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Cortés-Jofré M, Rueda-Etxebarria M, Orillard E, Jimenez Tejero E, Rueda JR. Therapeutic vaccines for advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2024; 3:CD013377. [PMID: 38470132 PMCID: PMC10929364 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd013377.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New strategies in immunotherapy with specific antigens that trigger an anti-tumour immune response in people with lung cancer open the possibility of developing therapeutic vaccines aimed at boosting the adaptive immune response against cancer cells. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different types of therapeutic vaccines for people with advanced non-small cell lung cancer. SEARCH METHODS We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, Wanfang Data, and China Journal Net (CNKI) up to 22 August 2023. SELECTION CRITERIA We included parallel-group, randomised controlled trials evaluating a therapeutic cancer vaccine, alone or in combination with other treatments, in adults (> 18 years) with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), whatever the line of treatment. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. Our primary outcomes were overall survival, progression-free survival, and serious adverse events; secondary outcomes were three- and five-year survival rates and health-related quality of life. MAIN RESULTS We included 10 studies with 2177 participants. The outcome analyses included only 2045 participants (1401 men and 644 women). The certainty of the evidence varied by vaccine and outcome, and ranged from moderate to very low. We report only the results for primary outcomes here. TG4010 The addition of the vector-based vaccine, TG4010, to chemotherapy, compared with chemotherapy alone in first-line treatment, may result in little to no difference in overall survival (hazard ratio (HR) 0.83, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65 to 1.05; 2 studies, 370 participants; low-certainty evidence). It may increase progression-free survival slightly (HR 0.74, 95% CI 0.55 to 0.99; 1 study, 222 participants; low-certainty evidence). It may result in little to no difference in the proportion of participants with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event, but the evidence is very uncertain (risk ratio (RR) 0.70, 95% CI 0.23 to 2.19; 2 studies, 362 participants; very low-certainty evidence). Epidermal growth factor vaccine Epidermal growth factor vaccine, compared to best supportive care as switch maintenance treatment after first-line chemotherapy, may result in little to no difference in overall survival (HR 0.82, 95% CI 0.66 to 1.02; 1 study, 378 participants; low-certainty evidence), and in the proportion of participants with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event (RR 1.32, 95% CI 0.88 to 1.98; 2 studies, 458 participants; low-certainty evidence). hTERT (vx-001) The hTERT (vx-001) vaccine compared to placebo as maintenance treatment after first-line chemotherapy may result in little to no difference in overall survival (HR 0.97, 95% CI 0.70 to 1.34; 1 study, 190 participants). Racotumomab Racotumomab compared to placebo as a switch maintenance treatment post-chemotherapy was assessed in one study with 176 participants. It may increase overall survival (HR 0.63, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.87). It may make little to no difference in progression-free survival (HR 0.73, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.00) and in the proportion of people with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.15 to 7.18). Racotumomab versus docetaxel as switch maintenance therapy post-chemotherapy was assessed in one study with 145 participants. The study did not report hazard rates on overall survival or progression-free survival time, but the difference in median survival times was very small - less than one month. Racotumomab may result in little to no difference in the proportion of people with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event compared with docetaxel (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.83). Personalised peptide vaccine Personalised peptide vaccine plus docetaxel compared to docetaxel plus placebo post-chemotherapy treatment may result in little to no difference in overall survival (HR 0.80, 95% CI 0.42 to 1.52) and progression-free survival (HR 0.78, 95% CI 0.43 to 1.42). OSE2101 The OSE2101 vaccine compared with chemotherapy, after chemotherapy or immunotherapy, was assessed in one study with 219 participants. It may result in little to no difference in overall survival (HR 0.86, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.19). It may result in a small difference in the proportion of people with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.91 to 0.99). SRL172 The SRL172 vaccine of killed Mycobacterium vaccae, added to chemotherapy, compared to chemotherapy alone, may result in no difference in overall survival, and may increase the proportion of people with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event (RR 2.07, 95% CI 1.76 to 2.43; 351 participants). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Adding a vaccine resulted in no differences in overall survival, except for racotumomab, which showed some improvement compared to placebo, but the difference in median survival time was very small (1.4 months) and the study only included 176 participants. Regarding progression-free survival, we observed no differences between the compared treatments, except for TG4010, which may increase progression-free survival slightly. There were no differences between the compared treatments in serious treatment-related adverse events, except for SRL172 (killed Mycobacterium vaccae) added to chemotherapy, which was associated with an increase in the proportion of participants with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event, and OSE2101, which may decrease slightly the proportion of people having at least one serious treatment-related adverse event. These conclusions should be interpreted cautiously, as the very low- to moderate-certainty evidence prevents drawing solid conclusions: many vaccines were evaluated in a single study with small numbers of participants and events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela Cortés-Jofré
- Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Mikel Rueda-Etxebarria
- Research in Sciences of dissemination and implementation in health services, Biobizkaia Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
| | | | - Elena Jimenez Tejero
- Independent Cochrane review author, Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Spain
| | - José-Ramón Rueda
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing. University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain
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FAN H, GE X, ZHOU X, LI Y, WANG A, HU Y. [Research Progress of Lung Cancer Vaccines]. ZHONGGUO FEI AI ZA ZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF LUNG CANCER 2023; 26:692-700. [PMID: 37985155 PMCID: PMC10600751 DOI: 10.3779/j.issn.1009-3419.2023.106.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
With the development of medical technology, tumor vaccines as a novel precise immunotherapy approach have gradually received attention in clinical applications. Against the backdrop of the global corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, vaccine technology has further advanced. Depending on the types of antigens, tumor vaccines can be divided into whole-cell vaccines, peptide vaccines, messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccines, recombinant virus vaccines, etc. Although some tumor vaccines have been marketed and achieved certain therapeutic effects, the results of tumor vaccines in clinical trials have been unsatisfactory in the past period. With the maturation of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology and the continuous development of bioinformatics, dynamic monitoring of the entire process of tumor subpopulation development has become a reality, which has laid a solid foundation for personalized, neoantigen-centered therapeutic tumor vaccines. This article reviews the recent developments of tumor vaccines of different types, starts with lung cancer and summarizes the achievements of tumor vaccines in clinical applications, and provides an outlook for the future development of antigen-centered tumor vaccines.
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3
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Lu Y, You J. Strategy and application of manipulating DCs chemotaxis in disease treatment and vaccine design. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 161:114457. [PMID: 36868016 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
As the most versatile antigen-presenting cells (APCs), dendritic cells (DCs) function as the cardinal commanders in orchestrating innate and adaptive immunity for either eliciting protective immune responses against canceration and microbial invasion or maintaining immune homeostasis/tolerance. In fact, in physiological or pathological conditions, the diversified migratory patterns and exquisite chemotaxis of DCs, prominently manipulate their biological activities in both secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs) as well as homeostatic/inflammatory peripheral tissues in vivo. Thus, the inherent mechanisms or regulation strategies to modulate the directional migration of DCs even could be regarded as the crucial cartographers of the immune system. Herein, we systemically reviewed the existing mechanistic understandings and regulation measures of trafficking both endogenous DC subtypes and reinfused DCs vaccines towards either SLOs or inflammatory foci (including neoplastic lesions, infections, acute/chronic tissue inflammations, autoimmune diseases and graft sites). Furthermore, we briefly introduced the DCs-participated prophylactic and therapeutic clinical application against disparate diseases, and also provided insights into the future clinical immunotherapies development as well as the vaccines design associated with modulating DCs mobilization modes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichao Lu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, PR China
| | - Jian You
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, PR China; Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, 291 Fucheng Road, Zhejiang 310018, PR China; Zhejiang-California International NanoSystems Institute, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, PR China.
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4
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Gary EN, Tursi NJ, Warner B, Parzych EM, Ali AR, Frase D, Moffat E, Embury-Hyatt C, Smith TRF, Broderick KE, Humeau L, Kobasa D, Patel A, Kulp DW, Weiner DB. Mucosal chemokine adjuvant enhances synDNA vaccine-mediated responses to SARS-CoV-2 and provides heterologous protection in vivo. Cell Rep Med 2022; 3:100693. [PMID: 35839767 PMCID: PMC9237025 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has claimed more than 5 million lives. Emerging variants of concern (VOCs) continually challenge viral control. Directing vaccine-induced humoral and cell-mediated responses to mucosal surfaces may enhance vaccine efficacy. Here we investigate the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of optimized synthetic DNA plasmids encoding wild-type severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein (pS) co-formulated with the plasmid-encoded mucosal chemokine cutaneous T cell-attracting chemokine (pCTACK; CCL27). pCTACK-co-immunized animals exhibit increased spike-specific antibodies at the mucosal surface and increased frequencies of interferon gamma (IFNγ)+ CD8+ T cells in the respiratory mucosa. pCTACK co-immunization confers 100% protection from heterologous Delta VOC challenge. This study shows that mucosal chemokine adjuvants can direct vaccine-induced responses to specific immunological sites and have significant effects on heterologous challenge. Further study of this unique chemokine-adjuvanted vaccine approach in the context of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines is likely important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebony N Gary
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nicholas J Tursi
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Bryce Warner
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Elizabeth M Parzych
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Ali R Ali
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Drew Frase
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Estella Moffat
- National Center for Foreign Animal Disease (NCFAD), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Carissa Embury-Hyatt
- National Center for Foreign Animal Disease (NCFAD), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Darwyn Kobasa
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Ami Patel
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Daniel W Kulp
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - David B Weiner
- The Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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5
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Hung YH, Chen LT, Hung WC. The Trinity: Interplay among Cancer Cells, Fibroblasts, and Immune Cells in Pancreatic Cancer and Implication of CD8 + T Cell-Orientated Therapy. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10040926. [PMID: 35453676 PMCID: PMC9026398 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10040926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The microenvironment in tumors is complicated and is constituted by different cell types and stromal proteins. Among the cell types, the abundance of cancer cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells is high and these cells work as the “Trinity” in promoting tumorigenesis. Although unidirectional or bidirectional crosstalk between two independent cell types has been well characterized, the multi-directional interplays between cancer cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells in vitro and in vivo are still unclear. We summarize recent studies in addressing the interaction of the “Trinity” members in the tumor microenvironment and propose a functional network for how these members communicate with each other. In addition, we discuss the underlying mechanisms mediating the interplay. Moreover, correlations of the alterations in the distribution and functionality of cancer cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells under different circumstances are reviewed. Finally, we point out the future application of CD8+ T cell-oriented therapy in the treatment of pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hsuan Hung
- National Institute of Cancer Research, National Health Research Institutes, Tainan 704, Taiwan;
| | - Li-Tzong Chen
- National Institute of Cancer Research, National Health Research Institutes, Tainan 704, Taiwan;
- Division of Hematology & Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan
- Center for Cancer Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (L.-T.C.); (W.-C.H.)
| | - Wen-Chun Hung
- National Institute of Cancer Research, National Health Research Institutes, Tainan 704, Taiwan;
- Correspondence: (L.-T.C.); (W.-C.H.)
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6
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CD40-CD40L in Neurological Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23084115. [PMID: 35456932 PMCID: PMC9031401 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23084115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune-inflammatory conditions in the central nervous system (CNS) rely on molecular and cellular interactions which are homeostatically maintained to protect neural tissue from harm. The CD40–CD40L interaction upregulates key proinflammatory molecules, a function best understood in the context of infection, during which B-cells are activated via CD40 signaling to produce antibodies. However, the role of CD40 in neurological disease of non-infectious etiology is unclear. We review the role of CD40–CD40L in traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, stroke, epilepsy, nerve injury, multiple sclerosis, ALS, myasthenia gravis and brain tumors. We also highlight therapeutic advancements targeting the CD40 system to either attenuate the neuroinflammatory response or leverage the downstream effects of CD40 signaling for direct tumor cell lysis.
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7
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Märkl F, Huynh D, Endres S, Kobold S. Utilizing chemokines in cancer immunotherapy. Trends Cancer 2022; 8:670-682. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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8
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Truong CS, Yoo SY. Oncolytic Vaccinia Virus in Lung Cancer Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10020240. [PMID: 35214699 PMCID: PMC8875327 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10020240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic cancer vaccines represent a promising therapeutic modality via the induction of long-term immune response and reduction in adverse effects by specifically targeting tumor-associated antigens. Oncolytic virus, especially vaccinia virus (VV) is a promising cancer treatment option for effective cancer immunotherapy and thus can also be utilized in cancer vaccines. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is likely to respond to immunotherapy, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors or cancer vaccines, since it has a high tumor mutational burden. In this review, we will summarize recent applications of VV in lung cancer treatment and discuss the potential and direction of VV-based therapeutic vaccines.
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Qiu Y, Su M, Liu L, Tang Y, Pan Y, Sun J. Clinical Application of Cytokines in Cancer Immunotherapy. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2021; 15:2269-2287. [PMID: 34079226 PMCID: PMC8166316 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s308578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines are key components of the immune system and play pivotal roles in anticancer immune response. Cytokines as either therapeutic agents or targets hold clinical promise for cancer precise treatment. Here, we provide an overview of the various roles of cytokines in the cancer immunity cycle, with a particular focus on the clinical researches of cytokine-based drugs in cancer therapy. We review 27 cytokines in 2630 cancer clinical trials registered with ClinicalTrials.gov that had completed recruitment up to January 2021 while summarizing important cases for each cytokine. We also discuss recent progress in methods for improving the delivery efficiency, stability, biocompatibility, and availability of cytokines in therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Qiu
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengxi Su
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Leyi Liu
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiqi Tang
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Pan
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianbo Sun
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
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10
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Lim KP, Zainal NS. Monitoring T Cells Responses Mounted by Therapeutic Cancer Vaccines. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:623475. [PMID: 33937323 PMCID: PMC8082312 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.623475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
With the regulatory approval of Provenge and Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC) for the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer and advanced melanoma respectively, and other promising clinical trials outcomes, cancer vaccine is gaining prominence as a cancer therapeutic agent. Cancer vaccine works to induce T cell priming, expansion, and infiltration resulting in antigen-specific cytotoxicity. Such an approach that can drive cytotoxicity within the tumor could complement the success of checkpoint inhibitors as tumors shown to have high immune cell infiltration are those that would respond well to these antibodies. With the advancements in cancer vaccine, methods to monitor and understand how cancer vaccines modify the immune milieu is under rapid development. This includes using ELISpot and intracellular staining to detect cytokine secretion by activated T cells; tetramer and CyTOF to quantitate the level of antigen specific T cells; proliferation and cell killing assay to detect the expansion of T cell and specific killing activity. More recently, T cell profiling has provided unprecedented detail on immune cell subsets and providing clues to the mechanism involved in immune activation. Here, we reviewed cancer vaccines currently in clinical trials and highlight available techniques in monitoring the clinical response in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kue Peng Lim
- Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy Research Unit, Cancer Research Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
| | - Nur Syafinaz Zainal
- Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy Research Unit, Cancer Research Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
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Sedighzadeh SS, Khoshbin AP, Razi S, Keshavarz-Fathi M, Rezaei N. A narrative review of tumor-associated macrophages in lung cancer: regulation of macrophage polarization and therapeutic implications. Transl Lung Cancer Res 2021; 10:1889-1916. [PMID: 34012800 PMCID: PMC8107755 DOI: 10.21037/tlcr-20-1241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer is the deadliest malignancy worldwide. An inflammatory microenvironment is a key factor contributing to lung tumor progression. Tumor-Associated Macrophages (TAMs) are prominent components of the cancer immune microenvironment with diverse supportive and inhibitory effects on growth, progression, and metastasis of lung tumors. Two main macrophage phenotypes with different functions have been identified. They include inflammatory or classically activated (M1) and anti-inflammatory or alternatively activated (M2) macrophages. The contrasting functions of TAMs in relation to lung neoplasm progression stem from the presence of TAMs with varying tumor-promoting or anti-tumor activities. This wide spectrum of functions is governed by a network of cytokines and chemokines, cell-cell interactions, and signaling pathways. TAMs are promising therapeutic targets for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment. There are several strategies for TAM targeting and utilizing them for therapeutic purposes including limiting monocyte recruitment and localization through various pathways such as CCL2-CCR2, CSF1-CSF1R, and CXCL12-CXCR4, targeting the activation of TAMs, genetic and epigenetic reprogramming of TAMs to antitumor phenotype, and utilizing TAMs as the carrier for anti-cancer drugs. In this review, we will outline the role of macrophages in the lung cancer initiation and progression, pathways regulating their function in lung cancer microenvironment as well as the role of these immune cells in the development of future therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Sadat Sedighzadeh
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran.,Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Amin Pastaki Khoshbin
- Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.,School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sepideh Razi
- Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.,School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahsa Keshavarz-Fathi
- Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.,School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Sheffield, UK
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12
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Hazlewood JE, Dumenil T, Le TT, Slonchak A, Kazakoff SH, Patch AM, Gray LA, Howley PM, Liu L, Hayball JD, Yan K, Rawle DJ, Prow NA, Suhrbier A. Injection site vaccinology of a recombinant vaccinia-based vector reveals diverse innate immune signatures. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009215. [PMID: 33439897 PMCID: PMC7837487 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Poxvirus systems have been extensively used as vaccine vectors. Herein a RNA-Seq analysis of intramuscular injection sites provided detailed insights into host innate immune responses, as well as expression of vector and recombinant immunogen genes, after vaccination with a new multiplication defective, vaccinia-based vector, Sementis Copenhagen Vector. Chikungunya and Zika virus immunogen mRNA and protein expression was associated with necrosing skeletal muscle cells surrounded by mixed cellular infiltrates. The multiple adjuvant signatures at 12 hours post-vaccination were dominated by TLR3, 4 and 9, STING, MAVS, PKR and the inflammasome. Th1 cytokine signatures were dominated by IFNγ, TNF and IL1β, and chemokine signatures by CCL5 and CXCL12. Multiple signatures associated with dendritic cell stimulation were evident. By day seven, vaccine transcripts were absent, and cell death, neutrophil, macrophage and inflammation annotations had abated. No compelling arthritis signatures were identified. Such injection site vaccinology approaches should inform refinements in poxvirus-based vector design. Poxvirus vector systems have been widely developed for vaccine applications. Despite considerable progress, so far only one recombinant poxvirus vectored vaccine has to date been licensed for human use, with ongoing efforts seeking to enhance immunogenicity whilst minimizing reactogenicity. The latter two characteristics are often determined by early post-vaccination events at the injection site. We therefore undertook an injection site vaccinology approach to analyzing gene expression at the vaccination site after intramuscular inoculation with a recombinant, multiplication defective, vaccinia-based vaccine. This provided detailed insights into inter alia expression of vector-encoded immunoregulatory genes, as well as host innate and adaptive immune responses. We propose that such injection site vaccinology can inform rational vaccine vector design, and we discuss how the information and approach elucidated herein might be used to improve immunogenicity and limit reactogenicity of poxvirus-based vaccine vector systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessamine E. Hazlewood
- Inflammation Biology Group, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Troy Dumenil
- Inflammation Biology Group, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Thuy T. Le
- Inflammation Biology Group, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Andrii Slonchak
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Stephen H. Kazakoff
- Clinical Genomics, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ann-Marie Patch
- Clinical Genomics, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Lesley-Ann Gray
- Australian Genome Research Facility Ltd., Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Liang Liu
- Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - John D. Hayball
- Sementis Ltd., Hackney, Australia
- Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Kexin Yan
- Inflammation Biology Group, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Daniel J. Rawle
- Inflammation Biology Group, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Natalie A. Prow
- Inflammation Biology Group, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
- Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Andreas Suhrbier
- Inflammation Biology Group, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
- Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, Brisbane, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Salem A, Alotaibi M, Mroueh R, Basheer HA, Afarinkia K. CCR7 as a therapeutic target in Cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2020; 1875:188499. [PMID: 33385485 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2020.188499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The CCR7 chemokine axis is comprised of chemokine ligand 21 (CCL21) and chemokine ligand 19 (CCL19) acting on chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7). This axis plays two important but apparently opposing roles in cancer. On the one hand, this axis is significantly engaged in the trafficking of a number of effecter cells involved in mounting an immune response to a growing tumour. This suggests therapeutic strategies which involve potentiation of this axis can be used to combat the spread of cancer. On the other hand, the CCR7 axis plays a significant role in controlling the migration of tumour cells towards the lymphatic system and metastasis and can thus contribute to the expansion of cancer. This implies that therapeutic strategies which involve decreasing signaling through the CCR7 axis would have a beneficial effect in preventing dissemination of cancer. This dichotomy has partly been the reason why this axis has not yet been exploited, as other chemokine axes have, as a therapeutic target in cancer. Recent report of a crystal structure for CCR7 provides opportunities to exploit this axis in developing new cancer therapies. However, it remains unclear which of these two strategies, potentiation or antagonism of the CCR7 axis, is more appropriate for cancer therapy. This review brings together the evidence supporting both roles of the CCR7 axis in cancer and examines the future potential of each of the two different therapeutic approaches involving the CCR7 axis in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwar Salem
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, University of Bradford; Bradford BD7 1DP, United Kingdom
| | - Mashael Alotaibi
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, University of Bradford; Bradford BD7 1DP, United Kingdom
| | - Rima Mroueh
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, University of Bradford; Bradford BD7 1DP, United Kingdom
| | - Haneen A Basheer
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Zarqa University, PO Box 132222, Zarqa 13132, Jordan
| | - Kamyar Afarinkia
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, University of Bradford; Bradford BD7 1DP, United Kingdom.
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14
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Abstract
Anti-PD-(L)1 therapy represents a turning point in lung cancer immunotherapy, moving from previously ineffective enhancer strategies to immune checkpoints as standard first- and second-line therapies. This unprecedented success highlights the importance of mechanisms to escape immune attack, such PD-1/PD-L1 axis, and emphasize the importance to better understand the tumor immune microenvironment. Analyzing the specifics of immune response against lung tumor cells and how malignant cells progressively adapt to this pressure may help to understand which are the key aspects to guide the development of new therapeutic strategies. Here we review the past and present of clinical lung cancer immunotherapy and give a perspective for the future development based on emerging biological insights.
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15
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Tang T, Cheng X, Truong B, Sun L, Yang X, Wang H. Molecular basis and therapeutic implications of CD40/CD40L immune checkpoint. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 219:107709. [PMID: 33091428 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The CD40 receptor and its ligand CD40L is one of the most critical molecular pairs of the stimulatory immune checkpoints. Both CD40 and CD40L have a membrane form and a soluble form generated by proteolytic cleavage or alternative splicing. CD40 and CD40L are widely expressed in various types of cells, among which B cells and myeloid cells constitutively express high levels of CD40, and T cells and platelets express high levels of CD40L upon activation. CD40L self-assembles into functional trimers which induce CD40 trimerization and downstream signaling. The canonical CD40/CD40L signaling is mediated by recruitment of TRAFs and NF-κB activation, which is supplemented by signal pathways such as PI3K/AKT, MAPKs and JAK3/STATs. CD40/CD40L immune checkpoint leads to activation of both innate and adaptive immune cells via two-way signaling. CD40/CD40L interaction also participates in regulating thrombosis, tissue inflammation, hematopoiesis and tumor cell fate. Because of its essential role in immune activation, CD40/CD40L interaction has been regarded as an attractive immunotherapy target. In recent years, significant advance has been made in CD40/CD40L-targeted therapy. Various types of agents, including agonistic/antagonistic monoclonal antibodies, cellular vaccines, adenoviral vectors and protein antagonist, have been developed and evaluated in early-stage clinical trials for treating malignancies, autoimmune diseases and allograft rejection. In general, these agents have demonstrated favorable safety and some of them show promising clinical efficacy. The mechanisms of benefits include immune cell activation and tumor cell lysis/apoptosis in malignancies, or immune cell inactivation in autoimmune diseases and allograft rejection. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the structure, processing, cellular expression pattern, signaling and effector function of CD40/CD40L checkpoint molecules. In addition, we summarize the progress, targeted diseases and outcomes of current ongoing and completed clinical trials of CD40/CD40L-targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- TingTing Tang
- Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China; Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Xiang Cheng
- Department of Cardiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Billy Truong
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA
| | - LiZhe Sun
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA; Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - XiaoFeng Yang
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Hong Wang
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA.
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16
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Poelaert BJ, Romanova S, Knoche SM, Olson MT, Sliker BH, Smits K, Dickey BL, Moffitt-Holida AEJ, Goetz BT, Khan N, Smith L, Band H, Mohs AM, Coulter DW, Bronich TK, Solheim JC. Nanoformulation of CCL21 greatly increases its effectiveness as an immunotherapy for neuroblastoma. J Control Release 2020; 327:266-283. [PMID: 32711026 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Neuroblastoma is the most commonly diagnosed extracranial solid tumor in children. The patients with aggressive metastatic disease or refractory/relapsed neuroblastoma currently face a dismally low chance of survival. Thus, there is a great need for more effective therapies for this illness. In previous studies, we, as well as others, showed that the immune cell chemoattractant C-C motif chemokine ligand 21 (CCL21) is effective as an intratumoral therapy able to slow the growth of cancers. In this current study, we developed and tested an injectable, slow-release, uniform, and optimally loaded alginate nanoformulation of CCL21 as a means to provide prolonged intratumoral treatment. The alginate-nanoformulated CCL21, when injected intratumorally into mice bearing neuroblastoma lesions, significantly prolonged survival and decreased the tumor growth rate compared to CCL21 alone, empty nanoparticles, or buffer. Notably, we also observed complete tumor clearance and subsequent full protection against tumor rechallenge in 33% of nanoformulated CCL21-treated mice. Greater intratumoral presence of nanoformulated CCL21, compared to free CCL21, at days 1 and 2 after treatment ended was confirmed through fluorescent labeling and tracking. Nanoformulated CCL21-treated tumors exhibited a general pattern of prolonged increases in anti-tumor cytokines and relatively lower levels of pro-tumor cytokines in comparison to tumors treated with CCL21 alone or buffer only. Thus, this novel nanoformulation of CCL21 is an effective treatment for neuroblastoma, and may have potential for the delivery of CCL21 to other types of solid tumors in the future and as a slow-release delivery modality for other immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany J Poelaert
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Svetlana Romanova
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Shelby M Knoche
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Madeline T Olson
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Bailee H Sliker
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Kaitlin Smits
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Brittney L Dickey
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Alexandra E J Moffitt-Holida
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Benjamin T Goetz
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Nuzhat Khan
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Lynette Smith
- Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Department of Biostatistics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Hamid Band
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Aaron M Mohs
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Donald W Coulter
- Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Department of Pediatrics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Tatiana K Bronich
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America
| | - Joyce C Solheim
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America; Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America.
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17
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Chulpanova DS, Kitaeva KV, Green AR, Rizvanov AA, Solovyeva VV. Molecular Aspects and Future Perspectives of Cytokine-Based Anti-cancer Immunotherapy. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:402. [PMID: 32582698 PMCID: PMC7283917 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokine-based immunotherapy is a promising field in the cancer treatment, since cytokines, as proteins of the immune system, are able to modulate the host immune response toward cancer cell, as well as directly induce tumor cell death. Since a low dose monotherapy with some cytokines has no significant therapeutic results and a high dose treatment leads to a number of side effects caused by the pleiotropic effect of cytokines, the problem of understanding the influence of cytokines on the immune cells involved in the pro- and anti-tumor immune response remains a pressing one. Immune system cells carry CD makers on their surface which can be used to identify various populations of cells of the immune system that play different roles in pro- and anti-tumor immune responses. This review discusses the functions and specific CD markers of various immune cell populations which are reported to participate in the regulation of the immune response against the tumor. The results of research studies and clinical trials investigating the effect of cytokine therapy on the regulation of immune cell populations and their surface markers are also discussed. Current trends in the development of cancer immunotherapy, as well as the role of cytokines in combination with other therapeutic agents, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria S Chulpanova
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
| | - Kristina V Kitaeva
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
| | - Andrew R Green
- Nottingham Breast Cancer Research Centre, Division of Cancer and Stem Cells, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham Biodiscovery Institute, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Albert A Rizvanov
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia.,Nottingham Breast Cancer Research Centre, Division of Cancer and Stem Cells, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham Biodiscovery Institute, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Valeriya V Solovyeva
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
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18
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Baldin AV, Savvateeva LV, Bazhin AV, Zamyatnin AA. Dendritic Cells in Anticancer Vaccination: Rationale for Ex Vivo Loading or In Vivo Targeting. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12030590. [PMID: 32150821 PMCID: PMC7139354 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12030590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) have shown great potential as a component or target in the landscape of cancer immunotherapy. Different in vivo and ex vivo strategies of DC vaccine generation with different outcomes have been proposed. Numerous clinical trials have demonstrated their efficacy and safety in cancer patients. However, there is no consensus regarding which DC-based vaccine generation method is preferable. A problem of result comparison between trials in which different DC-loading or -targeting approaches have been applied remains. The employment of different DC generation and maturation methods, antigens and administration routes from trial to trial also limits the objective comparison of DC vaccines. In the present review, we discuss different methods of DC vaccine generation. We conclude that standardized trial designs, treatment settings and outcome assessment criteria will help to determine which DC vaccine generation approach should be applied in certain cancer cases. This will result in a reduction in alternatives in the selection of preferable DC-based vaccine tactics in patient. Moreover, it has become clear that the application of a DC vaccine alone is not sufficient and combination immunotherapy with recent advances, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, should be employed to achieve a better clinical response and outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey V. Baldin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.B.); (L.V.S.)
| | - Lyudmila V. Savvateeva
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.B.); (L.V.S.)
| | - Alexandr V. Bazhin
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplant Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany;
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Andrey A. Zamyatnin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.B.); (L.V.S.)
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Department of Cell Signaling, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +74-956-229-843
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