1E2, act synergistically. Neither Six1E1 nor Six1E2 alone can drive enhancer reporter signal in the maxillary or mandibular processes. However, their combination, Six1E, showed robust enhancer activity in these tissues. Similar reporter signal can also be driven by the mouse homolog of Six1E. Mutations of multiple conserved transcriptional factor binding sites altered the enhancer activity of Six1E, especially mutation of the LIM homeobox binding site, dramatically reduced the enhancer activity, implying that the Lhx protein family be an important regulator of Six1 expression. CONCLUSION This study, for the first time, described the synergistic activation of two Six1 enhancers in the maxillary and mandibular processes and will facilitate more detailed studies of the regulation of Six1 in craniofacial development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoming Wu
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Oral Science Research Center, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yanxia Rao
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Sushan Zhang
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Oral Science Research Center, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Eun-Jung Kim
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Oral Science Research Center, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Shinya Oki
- Department of Basic Sciences, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Hidemitsu Harada
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Developmental Biology & Regenerative Medicine, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1 Nishitokuda, Yahaba, Iwate, Japan
| | - Martin Cheung
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Han-Sung Jung
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Oral Science Research Center, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, South Korea
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Cooper RL, Lloyd VJ, Di-Poï N, Fletcher AG, Barrett PM, Fraser GJ. Conserved gene signalling and a derived patterning mechanism underlie the development of avian footpad scales. EvoDevo 2019; 10:19. [PMID: 31428299 PMCID: PMC6693258 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-019-0130-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vertebrates possess a diverse range of integumentary epithelial appendages, including scales, feathers and hair. These structures share extensive early developmental homology, as they mostly originate from a conserved anatomical placode. In the context of avian epithelial appendages, feathers and scutate scales are known to develop from an anatomical placode. However, our understanding of avian reticulate (footpad) scale development remains unclear. RESULTS Here, we demonstrate that reticulate scales develop from restricted circular domains of thickened epithelium, with localised conserved gene expression in both the epithelium and underlying mesenchyme. These domains constitute either anatomical placodes, or circular initiatory fields (comparable to the avian feather tract). Subsequent patterning of reticulate scales is consistent with reaction-diffusion (RD) simulation, whereby this primary domain subdivides into smaller secondary units, which produce individual scales. In contrast, the footpad scales of a squamate model (the bearded dragon, Pogona vitticeps) develop synchronously across the ventral footpad surface. CONCLUSIONS Widely conserved gene signalling underlies the initial development of avian reticulate scales. However, their subsequent patterning is distinct from the footpad scale patterning of a squamate model, and the feather and scutate scale patterning of birds. Therefore, we suggest reticulate scales are a comparatively derived epithelial appendage, patterned through a modified RD system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rory L. Cooper
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Victoria J. Lloyd
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Nicolas Di-Poï
- Program in Developmental Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Paul M. Barrett
- Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Gareth J. Fraser
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
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48
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Shono T, Thiery AP, Cooper RL, Kurokawa D, Britz R, Okabe M, Fraser GJ. Evolution and Developmental Diversity of Skin Spines in Pufferfishes. iScience 2019; 19:1248-1259. [PMID: 31353167 PMCID: PMC6831732 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Teleost fishes develop remarkable varieties of skin ornaments. The developmental basis of these structures is poorly understood. The order Tetraodontiformes includes diverse fishes such as the ocean sunfishes, triggerfishes, and pufferfishes, which exhibit a vast assortment of scale derivatives. Pufferfishes possess some of the most extreme scale derivatives, dermal spines, erected during their characteristic puffing behavior. We demonstrate that pufferfish scale-less spines develop through conserved gene interactions that underlie general vertebrate skin appendage formation, including feathers and hair. Spine development retains conservation of the EDA (ectodysplasin) signaling pathway, important for the development of diverse vertebrate skin appendages, including these modified scale-less spines of pufferfish. Further modification of genetic signaling from both CRISPR-Cas9 and small molecule inhibition leads to loss or reduction of spine coverage, providing a mechanism for skin appendage diversification observed throughout the pufferfishes. Pufferfish spines have evolved broad variations in body coverage, enabling adaptation to diverse ecological niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takanori Shono
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK; Department of Anatomy, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Minato, Tokyo 105-8461, Japan
| | - Alexandre P Thiery
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Rory L Cooper
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Daisuke Kurokawa
- Misaki Marine Biological Station, School of Science, University of Tokyo, Miura, Kanagawa 238-0225, Japan
| | - Ralf Britz
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Masataka Okabe
- Department of Anatomy, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Minato, Tokyo 105-8461, Japan
| | - Gareth J Fraser
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK; Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611, USA.
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49
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Abstract
Periodic patterning represents a fundamental process in tissue morphogenesis. In chicken dorsal skin, feather formation starts from the midline; then the morphogenetic wave propagates bilaterally, leaving a regular hexagonal array of feather germs. Yet, in vitro reconstitution showed feather germs appear simultaneously, leading to the hypothesis that the feather-forming wave results from the coupling of local Turing patterning processes with an unidentified global event. In this issue, Ho and colleagues showed such a global event in chicken feathers involves a spreading Ectodysplasin A (EDA) wave and Fibroblast Growth Factor 20 (FGF20)-cell aggregate-based mechanochemical coupling. In flightless birds, feather germs form periodically but without precise hexagonal patterning due to the lack of global wave. Chicken feather buds form exquisite hexagonal patterns progressively from the midline to the flank, making them an excellent model of biological pattern formation. This Primer explores recent evidence that a local Turing periodic patterning, a global propagation mechanism, and mechano-chemical coupling work together to pattern the feather array progressively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masafumi Inaba
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Hans I-Chen Harn
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- International Research Center of Wound Repair and Regeneration (iWRR), National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- International Research Center of Wound Repair and Regeneration (iWRR), National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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50
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Ho WKW, Freem L, Zhao D, Painter KJ, Woolley TE, Gaffney EA, McGrew MJ, Tzika A, Milinkovitch MC, Schneider P, Drusko A, Matthäus F, Glover JD, Wells KL, Johansson JA, Davey MG, Sang HM, Clinton M, Headon DJ. Feather arrays are patterned by interacting signalling and cell density waves. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000132. [PMID: 30789897 PMCID: PMC6383868 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Feathers are arranged in a precise pattern in avian skin. They first arise during development in a row along the dorsal midline, with rows of new feather buds added sequentially in a spreading wave. We show that the patterning of feathers relies on coupled fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling together with mesenchymal cell movement, acting in a coordinated reaction-diffusion-taxis system. This periodic patterning system is partly mechanochemical, with mechanical-chemical integration occurring through a positive feedback loop centred on FGF20, which induces cell aggregation, mechanically compressing the epidermis to rapidly intensify FGF20 expression. The travelling wave of feather formation is imposed by expanding expression of Ectodysplasin A (EDA), which initiates the expression of FGF20. The EDA wave spreads across a mesenchymal cell density gradient, triggering pattern formation by lowering the threshold of mesenchymal cells required to begin to form a feather bud. These waves, and the precise arrangement of feather primordia, are lost in the flightless emu and ostrich, though via different developmental routes. The ostrich retains the tract arrangement characteristic of birds in general but lays down feather primordia without a wave, akin to the process of hair follicle formation in mammalian embryos. The embryonic emu skin lacks sufficient cells to enact feather formation, causing failure of tract formation, and instead the entire skin gains feather primordia through a later process. This work shows that a reaction-diffusion-taxis system, integrated with mechanical processes, generates the feather array. In flighted birds, the key role of the EDA/Ectodysplasin A receptor (EDAR) pathway in vertebrate skin patterning has been recast to activate this process in a quasi-1-dimensional manner, imposing highly ordered pattern formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K. W. Ho
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy Freem
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Debiao Zhao
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin J. Painter
- School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas E. Woolley
- School of Mathematics, Cardiff University, Cathays, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Eamonn A. Gaffney
- Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. McGrew
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Athanasia Tzika
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Pascal Schneider
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Armin Drusko
- FIAS and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Franziska Matthäus
- FIAS and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - James D. Glover
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kirsty L. Wells
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jeanette A. Johansson
- Cancer Research UK Edinburgh Centre and MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Megan G. Davey
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Helen M. Sang
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Clinton
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Denis J. Headon
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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