Loss of active neuroinvasiveness in attenuated strains of West Nile virus: pathogenicity in immunocompetent and SCID mice

Evolution of Zika virus in Rag1-deficient mice selects for unique envelope glycosylation motif mutants that show enhanced replication fitness

N-linked glycosylation of flavivirus envelope proteins is widely viewed as being required for optimal folding, processing and/or transit of envelope proteins, and the assembling virons, through the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi. Zika virus (ZIKV) has a single N-linked envelope glycan located adjacent to the fusion loop. Herein we show that independent serial passage of ZIKVNatal in Rag1 -/- mice for 223 or 386 days generated two unique envelope glycan-deficient mutants, ZIKV-V153D and ZIKV-N154D, respectively. Surprisingly, these mutants grew to titres ∼1 to 2.6 logs higher than the glycosylated parental ZIKVNatal in Vero E6 cells and human brain organoids. RNA-Seq of infected organoids suggested that this increased replication fitness was associated with upregulation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Cell death, cellular viral RNA, and viral protein levels were not significantly affected, arguing that these glycan mutants enjoyed faster ER/Golgi folding, processing, assembly, transit, and virion egress, assisted by an upregulated UPR. Thus, ZIKV envelope N-linked glycosylation is not essential for promoting envelope folding, assembly, and transit through the ER/Golgi, since aspartic acid (D) substitutions in the glycosylation motif can achieve this with significantly greater efficiency. Instead, the evolution of glycan mutants in Rag1 -/- mice indicates that such envelope glycosylation can have a fitness cost in an environment devoid of virus-specific antibody responses. The V153D and N154D mutations, generated by natural selection in Rag1 -/- mice, have to date not been employed in orthoflavivirus envelope glycosylation studies. Instead, genetic engineering has been used to generate mutant viruses that, for instance, contain a N154A substitution. The latter may impart confounding unfavourable properties, such as envelope protein insolubility, that have a detrimental impact on virus replication. The V153D and N154D substitutions may avoid imparting unfavourable properties by preserving the surface negative charge provided by the glycan moiety in the parental ZIKVNatal envelope protein. In Ifnar1 -/- mice ZIKV-V153D and -N154D showed faster viremia onsets, but reduced viremic periods, than the parental ZIKVNatal, consistent with an established contention that such glycans have evolved to delay neutralizing antibody activity.

New Insights into the Role of the Complement System in Human Viral Diseases

The complement system (CS) is part of the human immune system, consisting of more than 30 proteins that play a vital role in the protection against various pathogens and diseases, including viral diseases. Activated via three pathways, the classical pathway (CP), the lectin pathway (LP), and the alternative pathway (AP), the complement system leads to the formation of a membrane attack complex (MAC) that disrupts the membrane of target cells, leading to cell lysis and death. Due to the increasing number of reports on its role in viral diseases, which may have implications for research on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), this review aims to highlight significant progress in understanding and defining the role of the complement system in four groups of diseases of viral etiology: (1) respiratory diseases; (2) acute liver failure (ALF); (3) disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC); and (4) vector-borne diseases (VBDs). Some of these diseases already present a serious global health problem, while others are a matter of concern and require the collaboration of relevant national services and scientists with the World Health Organization (WHO) to avoid their spread.

Obesity Enhances Disease Severity in Female Mice Following West Nile Virus Infection

A rise in adiposity in the United States has resulted in more than 70% of adults being overweight or obese, and global obesity rates have tripled since 1975. Following the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, obesity was characterized as a risk factor that could predict severe infection outcomes to viral infection. Amidst the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, obesity has remained a significant risk factor for severe viral disease as obese patients have a higher likelihood for developing severe symptoms and requiring hospitalization. However, the mechanism by which obesity enhances viral disease is unknown. In this study, we utilized a diet-induced obesity mouse model of West Nile virus (WNV) infection, a flavivirus that cycles between birds and mosquitoes and incidentally infects both humans and mice. Likelihood for severe WNV disease is associated with risk factors such as diabetes that are comorbidities also linked to obesity. Utilizing this model, we showed that obesity-associated chronic inflammation increased viral disease severity as obese female mice displayed higher mortality rates and elevated viral titers in the central nervous system. In addition, our studies highlighted that obesity also dysregulates host acute adaptive immune responses, as obese female mice displayed significant dysfunction in neutralizing antibody function. These studies highlight that obesity-induced immunological dysfunction begins at early time points post infection and is sustained through memory phase, thus illuminating a potential for obesity to alter the differentiation landscape of adaptive immune cells.

Immunoinformatics and molecular dynamics approaches: Next generation vaccine design against West Nile virus

West Nile Virus (WNV) is a life threatening flavivirus that causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. No preventive therapeutics including vaccines against WNV are available for human use. In this study, immunoinformatics approach was performed to design a multi epitope-based subunit vaccine against this deadly pathogen. Human (HLA) and Mice (H-2) allele specific potential T-cell and B-cell epitopes were shortlisted through a stringent procedure. Molecular docking showed selected epitopes that have stronger binding affinity with human TLR-4. Molecular dynamics simulation confirmed the stable nature of the docked complex. Furthermore, in silico cloning analysis ensures efficient expression of desired gene in the microbial system. Interestingly, previous studies showed that two of our selected epitopes have strong immune response against WNV. Therefore, selected epitopes could be strong vaccine candidates to prevent WNV infections in human. However, further in vitro and in vivo investigations could be strengthening the validation of the vaccine candidate against WNV.

Acute RNA Viral Encephalomyelitis and the Role of Antibodies in the Central Nervous System

Acute RNA viral encephalomyelitis is a serious complication of numerous virus infections. Antibodies in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) are correlated to better outcomes, and there is substantive evidence of antibody secreting cells (ASCs) entering the central nervous system (CNS) and contributing to resolution of infection. Here, we review the RNA viruses known to cause acute viral encephalomyelitis with mechanisms of control that require antibody or ASCs. We compile the cytokines, chemokines, and surface receptors associated with ASC recruitment to the CNS after infection and compare known antibody-mediated mechanisms as well as potential noncytolytic mechanisms for virus control. These non-canonical functions of antibodies may be employed in the CNS to protect precious non-renewable neurons. Understanding the immune-specialized zone of the CNS is essential for the development of effective treatments for acute encephalomyelitis caused by RNA viruses.

Encephalitic Arboviruses: Emergence, Clinical Presentation, and Neuropathogenesis

Arboviruses are arthropod-borne viruses that exhibit worldwide distribution, contributing to systemic and neurologic infections in a variety of geographical locations. Arboviruses are transmitted to vertebral hosts during blood feedings by mosquitoes, ticks, biting flies, mites, and nits. While the majority of arboviral infections do not lead to neuroinvasive forms of disease, they are among the most severe infectious risks to the health of the human central nervous system. The neurologic diseases caused by arboviruses include meningitis, encephalitis, myelitis, encephalomyelitis, neuritis, and myositis in which virus- and immune-mediated injury may lead to severe, persisting neurologic deficits or death. Here we will review the major families of emerging arboviruses that cause neurologic infections, their neuropathogenesis and host neuroimmunologic responses, and current strategies for treatment and prevention of neurologic infections they cause.

Formation of fibroblastic reticular network in the brain after infection with neurovirulent murine coronavirus

cl‐2 virus is an extremely neurovirulent murine coronavirus. However, during the initial phase of infection between 12 and 24 h post‐inoculation (hpi), the viral antigens are detected only in the meninges, followed by viral spread into the ventricular wall before invasion into the brain parenchyma, indicating that the viruses employ a passage between the meninges and ventricular wall as an entry route into the brain parenchyma. At 48 hpi, the passage was found to be constructed by ER‐TR7 antigen (ERag)‐positive fibers (ERfibs) associated with laminin and collagen III between the fourth ventricle and meninges at the cerebellopontine angle. The construct of the fibers mimics the reticular fibers of the fibroblastic reticular network, which comprises a conduit system in the lymphoid organs. In the meninges, ERfibs together with collagen fibers, lining in a striped pattern, made up a pile of thin sheets. In the brain parenchyma, mature ERfibs associated with laminin were found around blood vessels. Besides mature ERfibs, immature Erfibs without associations with other extracellular matrix components like laminin and collagen appeared after infection, suggesting that the CNS creates a unique conduit system for immune communication triggered by viral invasion.

MicroRNA-based control of tick-borne flavivirus neuropathogenesis: Challenges and perspectives

In recent years, microRNA-targeting has become an effective strategy for selective control of tissue-tropism and pathogenicity of both DNA and RNA viruses. Previously, we reported the successful application of this strategy to control the neurovirulent phenotype of a model chimeric tick-borne encephalitis/dengue type 4 virus (TBEV/DEN4), containing the structural protein genes of a highly virulent TBEV in the genetic backbone of non-neuroinvasive DEN4 virus. In the present study, we investigated the suitability of this approach for the attenuation of the more neurovirulent chimeric virus (TBEV/LGTV), which is based on the genetic backbone of the naturally attenuated member of the TBEV serocomplex, a Langat virus (LGTV). Unlike the TBEV/DEN4, the TBEV/LGTV virus retained the ability of its parental viruses to spread from the peripheral site of inoculation to the CNS. We evaluated ten potential sites in the 3'NCR of the TBEV/LGTV genome for placement of microRNA (miRNA) targets and found that the TBEV/LGTV genome is more restrictive for such genetic manipulations compared to TBEV/DEN4. In addition, unlike TBEV/DEN4 virus, the introduction of multiple miRNA targets into either the 3'NCR or ORF of the TBEV/LGTV genome had only a modest effect on virus attenuation in the developing CNS of highly permissive newborn mice. However, simultaneous miRNA-targeting in the ORF and 3'NCR had synergistic effect on control and silencing of virus replication in the brain and completely abolished the virus neurotropism. Furthermore, neuroinvasiveness of miRNA-targeted TBEV/LGTV viruses in very sensitive immunodeficient SCID mice was significantly limited. Immunocompetent animals immunized with such viruses were completely protected against challenge with the neurovirulent LGTV parent. These findings support the rationale of the miRNA-targeting approach to develop live attenuated virus vaccines against various neurotropic viruses.

Increased pathogenicity of West Nile virus (WNV) by glycosylation of envelope protein and seroprevalence of WNV in wild birds in Far Eastern Russia

In this review, we discuss the possibility that the glycosylation of West Nile (WN) virus E-protein may be associated with enhanced pathogenicity and higher replication of WN virus. The results indicate that E-protein glycosylation allows the virus to multiply in a heat-stable manner and therefore, has a critical role in enhanced viremic levels and virulence of WN virus in young-chick infection model. The effect of the glycosylation of the E protein on the pathogenicity of WN virus in young chicks was further investigated. The results indicate that glycosylation of the WN virus E protein is important for viral multiplication in peripheral organs and that it is associated with the strong pathogenicity of WN virus in birds. The micro-focus reduction neutralization test (FRNT) in which a large number of serum samples can be handled at once with a small volume (15 μL) of serum was useful for differential diagnosis between Japanese encephalitis and WN virus infections in infected chicks. Serological investigation was performed among wild birds in the Far Eastern region of Russia using the FRNT. Antibodies specific to WN virus were detected in 21 samples of resident and migratory birds out of 145 wild bird samples in the region.

Development of a strand-specific real-time qRT-PCR for the accurate detection and quantitation of West Nile virus RNA

Studying the tropism and replication kinetics of West Nile virus (WNV) in different cell types in vitro and in tissues in animal models is important for understanding its pathogenesis. As detection of the negative strand viral RNA is a more reliable indicator of active replication for single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses, the specificity of qRT-PCR assays currently used for the detection of WNV positive and negative strand RNA was reassessed. It was shown that self- and falsely-primed cDNA was generated during the reverse transcription step in an assay employing unmodified primers and several reverse transcriptases. As a result, a qRT-PCR assay using the thermostable rTth in combination with tagged primers was developed, which greatly improved strand specificity by circumventing the events of self- and false-priming. The reliability of the assay was then addressed in vitro using BV-2 microglia cells as well as in C57/BL6 mice. It was possible to follow the kinetics of positive and negative-strand RNA synthesis both in vitro and in vivo; however, the sensitivity of the assay will need to be optimized in order to detect and quantify negative-strand RNA synthesis in the very early stages of infection. Overall, the strand-specific qRT-PCR assay developed in this study is an effective tool to quantify WNV RNA, reassess viral replication, and study tropism of WNV in the context of WNV pathogenesis.

Immune evasion strategies of flaviviruses

Flavivirus is a genus of the family Flaviviridae. It includes West Nile virus (WNV), dengue virus (DENV), yellow fever virus (YFV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), and several other viruses which lead to extensive morbidity and mortality in humans. To establish infection and replication in the hosts, flaviviruses have evolved a variety of strategies to modulate the host's immune responses. In this review, the strategies employed by flaviviruses to evade the innate and adaptive immunity of host are summarized based on current studies, with a major focus on the inhibition of interferon, complement, natural killer (NK) cell, B cell, and T cell responses. This review aims to provide an overview of the current understanding for the mechanisms used by flaviviruses to escape the host's immune response, which will facilitate the future studies on flavivirus pathogenesis and the development of anti-flavivirus therapeutics.

Role of γδ T cells in West Nile virus-induced encephalitis: friend or foe?

West Nile virus (WNV)-induced encephalitis has been a public health concern in North America over the past decade. No therapeutics or vaccines are available for human use. Studies in animal models have provided important information for investigations of WNV pathogenesis and the host immune response in humans. This article will give an overview of the role of γδ T cells, one of the non-classical T cell subsets in the murine model of WNV encephalitis.

Determinants of attenuation in the envelope protein of the flavivirus Alfuy

Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus endemic to Australia and Papua New Guinea. Most strains of MVEV cause potentially fatal cases of encephalitis in humans and horses, and have been shown to be highly neuroinvasive in weanling mice. In contrast, the naturally occurring subtype Alfuy virus (ALFV) has never been associated with human disease, nor is it neuroinvasive in weanling mice, even at high doses. To identify viral factors associated with ALFV attenuation, a chimeric infectious clone was constructed containing the structural genes premembrane (prM) and envelope (E) of ALFV swapped into the MVEV genome. The resulting virus (vMVEV/ALFVstr) was no longer neuroinvasive in mice, suggesting that motifs within prM-E of ALFV confer attenuation. To define these motifs further, mutants were constructed by targeting divergent sequences between the MVEV and ALFV E proteins that are known markers of virulence in other encephalitic flaviviruses. MVEV mutants containing a unique ALFV sequence in the flexible hinge region (residues 273-277) or lacking the conserved glycosylation site at position 154 were significantly less neuroinvasive in mice than wild-type MVEV, as determined by delayed time to death or increased LD(50). Conversely, when the corresponding MVEV sequences were inserted into the vMVEV/ALFVstr chimera, the mutant containing the MVEV hinge sequence was more neuroinvasive than the parental chimera, though not to the same level as wild-type MVEV. These results identify the hinge region and E protein glycosylation as motifs that contribute to the attenuation of ALFV.

West Nile virus: immunity and pathogenesis

West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic, arthropod-borne flavivirus that is maintained in an enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and birds, but can also infect and cause disease in horses and humans. WNV is endemic in parts of Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, and since 1999 has spread to North America, Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean. WNV infects the central nervous system (CNS) and can cause severe disease in a small minority of infected humans, mostly immunocompromised or the elderly. This review discusses some of the mechanisms by which the immune system can limit dissemination of WNV infection and elaborates on the mechanisms involved in pathogenesis. Reasons for susceptibility to WNV-associated neuroinvasive disease in less than 1% of cases remain unexplained, but one favored hypothesis is that the involvement of the CNS is associated with a weak immune response allowing robust WNV replication in the periphery and spread of the virus to the CNS.

Clinical and acquired immunologic responses to West Nile virus infection of domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus)

Numerous bird species are highly susceptible to North American strains of West Nile virus (WNV), and although domestic chickens are relatively resistant to WNV-associated disease, this species currently represents the most practical avian model for immune responses to WNV infection. Knowledge of the immunomodulation of susceptibility to WNV in birds is important for understanding taxonomic differences in infection outcomes. While focusing on immunophenotyping of CD3(+), CD4(+), CD8(+), and CD45(+) lymphocyte subpopulations, we compared lymphocyte subpopulations, blood chemistries, cloacal temperatures, IgM and IgG antibody titers, and differential whole-blood cell counts of WNV-infected and uninfected hens. Total blood calcium and lymphocyte numbers were lower in WNV-infected chickens compared with uninfected chickens. The heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio increased over time from 2 to 22 d postinoculation (DPI) in uninfected chickens and from 2 to 8 DPI in WNV-infected chickens, although levels declined from 8 to 22 DPI in the latter group. No significant differences were found in the remaining immunological and hematological variables of the WNV-infected and uninfected groups. Our results reaffirm that chickens are resistant to WNV infection, and demonstrated that the heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio differed between groups, allowing for sorting of infection status. Similar patterns in immune responses over time in both infected and uninfected hens may be related to age (i.e., 10 wk) and associated immune development.

Transcellular transport of West Nile virus-like particles across human endothelial cells depends on residues 156 and 159 of envelope protein

Background

West Nile virus (WNV) causes viremia after invasion to the hosts by mosquito bite. Endothelial cells could play an important role in WNV spread from the blood stream into the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Here, we analyzed the capacity of virus-like particles (VLPs) of the highly virulent NY99 6-LP strain (6-LP VLPs) and the low virulence Eg101 strain (Eg VLPs) to cross cultured human endothelial cells.

Results

6-LP VLPs were transported from the apical to basolateral side of endothelial cells, whereas Eg VLPs were hardly transported. The localization of tight junction marker ZO-1 and the integrity of tight junctions were not impaired during the transport of 6-LP VLPs. The transport of 6-LP VLPs was inhibited by treatment with filipin, which prevents the formation of cholesterol-dependent membrane rafts, suggesting the involvement of raft-associated membrane transport. To determine the amino acid residues responsible for the transport of VLPs, we produced mutant VLPs, in which residues of E protein were exchanged between the 6-LP and Eg strains. Double amino acid substitution of the residues 156 and 159 greatly impaired the transport of VLPs.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that a transcellular pathway is associated with 6-LP VLPs transport. We also showed that the combination of the residues 156 and 159 plays an important role in the transport of VLPs across endothelial cells.

Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) surveillance for arboviruses in an area endemic for West Nile (Lineage Rabensburg) and Tahyna viruses in Central Europe

Six viral isolates were obtained from 23,243 female mosquitoes (examined in 513 pools) belonging to 16 species and collected along the lower reaches of the Dyje River in South Moravia (Czech Republic, central Europe) during 2006-2008: five isolates of Orthobunyavirus Tahyna (TAHV, California group, family Bunyaviridae: three isolations from Aedes vexans (Meigen), one from Ae. sticticus (Meigen), one from Culex modestus Ficalbi); and one isolation of Flavivirus West Nile (WNV, Japanese encephalitis group, family Flaviviridae)-strain Rabensburg (proposed lineage 3 of WNV) from Ae. rossicus (Dolbeshkin et al). All viral isolates were recovered from mosquitoes collected in 2006 (15,882 mosquitoes examined), while no virus was isolated from mosquitoes trapped in 2007 and 2008, when 1,555 and 5,806 mosquitoes were examined, respectively. The population density of local mosquitoes was very low in 2007 and 2008 because of warm and dry summer including a considerably low water table, compared with environmental conditions favorable for mosquito development in 2006. The virus isolation procedure was based on intracerebral inoculation of newborn mice. In parallel, more than one-third of the samples (183 pools consisting of 8,470 individual mosquitoes) were also examined by inoculating Vero cell cultures in Leighton tubes. However, the latter method detected only three of the six virus isolates (including WNV-Rabensburg). Ae. rossicus is a new potential vector for WNV-Rabensburg. This species feeds mostly on mammals including man; this raises the question whether this virus lineage is not adapted to an alternative mosquito-mammal cycle in the South-Moravian natural focus.

Glycosylation of the West Nile Virus envelope protein increases in vivo and in vitro viral multiplication in birds

Many West Nile (WN) virus isolates associated with significant outbreaks possess a glycosylation site on the envelope (E) protein. E-protein glycosylated variants of New York (NY) strains of WN virus are more neuroinvasive in mice than the non-glycosylated variants. To determine how E protein glycosylation affects the interactions between WN virus and avian hosts, we inoculated young chicks with NY strains of WN virus containing either glycosylated or non-glycosylated variants of the E protein. The glycosylated variants were more virulent and had higher viremic levels than the non-glycosylated variants. The glycosylation status of the variant did not affect viral multiplication and dissemination in mosquitoes in vivo. Glycosylated variants showed more heat-stable propagation than non-glycosylated variants in mammalian (BHK) and avian (QT6) cells but not in mosquito (C6/36) cells. Thus, E-protein glycosylation may be a requirement for efficient transmission of WN virus from avian hosts to mosquito vectors.

Declining mortality in American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) following natural West Nile virus infection

Increased viremia and deaths in American Crows inoculated with a North American West Nile viral genotype indicate that viral genetic determinants enhance avian pathogenicity and increase transmission potential of WNV.

Crow deaths were observed after West Nile virus (WNV) was introduced into North America, and this phenomenon has subsequently been used to monitor the spread of the virus. To investigate potential differences in the crow virulence of different WNV strains, American Crows were inoculated with Old World strains of WNV from Kenya and Australia (Kunjin) and a North American (NY99) WNV genotype. Infection of crows with NY99 genotype resulted in high serum viremia levels and death; the Kenyan and Kunjin genotypes elicited low viremia levels and minimal deaths but resulted in the generation of neutralizing antibodies capable of providing 100% protection from infection with the NY99 strain. These results suggest that genetic alterations in NY99 WNV are responsible for the crow-virulent phenotype and that increased replication of this strain in crows could spread WNV in North America.

Characterization of West Nile virus isolates from Spain: new insights into the distinct West Nile virus eco-epidemiology in the Western Mediterranean

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus which causes important morbidity and mortality in birds, horses and humans. In the Western Mediterranean region, WNV causes sporadic, self-limited outbreaks, with few or no human cases. Here we report the characterization of two recent Western Mediterranean WNV isolates, obtained in Spain in 2007 from two golden eagles. Complete genome sequence comparisons revealed high identity between these isolates and close relationship with other Western Mediterranean WNV strains isolated since 1996. Phylogenetic analysis within this group indicated that two distinct phylogenetic groups have emerged from earlier strains. Pathogenicity analysis in mice showed that the Spanish isolate is less pathogenic than other strains either from the Western Mediterranean (Morocco 2003) or from North America (NY'99). Changes in amino acid position NS3-249 (claimed as a virulence marker) did not influence the pathogenicity observed.

Progress on the development of therapeutics against West Nile virus

A decade has passed since the appearance of West Nile virus (WNV) in humans in the Western Hemisphere in New York City. During this interval, WNV spread inexorably throughout North and South America and caused millions of infections ranging from a sub-clinical illness, to a self-limiting febrile syndrome or lethal neuroinvasive disease. Its entry into the United States triggered intensive research into the basic biology of WNV and the elements that comprise a protective host immune response. Although no therapy is currently approved for use in humans, several strategies are being pursued to develop effective prophylaxis and treatments. This review describes the current state of knowledge on epidemiology, clinical presentation, pathogenesis, and immunobiology of WNV infection, and highlights progress toward an effective therapy.

Changing patterns of West Nile virus transmission: altered vector competence and host susceptibility

West Nile virus (WNV) is a flavivirus (Flaviviridae) transmitted between Culex spp. mosquitoes and avian hosts. The virus has dramatically expanded its geographic range in the past ten years. Increases in global commerce, climate change, ecological factors and the emergence of novel viral genotypes likely play significant roles in the emergence of this virus; however, the exact mechanism and relative importance of each is uncertain. Previously WNV was primarily associated with febrile illness of children in endemic areas, but it was identified as a cause of neurological disease in humans in 1994. This modulation in disease presentation could be the result of the emergence of a more virulent genotype as well as the progression of the virus into areas in which the age structure of immunologically naïve individuals makes them more susceptible to severe neurological disease. Since its introduction to North America in 1999, a novel WNV genotype has been identified that has been demonstrated to disseminate more rapidly and with greater efficiency at elevated temperatures than the originally introduced strain, indicating the potential importance of temperature as a selective criteria for the emergence of WNV genotypes with increased vectorial capacity. Even prior to the North American introduction, a mutation associated with increased replication in avian hosts, identified to be under adaptive evolutionary pressure, has been identified, indicating that adaptation for increased replication within vertebrate hosts could play a role in increased transmission efficiency. Although stable in its evolutionary structure, WNV has demonstrated the capacity for rapidly adapting to both vertebrate hosts and invertebrate vectors and will likely continue to exploit novel ecological niches as it adapts to novel transmission foci.

Using high titer West Nile intravenous immunoglobulin from selected Israeli donors for treatment of West Nile virus infection

BACKGROUND

West Nile Virus (WNV) is endemic in Israel and a significant level of antibodies is present in the population due to natural exposure. Anecdotal cases suggested that the presence of anti-WNV antibodies in intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) from Israeli donors (IVIG-IL) assisted the recovery of patients with severe WNV infection.

METHODS

To enhance the therapeutic efficacy of IVIG-IL against WNV infection, OMRIX Biopharmaceuticals, Israel, have developed a strategy for selection of plasma units from a 10% fraction of Israeli blood donors with anti-WNV antibodies. Positive units were processed into pharmaceutical grade WNV IVIG (WNIG). Following inoculation with WNV, mice received i.p. injections of different doses (0.01-8 mg/mouse) of IVIG-IL or WNIG, according to the specific experimental protocol.

RESULTS

WNIG was about 10 times more potent (per gr of IgG) than was regular IVIG-IL when tested by ELISA and neutralization assays. In a mouse lethal WNV infection model, prophylactic treatment with WNIG was at least 5-10-fold more potent as compared to treatment with IVIG-IL. Treatment with WNIG during active encephalitis, three or four days following WNV infection, had a significant protective effect. WNIG was also very effective in protecting immunosuppressed mice. Indeed, treatment of dexamethasone-immunosuppressed mice with 0.2 or 1.0 mg WNIG 4 h after virus infection, led to 100% survival.

CONCLUSION

IVIG produced from selected plasma donated in WNV endemic regions can be used to produce WNV IVIG with superior activity for therapeutic and prophylactic measures.

The Human Antibody Response Against WNV

Experimental evidence has shown that antibody responses to West Nile virus (WNV) are critical for protection from WNV-mediated disease. Antibody responses are also an important immune correlate of protection for the clinical evaluation of WNV vaccines. However, little direct study has been carried out on the characteristics of the human antibody response to natural WNV infection. Preliminary evidence suggests that there are important differences in the way humans and experimental animals mount humoral responses to WNV. In humans, IgM is remarkably persistent in the serum and specific IgG is slow to appear. In addition, mapping of the IgG response to the functionally relevant E-protein suggests that it directed away from critical protective epitopes and towards weakly neutralizing immunodominant epitopes. These findings have important implications for vaccine design and testing.

Structural insights into the mechanisms of antibody-mediated neutralization of flavivirus infection: implications for vaccine development

Flaviviruses are a group of small RNA viruses that cause severe disease in humans worldwide and are the target of several vaccine development programs. A primary goal of these efforts is to elicit a protective humoral response directed against the envelope proteins arrayed on the surface of the flavivirus virion. Advances in the structural biology of these viruses has catalyzed rapid progress toward understanding the complexity of the flavivirus immunogen and the molecular basis of antibody-mediated neutralization. These insights have identified factors that govern the potency of neutralizing antibodies and will inform the design and evaluation of novel vaccines.

Drak2 contributes to West Nile virus entry into the brain and lethal encephalitis

Death-associated protein kinase-related apoptosis-inducing kinase-2 (Drak2), a member of the death-associated protein family of serine/threonine kinases, is specifically expressed in T and B cells. In the absence of Drak2, mice are resistant to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis due to a decrease in the number of cells infiltrating the CNS. In the present study, we investigated the role of Drak2 in West Nile virus (WNV)-induced encephalitis and found that Drak2(-/-) mice were also more resistant to lethal WNV infection than wild-type mice. Although Drak2(-/-) mice had an increase in the number of IFN-gamma-producing T cells in the spleen after infection, viral levels in the peripheral tissues were not significantly different between these two groups of mice. In contrast, there was a reduced viral load in the brains of Drak2(-/-) mice, which was accompanied by a decrease in the number of Drak2(-/-) CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the brain following WNV infection. Moreover, we detected viral Ags in T cells isolated from the spleen or brain of WNV-infected mice. These results suggest that following a systemic infection, WNV might cross the blood brain barrier and enter the CNS by being carried by infected infiltrating T cells.

Role of two distinct gammadelta T cell subsets during West Nile virus infection

gammadelta T cells respond rapidly following West Nile virus (WNV) infection, limiting viremia and invasion of the central nervous system and thereby protecting the host from lethal encephalitis. Here, we investigated the role of two major subpopulations of peripheral gammadelta T cells, Vgamma1(+) and Vgamma4(+) cells, in host immunity against WNV infection. We found initially that aged mice were more susceptible to WNV infection than young mice. Following WNV challenge, Vgamma1(+) cells in young mice expanded significantly whereas Vgamma4(+) cells expanded modestly. In contrast, aged mice exhibited a slower and reduced response of Vgamma1(+) cells but maintained a higher content of Vgamma4(+) cells. Vgamma1(+) cells were the major gammadelta subset producing IFN-gamma during WNV infection. Mice depleted of Vgamma1(+) cells had an enhanced viremia and higher mortality to WNV encephalitis. Vgamma4(+) cells had a higher potential for producing tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), a cytokine known to be involved in blood-brain barrier compromise and WNV entry into the brain. Depletion of Vgamma4(+) cells reduced TNF-alpha level in the periphery, accompanied by a decreased viral load in the brain and a lower mortality to WN encephalitis. These results suggest that Vgamma1(+) and Vgamma4(+) cells play distinct roles in protection and pathogenesis during WNV infection.

West Nile 25A virus infection of B-cell-deficient ((micro)MT) mice: characterization of neuroinvasiveness and pseudoreversion of the viral envelope protein

The attenuated West Nile virus 25A strain (WN25A) was investigated for its neuroinvasive properties in B-cell-deficient (microMT) mice. After peripheral inoculation, WN25A caused fatal encephalitis in the majority of 6-8-week-old mice, characterized by a systemic infection with viraemia, moderate virus burdens in peripheral tissues and a high titre of brain-associated virus. Mice generally succumbed to infection within a few weeks of infection. However, others survived for as long as 10 weeks, and some for even longer. Normal age-matched C57BL/6 mice showed no signs of illness after inoculation with WN25A virus. Nucleotide sequencing of WN25A viruses recovered from the brains of B-cell-deficient mice revealed that the conserved N-linked glycosylation site in the viral envelope protein was abolished by substitution of a serine residue at position 155. This was found to be a pseudoreversion relative to the wild-type WN-Israel strain, based on virulence testing of one such brain-associated virus in both B-cell-deficient and normal C57BL/6 mice. This study provides further characterization of the mouse virulence properties of the attenuated WN25A virus in the context of B-cell deficiency. Replication in these mice does not involve rapid neuroadaptation or reversion of WN25A virus to a neuroinvasive phenotype. Molecular modelling studies suggest a difference in local structure of the E protein associated with either an asparagine or serine residue at position 155 compared with the tyrosine found in the virulent parental WN-Israel virus.

Phylogenetic and evolutionary analyses of St. Louis encephalitis virus genomes

St. Louis encephalitis virus belongs to the Japanese encephalitis virus serocomplex of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. Since the first known epidemic in 1933, the virus has been isolated from a variety of geographical, temporal, and host origins. We have sequenced 10,236 nucleotides of the open reading frame (93.6% of the full-length genome) of 23 of these strains, and have used the sequences to conduct phylogenetic analyses, in order to investigate the forces shaping the evolution of St. Louis encephalitis virus. Contrary to previous reports, we found little evidence for recombination in these isolates. Most of the amino acid sites in the SLEV polyprotein appeared to be under negative selection, with some sites evolving neutrally, and a small number under positive selection. The strongest signal for positive selection was evident in the N-linked glycosylation site of the envelope protein. Intra-strain sequence variability within strains was observed at this site, and analyses suggested that it is under selection in vitro. Furthermore, using heterochronous sequence data, we estimated the most recent expansion of St. Louis encephalitis virus in North America to have happened towards the end of the 19th century.

The molecular basis of antibody protection against West Nile virus

West Nile virus (WNV) infection of mosquitoes, birds, and vertebrates continues to spread in the Western Hemisphere. In humans, WNV infects the central nervous system and causes severe disease, primarily in the immunocompromised and elderly. In this review we discuss the mechanisms by which antibody controls WNV infection. Recent virologic, immunologic, and structural experiments have enhanced our understanding on how antibodies neutralize WNV and protect against disease. These advances have significant implications for the development of novel antibody-based therapies and targeted vaccines.

Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) develop West Nile virus viremias sufficient for infecting select mosquito species

The potential of the eastern cottontail rabbit (CTR; Sylvilagus floridanus) to contribute to an enzootic West Nile virus (WNV) cycle was demonstrated by characterizing the WNV viremia profile of 15 CTRs and demonstrating that mosquitoes could become infected by feeding on these CTRs. Eight CTRs were infected with a titer of 10(5.0) cell-infectious dose 50% endpoints (CID50s) of WNV (NY99-Crow) by needle and seven CTRs by bite of one or more WNV-infected mosquitoes. There were no marked differences between the WNV viremia profiles of CTRs infected by either method. West Nile virus was detected in serums of all CTRs by 24 h p.i. The daily mean titers of all 15 CTRs on days 1-4 p.i. were 10(4.1+/-0.4), 10(4.7+/-0.3), 10(4.1+/-0.6), and 10(3.7+/-0.6) respectively, declining to 10(1.2+/-0.1) CID50s/ml of serum by day 6 p.i. No virus was detected in the blood of any CTR on day 7 p.i. The average duration of WNV titers of >or=10(4.3) and <10(5.0) CID50s/mL for all CTRs was 2.2 +/- 0.6 and 1.0 +/- 0.1 days, respectively. The minimum estimated infection rates (MEIRs) of Culex pipiens (L.) and Culex salinarius (Coq.) that fed on CTRs with titers of >or=10(4.3) and >10(5.0) were 11.5 +/- 5.5 and 21 +/- 6.0%, respectively. These rates increased to 20.5 +/- 6.4% and 25.0 +/- 3.0% when CTR serum titers were >10(5.0) CID50s/mL. Neither Aedes aegypti (L.) nor Aedes albopictus (Skuse) were infected by feeding on CTRs with titers of <10(5.0) CID50s/mL. The MEIRs of these two species were 11.5 +/- 3.5% and 1.5 +/- 0.5% after feeding on CTRs with titers of >10(5.0) CID50s/ml. None of the CTRs infected by mosquito bite or by needle showed any symptoms of WNV disease.

CD8(+) T cell-mediated immune responses in West Nile virus (Sarafend strain) encephalitis are independent of gamma interferon

The flavivirus West Nile virus (WNV) can cause fatal encephalitis in humans and mice. It has recently been demonstrated, in an experimental model using WNV strain Sarafend and C57BL/6 mice, that both virus- and immune-mediated pathology is involved in WNV encephalitis, with CD8(+) T cells being the dominant subpopulation of lymphocyte infiltrates in the brain. Here, the role of activated WNV-immune CD8(+) T cells in mouse WNV encephalitis was investigated further. Passive transfer of WNV-immune CD8(+) T cells reduced mortality significantly and prolonged survival times of mice infected with WNV. Early infiltration of WNV-immune CD8(+) T cells into infected brains is shown, suggesting a beneficial contribution of these lymphocytes to recovery from encephalitis. This antiviral function was not markedly mediated by gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), as a deficiency in IFN-gamma did not affect mortality to two strains of WNV (Sarafend and Kunjin) or brain virus titres significantly. The cytolytic potential, as well as precursor frequency, of WNV-immune CD8(+) T cells were not altered by the absence of IFN-gamma. This was reflected in transfer experiments of WNV-immune CD8(+) T cells from IFN-gamma(-/-) mice into WNV-infected wild-type mice, which showed that IFN-gamma-deficient T cells were as effective as those from WNV-immune wild-type mice in ameliorating disease outcome. It is speculated here that one of the pleiotropic functions of IFN-gamma is mimicked by WNV-Sarafend-mediated upregulation of cell-surface expression of major histocompatibility complex antigens, which may explain the lack of phenotype of IFN-gamma(-/-) mice in response to WNV.

The neutralizing antibody response against West Nile virus in naturally infected horses

A major neutralizing epitope (here referred to as the T332 epitope) located on the lateral surface of domain III (DIII) of the West Nile virus (WNV) envelope protein has been identified based on the analysis of murine monoclonal antibodies. However, little is known about the humoral immune response against WNV in a natural host or whether DIII in general or the T332 epitope in particular are important targets of neutralizing antibodies in vivo. To characterize the types of antibodies produced during infection with WNV, we studied a group of naturally infected horses. Using immune adsorption assays coupled with the use of virus particles bearing mutations in the T332 epitope, we found that in some animals neutralizing activity against DIII and the T332 epitope was below the limit of detection. In contrast, some animals generated a significant fraction of neutralizing activity to DIII and the T332 epitope. Thus, while antibodies to the T332 epitope did not represent a significant fraction of the total antibody response in the infected animals studied, in some horses, they comprised a significant fraction of neutralizing activity, making this an important but far from dominant neutralizing epitope. Rather, the neutralizing response to WNV generated in infected horses is both variable and polyclonal in nature, with epitopes within and outside of DIII playing important roles.

Chimeric West Nile/dengue virus vaccine candidate: preclinical evaluation in mice, geese and monkeys for safety and immunogenicity

A live attenuated virus vaccine is being developed to protect against West Nile virus (WN) disease in humans. Previously, it was found that chimeric West Nile/dengue viruses (WN/DEN4 and WN/DEN4Delta30) bearing the membrane precursor and envelope protein genes of WN on a backbone of dengue type 4 virus (DEN4) with or without a deletion of 30 nucleotides (Delta30) in the 3' noncoding region of the DEN4 part of the chimeric genome were attenuated and efficacious in mice and monkeys against WN challenge. Here, we report the generation of a clinical lot of WN/DEN4Delta30 virus and its further preclinical evaluation for safety and immunogenicity in mice, geese and monkeys. The vaccine candidate had lost neuroinvasiveness in highly sensitive immunodeficient mice inoculated intraperitoneally and had greatly reduced neurovirulence in suckling mice inoculated intracerebrally (IC). Compared to the wild-type WN parent, the chimeric virus was highly restricted in replication in both murine and human neuroblastoma cells as well as in brains of suckling mice. The WN/DEN4Delta30 virus failed to infect geese, indicating that chimerization of WN with DEN4 completely attenuated WN for this avian host. This observation suggests that the WN/DEN4 chimeric viruses would be restricted in their ability to be transmitted from vaccinees to domestic or wild birds. In monkeys, the WN/DEN4Delta30 vaccine candidate was highly immunogenic despite its low level of replication with undetectable viremia. Furthermore, the WN/DEN4Delta30 vaccine virus was safe and readily induced neutralizing antibodies against WN in monkeys immune to each of the four serotypes of dengue virus. These studies confirm the attenuation of WN/DEN4Delta30 for non-human primates, including dengue-immune monkeys, and demonstrate both a highly restricted replication (>10(8)-fold decrease) in the brain of mice inoculated IC and an absence of infectivity for birds, findings that indicate this vaccine should be safe for both the recipient and the environment.

Gamma interferon plays a crucial early antiviral role in protection against West Nile virus infection

West Nile virus (WNV) causes a severe central nervous system (CNS) infection in humans, primarily in the elderly and immunocompromised. Prior studies have established an essential protective role of several innate immune response elements, including alpha/beta interferon (IFN-alpha/beta), immunoglobulin M, gammadelta T cells, and complement against WNV infection. In this study, we demonstrate that a lack of IFN-gamma production or signaling results in increased vulnerability to lethal WNV infection by a subcutaneous route in mice, with a rise in mortality from 30% (wild-type mice) to 90% (IFN-gamma(-/-) or IFN-gammaR(-/-) mice) and a decrease in the average survival time. This survival pattern in IFN-gamma(-/-) and IFN-gammaR(-/-) mice correlated with higher viremia and greater viral replication in lymphoid tissues. The increase in peripheral infection led to early CNS seeding since infectious WNV was detected several days earlier in the brains and spinal cords of IFN-gamma(-/-) or IFN-gammaR(-/-) mice. Bone marrow reconstitution experiments showed that gammadelta T cells require IFN-gamma to limit dissemination by WNV. Moreover, treatment of primary dendritic cells with IFN-gamma reduced WNV production by 130-fold. Collectively, our experiments suggest that the dominant protective role of IFN-gamma against WNV is antiviral in nature, occurs in peripheral lymphoid tissues, and prevents viral dissemination to the CNS.

The glycosylation site in the envelope protein of West Nile virus (Sarafend) plays an important role in replication and maturation processes

The complete genome of West Nile (Sarafend) virus [WN(S)V] was sequenced. Phylogenetic trees utilizing the complete genomic sequence, capsid gene, envelope gene and NS5 gene/3' untranslated region of WN(S)V classified WN(S)V as a lineage II virus. A full-length infectious clone of WN(S)V with a point mutation in the glycosylation site of the envelope protein (pWNS-S154A) was constructed. Both growth kinetics and the mode of maturation were affected by this mutation. The titre of the pWNS-S154A virus was lower than the wild-type virus. This defect was corrected by the expression of wild-type envelope protein in trans. The pWNS-S154A virus matured intracellularly instead of at the plasma membrane as shown for the parental WN(S)V.

CD8+ T cells require perforin to clear West Nile virus from infected neurons

Injury to neurons after West Nile virus (WNV) infection is believed to occur because of viral and host immune-mediated effects. Previously, we demonstrated that CD8+ T cells are required for the resolution of WNV infection in the central nervous system (CNS). CD8+ T cells can control infection by producing antiviral cytokines (e.g., gamma interferon or tumor necrosis factor alpha) or by triggering death of infected cells through perforin- or Fas ligand-dependent pathways. Here, we directly evaluated the role of perforin in controlling infection of a lineage I New York isolate of WNV in mice. A genetic deficiency of perforin molecules resulted in higher viral burden in the CNS and increased mortality after WNV infection. In the few perforin-deficient mice that survived initial challenge, viral persistence was observed in the CNS for several weeks. CD8+ T cells required perforin to control WNV infection as adoptive transfer of WNV-primed wild-type but not perforin-deficient CD8+ T cells greatly reduced infection in the brain and spinal cord and enhanced survival of CD8-deficient mice. Analogous results were obtained when wild-type or perforin-deficient CD8+ T cells were added to congenic primary cortical neuron cultures. Taken together, our data suggest that despite the risk of immunopathogenesis, CD8+ T cells use a perforin-dependent mechanism to clear WNV from infected neurons.

Envelope protein glycosylation status influences mouse neuroinvasion phenotype of genetic lineage 1 West Nile virus strains

The introduction of West Nile virus (WNV) into North America has been associated with relatively high rates of neurological disease and death in humans, birds, horses, and some other animals. Previous studies identified strains in both genetic lineage 1 and genetic lineage 2, including North American isolates of lineage 1, that were highly virulent in a mouse neuroinvasion model, while other strains were avirulent or significantly attenuated (D. W. C. Beasley, L. Li, M. T. Suderman, and A. D. T. Barrett, Virology 296:17-23, 2002). To begin to elucidate the basis for these differences, we compared a highly virulent New York 1999 (NY99) isolate with a related Old World lineage 1 strain, An4766 (ETH76a), which is attenuated for mouse neuroinvasion. Genomic sequencing of ETH76a revealed a relatively small number of nucleotide (5.1%) and amino acid (0.6%) differences compared with NY99. These differences were located throughout the genome and included five amino acid differences in the envelope protein gene. Substitution of premembrane and envelope genes of ETH76a into a NY99 infectious clone backbone yielded a virus with altered in vitro growth characteristics and a mouse virulence phenotype comparable to ETH76a. Further site-specific mutagenesis studies revealed that the altered phenotype was primarily mediated via loss of envelope protein glycosylation and that this was associated with altered stability of the virion at mildly acidic pH. Therefore, the enhanced virulence of North American WNV strains compared with other Old World lineage 1 strains is at least partly mediated by envelope protein glycosylation.

A comparision of West Nile Virus transmission by Ochlerotatus trivittatus (COQ.), Culex pipiens (L.), and Aedes albopictus (Skuse)

Transmission of West Nile virus (WNV) by Ochlerotatus trivittatus, Culex pipiens, and Aedes albopictus were compared 14 days after taking blood meals from viremic chickens with titers ranging from 10(2.5) to 10(9.5) cell infective dose (50)s (CID50s)/mL serum. Transmission occurred in one of four (25%) Oc. trivittatus and one of 25 (4%) Cx. pipiens that fed on chickens with titers of 10(5.5) CID50s/mL. No transmission occurred among two of 16 (13%) Oc. trivittatus or one of 25 (4%) Cx. pipiens that became infected after blood meals with titers of 10(5.0) and 10(4.5) CID50s/mL, the next lowest blood meal titers evaluated. Seventeen of 28 (61%) Ae. albopictus transmitted WNV after blood meals with titers of 10(7.0) CID50s/mL, but no infection or transmission was observed among 21 Ae. albopictus that fed on chickens with titers of 10(5.0) CID50s/mL, the next lowest titer evaluated. Transmission by all three species increased dramatically after blood meals with WNV titers of > or = 10(5.5) CID50s/mL. No significant differences occurred in dissemination and transmission rates of the three species after taking blood meals with titers of > 10(7.0) CID50s/mL. The cumulative mean +/- SE transmission rates of Oc. trivittatus, Cx. pipiens, and Ae. albopictus after blood meals with titers of > or = 10(7.0) CID50s/mL were 45.5 +/- 4.1%, 46.8 +/- 4.5%, and 72.4 +/- 5.5%. The cumulative mean dissemination rates of the three species were 78.3 +/- 6.7%, 74.8 +/- 2.6%, and 88.6 +/- 2.1%. The rates of transmission by the three species that developed disseminated infections after blood meals with titers of > or = 10(7.0) CID50s/mL were 58.8 +/- 4.4%, 62.6 +/- 5.8%, and 81.6 +/- 5.4%, respectively. In a previous study, we found that susceptibility of the three species to WNV was essentially the same when fed on chickens with WNV titers of > 10(7.0) CID50s/mL, but Oc. trivittatus and Cx. pipiens were more susceptible than Ae. albopictus to WNV at lower virus titers. The current study strongly suggests that Ae. albopictus is a more efficient vector than Oc. trivittatus and Cx. pipiens when fed blood meals with titers of > 10(7.0) CID50s/mL. However, Oc. trivittatus and Cx. pipiens might be more efficient as vectors when infected by blood meals with titers of < 10(7.0) CID50s/mL.

Complement activation is required for induction of a protective antibody response against West Nile virus infection

Infection with West Nile virus (WNV) causes a severe infection of the central nervous system (CNS) with higher levels of morbidity and mortality in the elderly and the immunocompromised. Experiments with mice have begun to define how the innate and adaptive immune responses function to limit infection. Here, we demonstrate that the complement system, a major component of innate immunity, controls WNV infection in vitro primarily in an antibody-dependent manner by neutralizing virus particles in solution and lysing WNV-infected cells. More decisively, mice that genetically lack the third component of complement or complement receptor 1 (CR1) and CR2 developed increased CNS virus burdens and were vulnerable to lethal infection at a low dose of WNV. Both C3-deficient and CR1- and CR2-deficient mice also had significant deficits in their humoral responses after infection with markedly reduced levels of specific anti-WNV immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG. Overall, these results suggest that complement controls WNV infection, in part through its ability to induce a protective antibody response.

Characterization of neutralizing antibodies to West Nile virus

We produced nine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) directed against the West Nile virus E glycoprotein using three different immunization strategies: inactivated virus, naked DNA, and recombinant protein. Most of the MAbs bound to conformation dependent epitopes in domain III of the E protein. Four of the MAbs neutralized WNV infection and bound to the same region of domain III with high affinity. The neutralizing MAbs were obtained from mice immunized with inactivated virus alone or in combination with a DNA plasmid. In contrast, MAbs obtained by immunization with a soluble version of the E glycoprotein did not exhibit neutralizing activity. These non-neutralizing antibodies were cross-reactive with several other flaviviruses, including Saint Louis encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis, Yellow Fever and Powassan viruses. Interestingly, some non-neutralizing MAbs bound with high affinity to domains I or III, indicating that both affinity and the precise epitope recognized by an antibody are important determinants of WNV neutralization.

Genome sequence and attenuating mutations in West Nile virus isolate from Mexico

The complete genome sequence of a Mexican West Nile virus isolate, TM171-03, included 46 nucleotide (0.42%) and 4 amino acid (0.11%) differences from the NY99 prototype. Mouse virulence differences between plaque-purified variants of TM171-03 with mutations at the E protein glycosylation motif suggest the emergence of an attenuating mutation.

Differential responses of human brain cells to West Nile virus infection

In recent years, West Nile virus (WNV) has emerged as a major cause of encephalitis in the United States. However, the neuropathogenesis of this flavivirus is poorly understood. In the present study, the authors used primary human brain cell cultures to investigate two neuropathogenic features: viral replication and induction of cytokines. Although neurons and astrocytes were found to support productive WNV infection, viral growth was poorly permissive in microglial cells. Compared to neuronal cultures that sustained viral growth for at least 2 weeks, replication peaked in astrocytes by 72 h post infection. In response to viral infection, astrocytes produced chemokines (CXCL10 and CCL5), but none of the cytokines (tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-alpha, interleukin [IL]-1beta, IL-6, interferon alpha or gamma) tested could be detected. Although microglial cells failed to support viral replication, WNV induced production of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-alpha. Microglial cells also released robust amounts of the chemokines CXCL10 and CCL2, as well as lower levels of CCL5, in response to WNV infection. WNV-induced chemokine and cytokine production by microglia was coupled with activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) intracellular signaling pathways. Inhibition of p38 MAPK decreased chemokine production in response to WNV. Taken together, these findings suggest that microglial cell responses may influence the neuropathogenesis of WNV infection.