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Rashtibaf M, Sharifi K, Zibaee S, Dehghani H. A survey on the frequency of foot-and-mouth disease virus carriers in cattle in north-east of Iran by RT-PCR: implications for revising disease control strategy. Transbound Emerg Dis 2012; 59:482-9. [PMID: 22222047 DOI: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011.01299.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Iran. It is essential to timely evaluate the current disease control programme in Iran. Here, we report the frequency of FMD virus (FMDV) carrier state in cattle slaughtered in Mashhad abattoir, Mashhad, Khorasan Razavi, north-east of Iran, which contains long common borders with Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Soft palate samples were collected immediately after slaughter for the detection of FMDV by RT-PCR. The results show that 37.7% of cattle (96 of 255) were carriers of the virus. Among positive samples (96), 58 (60.4%) belonged to serotype O. No evidence was detected for the presence of Asia 1 and A serotypes. Nucleotide sequencing and phylogenic dendogram showed close similarity and common lineage between our samples and viruses isolated in Pakistan. With an approximate more than 80% of cattle population vaccination coverage such a high rate of carrier state may show an extensive FMDV exposure. Therefore, limiting control programmes to timely prophylactic vaccination may be insufficient. This is also true when meat market instabilities act as a temptation to import livestock, legally or illegally, through the eastern frontiers. It is recommended to change the current prophylactic vaccination strategy to a well-developed regional control programme, with close monitoring of animal movement through eastern frontiers, supported by government commitment and educational programmes. Timely estimation of the frequency of carrier state both in cattle and small ruminants is also advocated as a gauge to monitor the virus status in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rashtibaf
- Iranian Veterinary Organization, Khorasan Razavi Province, Mashhad, Iran
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2
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Longjam N, Deb R, Sarmah AK, Tayo T, Awachat VB, Saxena VK. A Brief Review on Diagnosis of Foot-and-Mouth Disease of Livestock: Conventional to Molecular Tools. Vet Med Int 2011; 2011:905768. [PMID: 21776357 PMCID: PMC3135314 DOI: 10.4061/2011/905768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2010] [Revised: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the highly contagious diseases of domestic animals. Effective control of this disease needs sensitive, specific, and quick diagnostic tools at each tier of control strategy. In this paper we have outlined various diagnostic approaches from old to new generation in a nutshell. Presently FMD diagnosis is being carried out using techniques such as Virus Isolation (VI), Sandwich-ELISA (S-ELISA), Liquid-Phase Blocking ELISA (LPBE), Multiplex-PCR (m-PCR), and indirect ELISA (DIVA), and real time-PCR can be used for detection of antibody against nonstructural proteins. Nucleotide sequencing for serotyping, microarray as well as recombinant antigen-based detection, biosensor, phage display, and nucleic-acid-based diagnostic are on the way for rapid and specific detection of FMDV. Various pen side tests, namely, lateral flow, RT-LAMP, Immunostrip tests, and so forth. are also developed for detection of the virus in field condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeta Longjam
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati 781022, India
| | - Rajib Deb
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar 243122, India
| | - A. K. Sarmah
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati 781022, India
| | - Tilling Tayo
- Division of Animal Nutrition, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar 243122, India
| | - V. B. Awachat
- Division of Poultry Science, Central Avian Research Institute (CARI), Izatnagar 243122, India
| | - V. K. Saxena
- Division of Veterinary Biochemistry and Physiology, Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute (CSWRI), Avikanagar, India
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Zhang Z, Alexandersen S. Quantitative analysis of foot-and-mouth disease virus RNA loads in bovine tissues: implications for the site of viral persistence. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:2567-2575. [PMID: 15302950 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.80011-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand better the pathogenesis of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), the levels of viral RNA in various bovine tissues during the acute and persistent stages of FMD virus (FMDV) infection were investigated by using quantitative RT-PCR. The viral RNA levels in the tissues examined had peaked by day 1 post-infection (p.i.) and were markedly different among the tissues examined. The epithelium collected from sites of lesion development, i.e. the interdigital area and coronary band on the feet, and the tongue, contained the highest level of viral RNA, indicating the predominant tissue sites of viral infection and amplification during the acute stage of infection. Clearance of viral RNA from most of the tissues occurred relatively rapidly and the rate of clearance was largely independent of the level of viral RNA. The viral RNA load in most of the tissues declined slower than in serum, in which viral clearance is rapid. Beyond 28 days p.i., a proportion of pharyngeal region tissues (soft palate, pharynx, tonsil and mandibular lymph node) from infected animals still contained a detectable level of viral RNA, while viral RNA in non-pharyngeal region tissues was generally only detectable for variable periods ranging from 4 to 14 days p.i. The presence of viral RNA in dorsal soft palate tissue had a good correlation with the presence of infectious virus in oesophageal-pharyngeal fluid (OP-fluid) samples, a finding indicative of the specific tissue sites of FMDV persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhidong Zhang
- Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright Laboratory, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Soren Alexandersen
- Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright Laboratory, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
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Rémond M, Kaiser C, Lebreton F. Diagnosis and screening of foot-and-mouth disease. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2002; 25:309-20. [PMID: 12365807 DOI: 10.1016/s0147-9571(02)00028-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) diagnostic methods are reviewed. As the presence of clinical signs alone is inconclusive, laboratory diagnosis should always be carried out. The presence of FMD virus can be demonstrated by cell culture isolation, complement fixation test, ELISA or the more recent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. Serological diagnosis is also a valuable tool. The virus neutralization test has been replaced by ELISA and the antibody response to some viral non-structural proteins allows to discriminate between vaccinated and infected animals on a herd basis. More rapid and accurate tests as well as an earlier detection system in preclinical state are still needed.
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Abstract
This review describes current knowledge about persistent foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infections, the available methods to detect carrier animals, the properties of persisting virus, the immunological mechanisms, and the risk of transmission. In particular, knowledge about the carrier state, the period in which virus can be isolated from animals 28 days or longer post infection, is important, because the risk that animals may carry the virus will influence the diagnostic and preventive measures that need to be taken. Although many years of research have led to much knowledge about foot-and mouth disease and its causative agent, there are still numerous aspects of the virus and the disease that are not yet fully understood. Areas for further research on persistence of FMDV are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Moonen
- Institute for Animal Science and Health, Department of Mammalian Virology, Lelystad, The Netherlands.
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Lubroth J, Brown F. Identification of native foot-and-mouth disease virus non-structural protein 2C as a serological indicator to differentiate infected from vaccinated livestock. Res Vet Sci 1995; 59:70-8. [PMID: 8525090 DOI: 10.1016/0034-5288(95)90034-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Cattle and pigs which have been vaccinated against foot-and-mouth disease can be distinguished from convalescent animals by radio-immunoprecipitation and sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the virus-induced proteins reacting with the respective sera. Baby hamster kidney cells infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) (serotype A24) were labelled with 35S-methionine and the virus-induced proteins were precipitated with sera from vaccinated and subsequently challenged animals, convalescent animals retained for over 300 days, animals vaccinated or infected with viruses belonging to all serotypes of FMDV, and animals infected with encephalomyocarditis (EMC) or porcine or bovine enteroviruses. In addition to the structural proteins of the virus, the non-structural proteins 2C, 3ABC, 3C, 3CD and 3D were precipitated by convalescent sera, but only 3D was precipitated by serum from vaccinated animals. Proteins L, 2C and 3C were precipitated only after challenge with a heterotypic virus (serotype O1 Tunisia), indicating that virus replication of the challenge virus had taken place. No precipitation was detected with sera from EMC or enterovirus-infected animals. The results indicate that protein 2C, and to a lesser extent the polypeptide 3ABC, could be used to differentiate potential carrier convalescent animals from vaccinated livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lubroth
- United States Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York 11944, USA
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Woodbury EL. A review of the possible mechanisms for the persistence of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Epidemiol Infect 1995; 114:1-13. [PMID: 7867727 PMCID: PMC2271334 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268800051864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was the first animal disease to be attributed to a virus, and the second virus to be discovered [1]. It is a positive-sense, singlestranded RNA picornavirus and the sole member of the genus Aphthovirus. Each infectious virus particle contains a single strand of RNA approximately 8-5 kb long. This is translated into a single polypeptide which is then cleaved into the structural and non-structural virus proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- E L Woodbury
- World Reference Laboratory for FMD, Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright Laboratory, Surrey, UK
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Prato Murphy ML, Meyer RF, Mebus C, Schudel AA, Rodriguez M. Analysis of sites of foot and mouth disease virus persistence in carrier cattle via the polymerase chain reaction. Arch Virol 1994; 136:299-307. [PMID: 8031235 DOI: 10.1007/bf01321059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
This study was undertaken in order to explore possible sites of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) persistence during the carrier state. Tissue samples taken from experimentally infected animals at different times post-infection (p.i.) were examined by conventional viral isolation and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. The analysis of samples from several organs taken from 17 bovines between 3 and 270 days p.i. allowed the following conclusions: 1) Virus present in oesophageal-pharyngeal fluids (OPF) during the carrier state originates in the pharynx as shown by the detection of antisense FMDV RNA by PCR, 2) PCR is more sensitive than standard virus isolation techniques and may be used for the rapid detection of FMDV in specimens obtained during the acute stage of FMD and for identification of persistently infected cattle.
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Salt JS. The carrier state in foot and mouth disease--an immunological review. THE BRITISH VETERINARY JOURNAL 1993; 149:207-23. [PMID: 8392891 DOI: 10.1016/s0007-1935(05)80168-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The carrier state in foot and mouth disease (FMD) is characterized by the asymptomatic low-level excretion of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) from the oropharynx of ruminants for periods that are species and virus strain-dependent. Persistent infection with FMDV readily occurs following the failure of virus elimination at the acute stage of infection, a process thought to be mediated through the phagocytosis of antibody/virus immune complexes. Recent evidence supports the view that carrier cattle are important in the epidemiology of FMD in the field. The absence of histopathological change in persistently infected tissues and the reduced cytopathology of carrier virus isolates in tissue culture suggest that less lytic FMDV variants are generated or selected in the carrier animal. Altered virus replication, due to attenuation or interference, rather than antigenic variation may therefore allow evasion of the exaggerated FMDV-specific systemic and local humoral immune responses that occur in the carrier state. Although cell-mediated immune mechanisms for FMDV clearance have not been described, the eventual elimination of many persistent virus infections involves this arm of the immune system. Thus, further investigation of cellular elements of the immune response, more particularly the local interaction of mononuclear cell infiltrates with persistently infected cells, represents an area of research that has the potential to elucidate the carrier state problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Salt
- Pirbright Laboratory, Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright, Surrey, UK
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Smitsaart EN, Saiz JC, Yedloutschnig RJ, Morgan DO. Detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus by competitive ELISA using a monoclonal antibody specific for the 12S protein subunit from six of the seven serotypes. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1990; 26:251-65. [PMID: 1702246 DOI: 10.1016/0165-2427(90)90095-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) prevention and control programs are dependent upon rapid, reliable diagnostic procedures. The widely used FMD diagnostic complement fixation (CF) procedures require a specific antiserum for each of the seven FMDV serotypes making the tests both cumbersome and difficult to standardize. An FMD diagnostic, monoclonal antibody based inhibition-ELISA procedure was developed. The test uses a single monoclonal antibody (MAb) that reacts with all European and South American FMDV isolates examined. The procedure detects a highly conserved epitope on the 12S protein subunit of FMDV which appears to be common to all FMDV's with the exception of the South African Territories 2 serotype. The results indicate that the sensitivity of this test is greater than CF and approaches that of virus isolation.
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Abstract
Nucleic acid probe technology is increasingly being used in basic research in veterinary microbiology and in diagnosis of infectious diseases of veterinary importance. This review presents an overview of nucleic acid probe methodology and its applications in veterinary infectious diseases. The major applications of nucleic acid probes include detection of pathogens in clinical samples, especially those organisms which are fastidious and difficult to cultivate, differentiation of virulent from avirulent organisms and vaccine strains from wild type isolates, typing of microorganisms, mapping genes, screening libraries of cloned DNA for specific genes, detection of latently infected or carrier animals, study of mechanisms of pathogenesis, epidemiological studies and food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- P S Paul
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames 50011
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Oraveerakul K, Choi CS, Molitor TW. Detection of porcine parvovirus using nonradioactive nucleic acid hybridization. J Vet Diagn Invest 1990; 2:85-91. [PMID: 1965580 DOI: 10.1177/104063879000200201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Nonradioactive slot blot hybridization assays were established for the detection of porcine parvovirus (PPV), using either a digoxigenin-labeled DNA probe or a biotinylated RNA probe. All probes were prepared from a 3.3-kb Pst1-EcoR1 DNA fragment of the NADL8 isolate of PPV. The sensitivity and specificity of the probes in a slot blot system were evaluated in comparison with a 32P-radiolabeled RNA probe. Using an anti-digoxigenin alkaline phosphatase detection system, at least 1 ng of viral replicative form (RF) DNA, or the equivalent of 100 plaque forming units (PFU) of infectious virus, could be detected by the digoxigenin-labeled DNA probe. When the biotinylated RNA probe and a strepavidin-alkaline phosphatase detection system were employed, 0.1 ng of RF DNA, or the equivalent of 10 PFU of infectious virus, were detected, comparable to the sensitivity of the 32P-radiolabeled RNA probe. Hybridization was not observed with control DNA samples extracted from swine testicle cells, porcine kidney (PK-15) cells, uninfected mixed swine fetal tissue, or from an unrelated DNA virus (pseudorabies virus) infected PK-15 cells. Different isolates of PPV, namely NADL8, NADL2, KBSH, and Kresse, reacted on an equimolar basis in sensitivity and specificity to the biotinlyated probe. Extraction of DNA directly on the filter membrane (direct filter hybridization) was employed in an attempt to reduce processing time by eliminating DNA extraction steps. Direct filter hybridization was indeed less time consuming; it was also comparable in sensitivity and specificity to those methods employing purified DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Oraveerakul
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul 55108
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McFarlane RG, Molitor TW, Vakharia VN. The detection and differentiation of foot-and-mouth disease viruses using solid-phase nucleic acid hybridization. J Virol Methods 1990; 27:175-88. [PMID: 2156879 DOI: 10.1016/0166-0934(90)90134-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Thirteen complementary DNA (cDNA) probes were used to detect the presence of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) RNA extracted from cell cultures. When labelled with 32P, these probes enabled the detection of 1 pg of FMDV-RNA, or 1 virus copy per cell. Two FMDV A12 probes that coded for the leader, structural protein VP1 region and part of the polymerase gene respectively, showed no hybridization with other closely related picornaviruses. Differentiation between FMDV serotypes A, O and C was possible, using cDNA probes from individual serotypes that corresponded to structural protein VP1.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G McFarlane
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul 55108
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