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Chen SH, Damborsky JC, Wilson BC, Fannin RD, Ward JM, Gerrish KE, He B, Martin NP, Yakel JL. α7 Nicotinic Receptor Activation Mitigates Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection in Microglia Cells. Antiviral Res 2024; 228:105934. [PMID: 38880195 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2024.105934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), a neurotropic DNA virus, establishes latency in neural tissues, with reactivation causing severe consequences like encephalitis. Emerging evidence links HSV-1 infection to chronic neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. Microglia, the central nervous system's (CNS) immune sentinels, express diverse receptors, including α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7 nAChRs), critical for immune regulation. Recent studies suggest α7 nAChR activation protects against viral infections. Here, we show that α7 nAChR agonists, choline and PNU-282987, significantly inhibit HSV-1 replication in microglial BV2 cells. Notably, this inhibition is independent of the traditional ionotropic nAChR signaling pathway. mRNA profiling revealed that choline stimulates the expression of antiviral factors, IL-1β and Nos2, and down-regulates the apoptosis genes and type A Lamins in BV2 cells. These findings suggest a novel mechanism by which microglial α7 nAChRs restrict viral infections by regulating innate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Heng Chen
- Viral Vector Core Facility, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA; Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Joanne C Damborsky
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Belinda C Wilson
- Viral Vector Core Facility, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA; Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rick D Fannin
- Molecular Genomics Core Facility, Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, NC USA
| | - James M Ward
- Bioinformatics Support Group, Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, NC USA
| | - Kevin E Gerrish
- Molecular Genomics Core Facility, Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, NC USA
| | - Bo He
- Viral Vector Core Facility, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA; Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Negin P Martin
- Viral Vector Core Facility, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA; Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jerrel L Yakel
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.
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Jie J, Gong Y, Luo S, Yang X, Guo K. Genetically predicted associations between circulating cytokines and autoimmune diseases: a bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1404260. [PMID: 38860028 PMCID: PMC11163916 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1404260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Objectives Previous studies have indicated a correlation between cytokines and autoimmune diseases. yet the causality remains uncertain. Through Mendelian Randomization (MR) analysis, we aimed to investigate the causal relationships between genetically predicted levels of 91 cytokines and three autoimmune diseases: Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), and Hashimoto's Thyroiditis (HT). Methods A bidirectional two-sample MR approach was utilized to assess the causal relationships between cytokines and MS, SLE, and HT. The datasets included 47,429 MS cases and 68,374 controls, 5,201 SLE cases and 9,066 controls, and 16,191 HT cases with 210,612 controls. Data on 91 cytokines comprised 14,824 participants. Causal analyses primarily employed inverse variance weighted, weighted median, and MR-Egger methods, with sensitivity analyses including heterogeneity and pleiotropy assessment. Results Genetically predicted levels of IL-18 (OR = 0.706; 95% C.I. 0.538-0.925), ADA (OR = 0.808; 95% C.I. 0.673-0.970), and SCF (OR = 0.898; 95% C.I. 0.816-0.987) were associated with a decreased risk of MS. IL-4 (OR = 1.384; 95% C.I. 1.081-1.771), IL-7 (OR = 1.401; 95% C.I. 1.010-1.943), IL-10RA (OR = 1.266; 95% C.I. 1.004-1.596), CXCL5 (OR = 1.170; 95% C.I. 1.021-1.341), NTN (OR = 1.225; 95% C.I. 1.004-1.496), FGF23 (OR = 0.644; 95% C.I. 0.460-0.902), and MCP4 (OR = 0.665; 95% C.I. 0.476-0.929) were associated with SLE risk. CDCP1 (OR = 1.127; 95% C.I. 1.008-1.261), IL-33 (OR = 0.852; 95% C.I. 0.727-0.999), and TRAIL (OR = 0.884; 95% C.I. 0.799-0.979) were associated with HT risk. Bidirectional MR results suggest the involvement of CCL19, IL-13, SLAM, ARTN, Eotaxin, IL-22RA1, ADA, and MMP10 in the downstream development of these diseases. Conclusions Our findings support causal relationships between certain cytokines and the risks of MS, SLE, and HT, identifying potential biomarkers for diagnosis and prevention. Additionally, several cytokines previously unexplored in these autoimmune disease contexts were discovered, laying new groundwork for the study of disease mechanisms and therapeutic potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Jie
- Changde Hospital, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University (The First People’s Hospital of Changde City), Changde, China
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3
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Hernandez-Espinosa DR, Gale JR, Scrabis MG, Aizenman E. Microglial reprogramming by Hv1 antagonism protects neurons from inflammatory and glutamate toxicity. J Neurochem 2023; 165:29-54. [PMID: 36625847 PMCID: PMC10106429 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Although the precise mechanisms determining the neurotoxic or neuroprotective activation phenotypes in microglia remain poorly characterized, metabolic changes in these cells appear critical for these processes. As cellular metabolism can be tightly regulated by changes in intracellular pH, we tested whether pharmacological targeting of the microglial voltage-gated proton channel 1 (Hv1), an important regulator of intracellular pH, is critical for activated microglial reprogramming. Using a mouse microglial cell line and mouse primary microglia cultures, either alone, or co-cultured with rat cerebrocortical neurons, we characterized in detail the microglial activation profile in the absence and presence of Hv1 inhibition. We observed that activated microglia neurotoxicity was mainly attributable to the release of tumor necrosis factor alpha, reactive oxygen species, and zinc. Strikingly, pharmacological inhibition of Hv1 largely abrogated inflammatory neurotoxicity not only by reducing the production of cytotoxic mediators but also by promoting neurotrophic molecule production and restraining excessive phagocytic activity. Importantly, the Hv1-sensitive change from a pro-inflammatory to a neuroprotective phenotype was associated with metabolic reprogramming, particularly via a boost in NADH availability and a reduction in lactate. Most critically, Hv1 antagonism not only reduced inflammatory neurotoxicity but also promoted microglia-dependent neuroprotection against a separate excitotoxic injury. Our results strongly suggest that Hv1 blockers may provide an important therapeutic tool against a wide range of inflammatory neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego R Hernandez-Espinosa
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jenna R Gale
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mia G Scrabis
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Elias Aizenman
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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4
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Luchena C, Zuazo-Ibarra J, Valero J, Matute C, Alberdi E, Capetillo-Zarate E. A Neuron, Microglia, and Astrocyte Triple Co-culture Model to Study Alzheimer’s Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:844534. [PMID: 35493929 PMCID: PMC9048896 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.844534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cells are essential to understand Alzheimer’s disease (AD) progression, given their role in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. There is a need for reliable and easy to manipulate models that allow studying the mechanisms behind neuron and glia communication. Currently available models such as co-cultures require complex methodologies and/or might not be affordable for all laboratories. With this in mind, we aimed to establish a straightforward in vitro setting with neurons and glial cells to study AD. We generated and optimized a 2D triple co-culture model with murine astrocytes, neurons and microglia, based on sequential seeding of each cell type. Immunofluorescence, western blot and ELISA techniques were used to characterize the effects of oligomeric Aβ (oAβ) in this model. We found that, in the triple co-culture, microglia increased the expression of anti-inflammatory marker Arginase I, and reduced pro-inflammatory iNOS and IL-1β, compared with microglia alone. Astrocytes reduced expression of pro-inflammatory A1 markers AMIGO2 and C3, and displayed a ramified morphology resembling physiological conditions. Anti-inflammatory marker TGF-β1 was also increased in the triple co-culture. Lastly, neurons increased post-synaptic markers, and developed more and longer branches than in individual primary cultures. Addition of oAβ in the triple co-culture reduced synaptic markers and increased CD11b in microglia, which are hallmarks of AD. Consequently, we developed a straightforward and reproducible triple co-cultured model, where cells resemble physiological conditions better than in individual primary cultures: microglia are less inflammatory, astrocytes are less reactive and neurons display a more mature morphology. Moreover, we are able to recapitulate Aβ-induced synaptic loss and CD11b increase. This model emerges as a powerful tool to study neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in the context of AD and other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Luchena
- Department of Neuroscience, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
- Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa, Spain
- CIBERNED, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jone Zuazo-Ibarra
- Department of Neuroscience, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
- Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa, Spain
- CIBERNED, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jorge Valero
- Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences of Castilla y León, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
- Institute for Biomedical Research of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Carlos Matute
- Department of Neuroscience, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
- Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa, Spain
- CIBERNED, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena Alberdi
- Department of Neuroscience, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
- Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa, Spain
- CIBERNED, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Estibaliz Capetillo-Zarate
- Department of Neuroscience, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
- Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa, Spain
- CIBERNED, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
- *Correspondence: Estibaliz Capetillo-Zarate,
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Ming Y, Abedin MJ, Tatic-Lucic S, Berdichevsky Y. Microdevice for directional axodendritic connectivity between micro 3D neuronal cultures. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2021; 7:67. [PMID: 34567779 PMCID: PMC8433170 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-021-00292-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal cultures are widely used in neuroscience research. However, the randomness of circuits in conventional cultures prevents accurate in vitro modeling of cortical development and of the pathogenesis of neurological and psychiatric disorders. A basic feature of cortical circuits that is not captured in standard cultures of dissociated cortical cells is directional connectivity. In this work, a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based device that achieves directional connectivity between micro 3D cultures is demonstrated. The device consists of through-holes for micro three-dimensional (μ3D) clusters of cortical cells connected by microtrenches for axon and dendrite guidance. The design of the trenches relies in part on the concept of axonal edge guidance, as well as on the novel concept of specific dendrite targeting. This replicates dominant excitatory connectivity in the cortex, enables the guidance of the axon after it forms a synapse in passing (an "en passant" synapse), and ensures that directional selectivity is preserved over the lifetime of the culture. The directionality of connections was verified morphologically and functionally. Connections were dependent on glutamatergic synapses. The design of this device has the potential to serve as a building block for the reconstruction of more complex cortical circuits in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Ming
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA USA
| | - Md Joynal Abedin
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA USA
| | - Svetlana Tatic-Lucic
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA USA
| | - Yevgeny Berdichevsky
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA USA
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6
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Traetta ME, Uccelli NA, Zárate SC, Gómez Cuautle D, Ramos AJ, Reinés A. Long-Lasting Changes in Glial Cells Isolated From Rats Subjected to the Valproic Acid Model of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:707859. [PMID: 34421599 PMCID: PMC8374432 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.707859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Synaptic alterations concomitant with neuroinflammation have been described in patients and experimental models of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the role of microglia and astroglia in relation to synaptic changes is poorly understood. Male Wistar rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid (VPA, 450 mg/kg, i.p.) or saline (control) at embryonic day 10.5 were used to study synapses, microglia, and astroglia in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) at postnatal days 3 and 35 (PND3 and PND35). Primary cultures of cortical neurons, microglia, and astroglia isolated from control and VPA animals were used to study each cell type individually, neuron-microglia and microglia-astroglia crosstalk. In the PFC of VPA rats, synaptic changes characterized by an increase in the number of excitatory synapses were evidenced at PND3 and persisted until PND35. At PND3, microglia and astroglia from VPA animals were morphologically similar to those of age-matched controls, whereas at PND35, reactive microgliosis and astrogliosis were observed in the PFC of VPA animals. Cortical neurons isolated from VPA rats mimicked in vitro the synaptic pattern seen in vivo. Cortical microglia and astroglia isolated from VPA animals exhibited reactive morphology, increased pro-inflammatory cytokines, and a compromised miRNA processing machinery. Microglia from VPA animals also showed resistance to a phagocytic challenge. In the presence of neurons from VPA animals, microglia isolated from VPA rats revealed a non-reactive morphology and promoted neurite outgrowth, while microglia from control animals displayed a reactive profile and promoted dendritic retraction. In microglia-astroglia co-cultures, microglia from VPA animals displayed a reactive profile and exacerbated astrocyte reactivity. Our study indicates that cortical microglia from VPA animals are insensitive or adapted to neuronal cues expressed by neurons from VPA animals. Further, long-term in vivo microgliosis could be the result of altered microglia-astroglia crosstalk in VPA animals. Thus, our study highlights cortical microglia-astroglia communication as a new mechanism implicated in neuroinflammation in ASD; consequently, we propose that this crosstalk is a potential target for interventions in this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianela Evelyn Traetta
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis" (IBCN), CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Farmacología, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Nonthué Alejandra Uccelli
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis" (IBCN), CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sandra Cristina Zárate
- Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Histología, Embriología, Biología Celular y Genética, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (INBIOMED), CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Dante Gómez Cuautle
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis" (IBCN), CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alberto Javier Ramos
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis" (IBCN), CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Histología, Embriología, Biología Celular y Genética, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Analía Reinés
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis" (IBCN), CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Farmacología, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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7
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Ehinger R, Kuret A, Matt L, Frank N, Wild K, Kabagema-Bilan C, Bischof H, Malli R, Ruth P, Bausch AE, Lukowski R. Slack K + channels attenuate NMDA-induced excitotoxic brain damage and neuronal cell death. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21568. [PMID: 33817875 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202002308rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal Na+ -activated K+ channel Slack (aka Slo2.2, KNa 1.1, or Kcnt1) has been implicated in setting and maintaining the resting membrane potential and defining excitability and firing patterns, as well as in the generation of the slow afterhyperpolarization following bursts of action potentials. Slack activity increases significantly under conditions of high intracellular Na+ levels, suggesting this channel may exert important pathophysiological functions. To address these putative roles, we studied whether Slack K+ channels contribute to pathological changes and excitotoxic cell death caused by glutamatergic overstimulation of Ca2+ - and Na+ -permeable N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors (NMDAR). Slack-deficient (Slack KO) and wild-type (WT) mice were subjected to intrastriatal microinjections of the NMDAR agonist NMDA. NMDA-induced brain lesions were significantly increased in Slack KO vs WT mice, suggesting that the lack of Slack renders neurons particularly susceptible to excitotoxicity. Accordingly, excessive neuronal cell death was seen in Slack-deficient primary cerebellar granule cell (CGC) cultures exposed to glutamate and NMDA. Differences in neuronal survival between WT and Slack KO CGCs were largely abolished by the NMDAR antagonist MK-801, but not by NBQX, a potent and highly selective competitive antagonist of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-type ionotropic glutamate receptors. Interestingly, NMDAR-evoked Ca2+ signals did not differ with regard to Slack genotype in CGCs. However, real-time monitoring of K+ following NMDAR activation revealed a significant contribution of this channel to the intracellular drop in K+ . Finally, TrkB and TrkC neurotrophin receptor transcript levels were elevated in NMDA-exposed Slack-proficient CGCs, suggesting a mechanism by which this K+ channel contributes to the activation of the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (Erk) pathway and thereby to neuroprotection. Combined, our findings suggest that Slack-dependent K+ signals oppose the NMDAR-mediated excitotoxic neuronal injury by promoting pro-survival signaling via the BDNF/TrkB and Erk axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekka Ehinger
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anna Kuret
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lucas Matt
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nadine Frank
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Wild
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Clement Kabagema-Bilan
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Helmut Bischof
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Roland Malli
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Peter Ruth
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anne E Bausch
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Robert Lukowski
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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8
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Song Y, Li Z, He T, Qu M, Jiang L, Li W, Shi X, Pan J, Zhang L, Wang Y, Zhang Z, Tang Y, Yang GY. M2 microglia-derived exosomes protect the mouse brain from ischemia-reperfusion injury via exosomal miR-124. Am J Cancer Res 2019; 9:2910-2923. [PMID: 31244932 PMCID: PMC6568171 DOI: 10.7150/thno.30879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Microglia play a critical role in modulating cell death and neurobehavioral recovery in response to brain injury either by direct cell-cell interaction or indirect secretion of trophic factors. Exosomes secreted from cells are well documented to deliver bioactive molecules to recipient cells to modulate cell function. Here, we aimed to identify whether M2 microglia exert neuroprotection after ischemic attack through an exosome-mediated cell-cell interaction. Methods: M2 microglia-derived exosomes were intravenously injected into the mouse brain immediately after middle cerebral artery occlusion. Infarct volume, neurological score, and neuronal apoptosis were examined 3 days after ischemic attack. Exosome RNA and target protein expression levels in neurons and brain tissue were determined for the mechanistic study. Results: Our results showed that the M2 microglia-derived exosomes were taken up by neurons in vitro and in vivo. M2 microglia-derived exosome treatment attenuated neuronal apoptosis after oxygen-glucose deprivation (p<0.05). In vivo results showed that M2 microglia-derived exosome treatment significantly reduced infarct volume and attenuated behavioral deficits 3 days after transient brain ischemia (p<0.05), whereas injection of miR-124 knockdown (miR-124k/d) M2 microglia-derived exosomes partly reversed the neuroprotective effect. Our mechanistic study further demonstrated that ubiquitin-specific protease 14 (USP14) was the direct downstream target of miR-124. Injection of miR-124k/d M2 exosomes plus the USP14 inhibitor, IU1, achieved comparable neuroprotective effect as injection of M2 exosomes alone. Conclusions: We demonstrated that M2 microglia-derived exosomes attenuated ischemic brain injury and promoted neuronal survival via exosomal miR-124 and its downstream target USP14. M2 microglia-derived exosomes represent a promising avenue for treating ischemic stroke.
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9
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Terashima T, Nakae Y, Katagi M, Okano J, Suzuki Y, Kojima H. Stem cell factor induces polarization of microglia to the neuroprotective phenotype in vitro. Heliyon 2018; 4:e00837. [PMID: 30294687 PMCID: PMC6171080 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are classified mainly into the M1 or M2 phenotypes, which evoke either proinflammatory or neuroprotective responses. Given the association of microglia with the pathogenesis of neuronal diseases, they are in focus as therapeutic targets for the treatment of such conditions. Stem cell factor (SCF) is a ligand for the c-kit receptor, one of the differentiation factors for bone marrow cells. In this study, characteristics of SCF-activated microglia and their effects on neurons were analyzed to investigate the therapeutic potential of SCF in neuronal diseases. SCF was found to induce proliferation, migration, and phagocytosis of microglia. In addition, SCF-derived microglia showed a neuroprotective phenotype expressing anti-inflammatory cytokines, growth factors, and M2 markers as compared to the phenotype shown by granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor-derived microglia expressing inflammatory cytokines and M1 markers. Furthermore, supernatant medium from SCF-activated microglia enhanced cell proliferation and protection from cell death in NSC-34 neuronal cells. We conclude that SCF modulates microglial functions and induces activation of the neuroprotective effects of microglia, which could be used for treatment of neuronal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoya Terashima
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga, Japan
| | - Yuki Nakae
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga, Japan
| | - Miwako Katagi
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga, Japan
| | - Junko Okano
- Division of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga, Japan.,Department of Plastic Surgery, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga, Japan
| | - Yoshihisa Suzuki
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga, Japan
| | - Hideto Kojima
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga, Japan
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10
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Chen SH, Sung YF, Oyarzabal EA, Tan YM, Leonard J, Guo M, Li S, Wang Q, Chu CH, Chen SL, Lu RB, Hong JS. Physiological Concentration of Prostaglandin E 2 Exerts Anti-inflammatory Effects by Inhibiting Microglial Production of Superoxide Through a Novel Pathway. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:8001-8013. [PMID: 29492849 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-0965-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the physiological regulation of brain immune homeostasis in rat primary neuron-glial cultures by sub-nanomolar concentrations of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). We demonstrated that 0.01 to 10 nM PGE2 protected dopaminergic neurons against LPS-induced neurotoxicity through a reduction of microglial release of pro-inflammatory factors in a dose-dependent manner. Mechanistically, neuroprotective effects elicited by PGE2 were mediated by the inhibition of microglial NOX2, a major superoxide-producing enzyme. This conclusion was supported by (1) the close relationship between inhibition of superoxide and PGE2-induced neuroprotective effects; (2) the mediation of PGE2-induced reduction of superoxide and neuroprotection via direct inhibition of the catalytic subunit of NOX2, gp91phox, rather than through the inhibition of conventional prostaglandin E2 receptors; and (3) abolishment of the neuroprotective effect of PGE2 in NOX2-deficient cultures. In summary, this study revealed a potential physiological role of PGE2 in maintaining brain immune homeostasis and protecting neurons via an EP receptor-independent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Heng Chen
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
| | - Yueh-Feng Sung
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.,Department of Neurology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Esteban A Oyarzabal
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Yu-Mei Tan
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Lab, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Jeremy Leonard
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Mingri Guo
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Tianjin Haihe Hospital/Haihe Clinical Institute of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Shuo Li
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.,Department of Respiratory, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Qingshan Wang
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Chun-Hsien Chu
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Shiou-Lan Chen
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ru-Band Lu
- Institute of Behavioral Medicine, College of Medicine & Hospital, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Psychiatry, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jau-Shyong Hong
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
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11
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Chen S, Tisch N, Kegel M, Yerbes R, Hermann R, Hudalla H, Zuliani C, Gülcüler GS, Zwadlo K, von Engelhardt J, Ruiz de Almodóvar C, Martin-Villalba A. CNS Macrophages Control Neurovascular Development via CD95L. Cell Rep 2018; 19:1378-1393. [PMID: 28514658 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.04.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of neurons and vessels shares striking anatomical and molecular features, and it is presumably orchestrated by an overlapping repertoire of extracellular signals. CNS macrophages have been implicated in various developmental functions, including the morphogenesis of neurons and vessels. However, whether CNS macrophages can coordinately influence neurovascular development and the identity of the signals involved therein is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that activity of the cell surface receptor CD95 regulates neuronal and vascular morphogenesis in the post-natal brain and retina. Furthermore, we identify CNS macrophages as the main source of CD95L, and macrophage-specific deletion thereof reduces both neurovascular complexity and synaptic activity in the brain. CD95L-induced neuronal and vascular growth is mediated through src-family kinase (SFK) and PI3K signaling. Together, our study highlights a coordinated neurovascular development instructed by CNS macrophage-derived CD95L, and it underlines the importance of macrophages for the establishment of the neurovascular network during CNS development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si Chen
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, German Cancer Research Center (DFKZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Nathalie Tisch
- Biochemistry Center, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marcel Kegel
- Institute of Pathophysiology, University Medical Center of Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germany
| | - Rosario Yerbes
- Biochemistry Center, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Robert Hermann
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, German Cancer Research Center (DFKZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hannes Hudalla
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, German Cancer Research Center (DFKZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Cecilia Zuliani
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, German Cancer Research Center (DFKZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gülce Sila Gülcüler
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, German Cancer Research Center (DFKZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Klara Zwadlo
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, German Cancer Research Center (DFKZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jakob von Engelhardt
- Institute of Pathophysiology, University Medical Center of Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Ana Martin-Villalba
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, German Cancer Research Center (DFKZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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12
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Sepulveda-Diaz JE, Ouidja MO, Socias SB, Hamadat S, Guerreiro S, Raisman-Vozari R, Michel PP. A simplified approach for efficient isolation of functional microglial cells: Application for modeling neuroinflammatory responsesin vitro. Glia 2016; 64:1912-24. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julia E. Sepulveda-Diaz
- Institut National De La Santé Et De La Recherche Médicale, U 1127, CNRS, Unité Mixte De Recherche (UMR) 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR S 1127, Institut Du Cerveau Et De La Moelle Epinière, ICM; Paris France
| | - Mohand O. Ouidja
- Laboratoire Croissance, Régénération, Réparation Et Régénération Tissulaires (CRRET)/EAC CNRS 7149, Université Paris Est Créteil, Université Paris Est; Créteil France
| | - Sergio B. Socias
- Institut National De La Santé Et De La Recherche Médicale, U 1127, CNRS, Unité Mixte De Recherche (UMR) 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR S 1127, Institut Du Cerveau Et De La Moelle Epinière, ICM; Paris France
- Facultad De Bioquímica, Química Y Farmacia (UNT), Instituto Superior De Investigaciones Biológicas, INSIBIO (CONICET-UNT) and Instituto De Química Biológica “Dr Bernabé Bloj,”; Tucumán Argentina
| | - Sabah Hamadat
- Institut National De La Santé Et De La Recherche Médicale, U 1127, CNRS, Unité Mixte De Recherche (UMR) 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR S 1127, Institut Du Cerveau Et De La Moelle Epinière, ICM; Paris France
| | - Serge Guerreiro
- Institut National De La Santé Et De La Recherche Médicale, U 1127, CNRS, Unité Mixte De Recherche (UMR) 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR S 1127, Institut Du Cerveau Et De La Moelle Epinière, ICM; Paris France
| | - Rita Raisman-Vozari
- Institut National De La Santé Et De La Recherche Médicale, U 1127, CNRS, Unité Mixte De Recherche (UMR) 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR S 1127, Institut Du Cerveau Et De La Moelle Epinière, ICM; Paris France
| | - Patrick P. Michel
- Institut National De La Santé Et De La Recherche Médicale, U 1127, CNRS, Unité Mixte De Recherche (UMR) 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR S 1127, Institut Du Cerveau Et De La Moelle Epinière, ICM; Paris France
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13
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Neurons and astroglia govern microglial endotoxin tolerance through macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor-mediated ERK1/2 signals. Brain Behav Immun 2016; 55:260-272. [PMID: 27132056 PMCID: PMC4899166 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Endotoxin tolerance (ET) is a reduced responsiveness of innate immune cells like macrophages/monocytes to an endotoxin challenge following a previous encounter with the endotoxin. Although ET in peripheral systems has been well studied, little is known about ET in the brain. The present study showed that brain immune cells, microglia, being different from peripheral macrophages, displayed non-cell autonomous mechanisms in ET formation. Specifically, neurons and astroglia were indispensable for microglial ET. Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) secreted from these non-immune cells was essential for governing microglial ET. Neutralization of M-CSF deprived the neuron-glia conditioned medium of its ability to enable microglia to form ET when microglia encountered two lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatments. Recombinant M-CSF protein rendered enriched microglia refractory to the second LPS challenge leading to microglial ET. Activation of microglial M-CSF receptor (M-CSFR; also known as CSF1R) and the downstream ERK1/2 signals was responsible for M-CSF-mediated microglial ET. Endotoxin-tolerant microglia in neuron-glia cultures displayed M2-like polarized phenotypes, as shown by upregulation of M2 marker Arg-1, elevated production of anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10, and decreased secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators (tumor necrosis factor α, nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2 and interleukin 1β). Endotoxin-tolerant microglia protected neurons against LPS-elicited inflammatory insults, as shown by reduced neuronal damages in LPS pre-treatment group compared with the group without LPS pre-treatment. Moreover, while neurons and astroglia became injured during chronic neuroinflammation, microglia failed to form ET. Thus, this study identified a distinct non-cell autonomous mechanism of microglial ET. Interactions of M-CSF secreted by neurons and astroglia with microglial M-CSFR programed microglial ET. Loss of microglial ET could be an important pathogenetic mechanism of inflammation-associated neuronal damages.
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14
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Devaux S, Cizkova D, Quanico J, Franck J, Nataf S, Pays L, Hauberg-Lotte L, Maass P, Kobarg JH, Kobeissy F, Mériaux C, Wisztorski M, Slovinska L, Blasko J, Cigankova V, Fournier I, Salzet M. Proteomic Analysis of the Spatio-temporal Based Molecular Kinetics of Acute Spinal Cord Injury Identifies a Time- and Segment-specific Window for Effective Tissue Repair. Mol Cell Proteomics 2016; 15:2641-70. [PMID: 27250205 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m115.057794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) represents a major debilitating health issue with a direct socioeconomic burden on the public and private sectors worldwide. Although several studies have been conducted to identify the molecular progression of injury sequel due from the lesion site, still the exact underlying mechanisms and pathways of injury development have not been fully elucidated. In this work, based on OMICs, 3D matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) imaging, cytokines arrays, confocal imaging we established for the first time that molecular and cellular processes occurring after SCI are altered between the lesion proximity, i.e. rostral and caudal segments nearby the lesion (R1-C1) whereas segments distant from R1-C1, i.e. R2-C2 and R3-C3 levels coexpressed factors implicated in neurogenesis. Delay in T regulators recruitment between R1 and C1 favor discrepancies between the two segments. This is also reinforced by presence of neurites outgrowth inhibitors in C1, absent in R1. Moreover, the presence of immunoglobulins (IgGs) in neurons at the lesion site at 3 days, validated by mass spectrometry, may present additional factor that contributes to limited regeneration. Treatment in vivo with anti-CD20 one hour after SCI did not improve locomotor function and decrease IgG expression. These results open the door of a novel view of the SCI treatment by considering the C1 as the therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Devaux
- From the ‡Univ. Lille, Inserm, U-1192 - Laboratoire Protéomique, Réponse Inflammatoire et Spectrométrie de Masse-PRISM, F-59000 Lille, France; §Institute of Neurobiology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Center of Excellence for Brain Research, Soltesovej 4-6 Kosice, Slovakia; §§Department of Anatomy, Histology and Physiology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Komenskeho 73, 041 81 Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Dasa Cizkova
- From the ‡Univ. Lille, Inserm, U-1192 - Laboratoire Protéomique, Réponse Inflammatoire et Spectrométrie de Masse-PRISM, F-59000 Lille, France; §Institute of Neurobiology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Center of Excellence for Brain Research, Soltesovej 4-6 Kosice, Slovakia; §§Department of Anatomy, Histology and Physiology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Komenskeho 73, 041 81 Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Jusal Quanico
- From the ‡Univ. Lille, Inserm, U-1192 - Laboratoire Protéomique, Réponse Inflammatoire et Spectrométrie de Masse-PRISM, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Julien Franck
- From the ‡Univ. Lille, Inserm, U-1192 - Laboratoire Protéomique, Réponse Inflammatoire et Spectrométrie de Masse-PRISM, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Serge Nataf
- ¶Inserm U-1060, CarMeN Laboratory, Banque de Tissus et de Cellules des Hospices Civils de Lyon, Université Lyon-1, France
| | - Laurent Pays
- ¶Inserm U-1060, CarMeN Laboratory, Banque de Tissus et de Cellules des Hospices Civils de Lyon, Université Lyon-1, France
| | - Lena Hauberg-Lotte
- ‖Center for industrial mathematics, University of Bremen, Bibliothek straβe 1, MZH, Room 2060, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Peter Maass
- ‖Center for industrial mathematics, University of Bremen, Bibliothek straβe 1, MZH, Room 2060, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Jan H Kobarg
- **Steinbeis Innovation Center SCiLS Research, Fahrenheitstr. 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Firas Kobeissy
- ‡‡Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut
| | - Céline Mériaux
- From the ‡Univ. Lille, Inserm, U-1192 - Laboratoire Protéomique, Réponse Inflammatoire et Spectrométrie de Masse-PRISM, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Maxence Wisztorski
- From the ‡Univ. Lille, Inserm, U-1192 - Laboratoire Protéomique, Réponse Inflammatoire et Spectrométrie de Masse-PRISM, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Lucia Slovinska
- §Institute of Neurobiology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Center of Excellence for Brain Research, Soltesovej 4-6 Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Juraj Blasko
- §Institute of Neurobiology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Center of Excellence for Brain Research, Soltesovej 4-6 Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Viera Cigankova
- §§Department of Anatomy, Histology and Physiology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Komenskeho 73, 041 81 Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Isabelle Fournier
- From the ‡Univ. Lille, Inserm, U-1192 - Laboratoire Protéomique, Réponse Inflammatoire et Spectrométrie de Masse-PRISM, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Michel Salzet
- From the ‡Univ. Lille, Inserm, U-1192 - Laboratoire Protéomique, Réponse Inflammatoire et Spectrométrie de Masse-PRISM, F-59000 Lille, France; **Steinbeis Innovation Center SCiLS Research, Fahrenheitstr. 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
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15
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Chu CH, Chen SH, Wang Q, Langenbach R, Li H, Zeldin D, Chen SL, Wang S, Gao H, Lu RB, Hong JS. PGE2 Inhibits IL-10 Production via EP2-Mediated β-Arrestin Signaling in Neuroinflammatory Condition. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 52:587-600. [PMID: 25218510 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8889-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory mechanisms of the expression of interleukin-10 (IL-10) in brain inflammatory conditions remain elusive. To address this issue, we used multiple primary brain cell cultures to study the expression of IL-10 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-elicited inflammatory conditions. In neuron-glia cultures, LPS triggered well-orchestrated expression of various immune factors in the following order: tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and lastly IL-10, and these inflammatory mediators were mainly produced from microglia. While exogenous application of individual earlier-released pro-inflammatory factors (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, or PGE2) failed to induce IL-10 expression, removal of LPS from the cultures showed the requirement of continuing presence of LPS for IL-10 expression. Interestingly, genetic disruption of tnf-α, its receptors tnf-r1/r2, and cox-2 and pharmacological inhibition of COX-2 activity enhanced LPS-induced IL-10 production in microglia, which suggests negative regulation of IL-10 induction by the earlier-released TNF-α and PGE2. Further studies showed that negative regulation of IL-10 production by TNF-α is mediated by PGE2. Mechanistic studies indicated that PGE2-elicited suppression of IL-10 induction was eliminated by genetic disruption of the PGE2 receptor EP2 and was mimicked by the specific agonist for the EP2, butaprost, but not agonists for the other three EP receptors. Inhibition of cAMP-dependent signal transduction failed to affect PGE2-mediated inhibition of IL-10 production, suggesting that a G protein-independent pathway was involved. Indeed, deficiency in β-arrestin-1 or β-arrestin-2 abolished PGE2-elicited suppression of IL-10 production. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that COX-2-derived PGE2 inhibits IL-10 expression in brain microglia through a novel EP2- and β-arrestin-dependent signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Hsien Chu
- Neuropharmacology Section, National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
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16
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Mosley RL, Hutter-Saunders JA, Stone DK, Gendelman HE. Inflammation and adaptive immunity in Parkinson's disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2013; 2:a009381. [PMID: 22315722 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a009381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The immune system is designed to protect the host from infection and injury. However, when an adaptive immune response continues unchecked in the brain, the proinflammatory innate microglial response leads to the accumulation of neurotoxins and eventual neurodegeneration. What drives such responses are misfolded and nitrated proteins. Indeed, the antigen in Parkinson's disease (PD) is an aberrant self-protein, although the adaptive immune responses are remarkably similar in a range of diseases. Ingress of lymphocytes and chronic activation of glial cells directly affect neurodegeneration. With this understanding, new therapies aimed at modulating the immune system's response during PD could lead to decreased neuronal loss and improved clinical outcomes for disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Lee Mosley
- Movement Disorders Program, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, USA
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17
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Seitz R, Ohlmann A, Tamm ER. The role of Müller glia and microglia in glaucoma. Cell Tissue Res 2013; 353:339-45. [PMID: 23779255 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-013-1666-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Cells of Müller glia and microglia react to neuronal injury in glaucoma. The change to a reactive phenotype initiates signaling cascades that may serve a neuroprotective role, but may also proceed to promote damaging effects on retinal neurons. Both effects appear to occur most likely in parallel in glaucoma, but the underlying mechanisms and signaling pathways that specifically promote protective versus destructive roles of reactive glial cells are mostly unclear. More research is needed to understand the homeostatic signaling network in which retinal glia cells are embedded to maintain or restore neuronal function after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roswitha Seitz
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Regensburg, Universitätstr. 31, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
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18
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Abd-El-Basse EM. Pro-inflammatory cytokine; tumor-necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) inhibits astrocytic support of neuronal survival and neurites outgrowth. ADVANCES IN BIOSCIENCE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2013; 04:73-80. [DOI: 10.4236/abb.2013.48a2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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19
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Hutter-Saunders JAL, Mosley RL, Gendelman HE. Pathways towards an effective immunotherapy for Parkinson's disease. Expert Rev Neurother 2012; 11:1703-15. [PMID: 22091596 DOI: 10.1586/ern.11.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Immunizations that target specific types of immune responses are used commonly to prevent microbial infections. However, a range of immune responses may prove necessary to combat the ravages of neurodegenerative diseases. The goal is to eliminate the 'root' cause of neurodegenerative disorders, misfolded aggregated proteins, while harnessing adaptive immune responses to promote neural repair. However, immunization strategies used to elicit humoral immune responses against aberrant brain proteins have yielded mixed success. While specific proteins can be cleared, the failures in halting disease progression revolve, in measure, around adaptive immune responses that promote autoreactive T cells and, as such, induce a meningoencephalitis, accelerating neurodegeneration. Thus, alternative approaches for protein clearance and neural repair are desired. To this end, our laboratories have sought to transform autoreactive adaptive immune responses into regulatory neuroprotective cells in Parkinson's disease. In this context, induction of immune responses against modified brain proteins serves to break immunological tolerance, while eliciting adaptive immunity to facilitate neuronal repair. How to harness the immune response in the setting of Parkinson's disease requires a thorough understanding of the role of immunity in human disease and the ways to modify such immune responses to elicit therapeutic gain. These are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A L Hutter-Saunders
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
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20
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Beumer W, Gibney SM, Drexhage RC, Pont-Lezica L, Doorduin J, Klein HC, Steiner J, Connor TJ, Harkin A, Versnel MA, Drexhage HA. The immune theory of psychiatric diseases: a key role for activated microglia and circulating monocytes. J Leukoc Biol 2012; 92:959-75. [PMID: 22875882 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0212100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This review describes a key role for mononuclear phagocytes in the pathogenesis of major psychiatric disorders. There is accumulating evidence for activation of microglia (histopathology and PET scans) and circulating monocytes (enhanced gene expression of immune genes, an overproduction of monocyte/macrophage-related cytokines) in patients with bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia. These data are strengthened by observations in animal models, such as the MIA models, the chronic stress models, and the NOD mouse model. In these animal models of depressive-, anxiety-, and schizophrenia-like behavior, similar activations of microglia and circulating monocytes can be found. These animal models also make in-depth pathogenic studies possible and show that microglia activation impacts neuronal development and function in brain areas congruent with the altered depressive and schizophrenia-like behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Beumer
- Department of Immunology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
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21
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Pont-Lezica L, Béchade C, Belarif-Cantaut Y, Pascual O, Bessis A. Physiological roles of microglia during development. J Neurochem 2011; 119:901-8. [PMID: 21951310 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07504.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
In all the species examined thus far, the behavior of microglia during development appears to be highly stereotyped. This reproducibility supports the notion that these cells have a physiological role in development. Microglia are macrophages that migrate from the yolk sac and colonize the central nervous system early during development. The first invading yolk-sac macrophages are highly proliferative and their role has not yet been addressed. At later developmental stages, microglia can be found throughout the brain and tend to preferentially reside at specific locations that are often associated with known developmental processes. Thus, it appears that microglia concentrate in areas of cell death, in proximity of developing blood vessels, in the marginal layer, which contains developing axon fascicles, and in close association with radial glial cells. This review describes the main features of brain colonization by microglia and discusses the possible physiological roles of these cells during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Pont-Lezica
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, INSERM 1024 - CNRS 8197, Paris, France
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22
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Kraft AD, Kaltenbach LS, Lo DC, Harry GJ. Activated microglia proliferate at neurites of mutant huntingtin-expressing neurons. Neurobiol Aging 2011; 33:621.e17-33. [PMID: 21482444 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
In Huntington's disease (HD), mutated huntingtin (mhtt) causes striatal neurodegeneration which is paralleled by elevated microglia cell numbers. In vitro corticostriatal slice and primary neuronal culture models, in which neuronal expression of mhtt fragments drives HD-like neurotoxicity, were employed to examine wild type microglia during both the initiation and progression of neuronal pathology. As neuronal pathology progressed, microglia initially localized in the vicinity of neurons expressing mhtt fragments increased in number, demonstrated morphological evidence of activation, and expressed the proliferation marker, Ki67. These microglia were positioned along irregular neurites, but did not localize with mhtt inclusions nor exacerbate mhtt fragment-induced neurotoxicity. Prior to neuronal pathology, microglia upregulated ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1), signaling a functional shift. With neurodegeneration, interleukin-6 and complement component 1q were increased. The results suggest a stimulatory, proliferative signal for microglia present at the onset of mhtt fragment-induced neurodegeneration. Thus, microglia effect a localized inflammatory response to neuronal mhtt expression that may serve to direct microglial removal of dysfunctional neurites or aberrant synapses, as is required for reparative actions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Kraft
- Neurotoxicology Group, Laboratory of Toxicology and Pharmacology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Silva SL, Osório C, Vaz AR, Barateiro A, Falcão AS, Silva RFM, Brites D. Dynamics of neuron-glia interplay upon exposure to unconjugated bilirubin. J Neurochem 2011; 117:412-24. [PMID: 21275990 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07200.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Microglia are the main players of the brain immune response. They act as active sensors that rapidly respond to injurious insults by shifting into different activated states. Elevated levels of unconjugated bilirubin (UCB) induce cell death, immunostimulation and oxidative stress in both neurons and astrocytes. We recently reported that microglial phagocytic phenotype precedes the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines upon UCB exposure. We investigated whether and how microglia microenvironment influences the response to UCB. Our findings revealed that conditioned media derived from UCB-treated astrocytes reduce microglial inflammatory reaction and cell death, suggesting an attempt to curtail microglial over activation. Conditioned medium from UCB-challenged neurons, although down-regulating tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β promoted the release of interleukin-6 and nitric oxide, the activation of matrix metalloproteinase-9, and cell death, as compared with UCB-direct effects on microglia. Moreover, soluble factors released by UCB-treated neurons intensified the phagocytic properties manifested by microglia under direct exposure to UCB. Results from neuron-microglia mixed cultures incubated with UCB evidenced that sensitized microglia were able to prevent neurite outgrowth impairment and cell death. In conclusion, our data indicate that stressed neurons signal microglial clearance functions, but also overstimulate its inflammatory potential ultimately leading to microglia demise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra L Silva
- Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
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Morino T, Ogata T, Takeba J, Yamamoto H. Microglia inhibition is a target of mild hypothermic treatment after the spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2008; 46:425-31. [DOI: 10.1038/sj.sc.3102163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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25
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Liang R, Ustinova EE, Patnam R, Fraser MO, Gutkin DW, Pezzone MA. Enhanced expression of mast cell growth factor and mast cell activation in the bladder following the resolution of trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) colitis in female rats. Neurourol Urodyn 2008; 26:887-93. [PMID: 17385238 PMCID: PMC2092453 DOI: 10.1002/nau.20410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Chronic pelvic pain disorders often overlap. We have shown that acute colonic irritation can produce acute irritative micturition patterns and acutely sensitize bladder afferent responses to mechanical and chemical stimuli. We hypothesize that with time, colonic irritation can lead to neurogenic changes in the bladder and the development of chronic bladder sensitization. METHODS Micturition patterns were measured in rats 60-90 days after the induction of trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) colitis in the resolution phase of this model. Total and activated mast cells (MCs) were quantified in the bladder, while mRNA levels of stem cell factor (SCF; a.k.a. MC growth factor) and nerve growth factor (NGF; a MC and nociceptive C-fiber stimulator) were quantified in the bladder and L6-S1 dorsal root ganglia (DRG). RESULTS Following intra-rectal TNBS, voiding volume was reduced (P < 0.005), while voiding frequency was increased (P < 0.05), both by approximately 50%. Furthermore, both the percentage and density of activated bladder MCs were significantly elevated (P < 0.05), although total MC counts were not statistically increased. At the molecular level, urinary bladder SCF expression increased twofold (P < 0.005), as did NGF (P < 0.01), while L6-S1 DRG levels were not significantly elevated. CONCLUSIONS Chronic cystitis in the rat as evidenced by changes in micturition patterns and the recruitment of activated MCs can occur during the resolution phase of TNBS colitis. These changes, of which MCs may play an important role, appear to be maintained over time and may occur via stimulation of convergent pelvic afferent input resulting in the upregulation of neurotrophic factors in the target organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruomei Liang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Elena E. Ustinova
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Radhika Patnam
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Matthew O. Fraser
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology Duke University Medical Center and Durham VAMC Durham, NC 27705 USA
| | | | - Michael A. Pezzone
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
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Ma J, Cui FZ, Liu BF, Xu QY. Atomic force and confocal microscopy for the study of cortical cells cultured on silicon wafers. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2007; 18:851-6. [PMID: 17206523 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-006-0071-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2005] [Accepted: 01/17/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The primary cortical cells were selected as a model to study the adherence and neural network development on chemically roughened silicon substrates without any coatings using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The silicon substrates have a nano-range roughness (RMS) achieved by chemical etching using hydrofluoric (HF) acid. After 7 days of culturing, the neurons were observed to connect together and form dense neural networks. Furthermore, AFM results revealed that some porous structures at a few micrometer range existed between the neuron cells and the silicon substrates. It is suggested that the porous structures are made of extracellular matrix (ECM) components and play an important role in the neuronal adhesion and neurite outgrowth on the inert silicon wafers.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ma
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, PR China
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27
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Hamby AM, Suh SW, Kauppinen TM, Swanson RA. Use of a poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor to suppress inflammation and neuronal death after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. Stroke 2007; 38:632-6. [PMID: 17261705 DOI: 10.1161/01.str.0000250742.61241.79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Most stroke patients do not present for medical treatment until several hours after onset of brain ischemia. Consequently, neuroprotective strategies are required with comparably long therapeutic windows. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors such as PJ34 are known to suppress microglial activation, a postischemic event that may contribute to neuronal death. We evaluated the effects of PJ34 administered 8 hours after transient forebrain ischemia. METHODS Rats were subjected to 10 minutes of forebrain ischemia and treated with PJ34 for 7 days beginning 8 hours after reperfusion. Activated microglia and infiltrating macrophages were evaluated at serial time points between zero and 14 days after ischemia by immunostaining for CD11b. CA1 neuronal survival was evaluated 7 days after ischemia. RESULTS Rats treated with PJ34 showed a near-complete inhibition of microglia/macrophage activation (evaluated on day 5) and an 84% reduction in CA1 neuronal death. CONCLUSIONS Administration of PJ34 as late as 8 hours after transient ischemia-reperfusion has a large protective effect on CA1 survival. This effect may be mediated by suppression of the postischemic brain inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Hamby
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, USA
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28
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Tassi M, Calvente R, Marín-Teva JL, Cuadros MA, Santos AM, Carrasco MC, Sánchez-López AM, Navascués J. Behavior of in vitro cultured ameboid microglial cells migrating on Müller cell end-feet in the quail embryo retina. Glia 2006; 54:376-93. [PMID: 16886202 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Ameboid microglial cells migrate tangentially on the vitreal part of quail embryo retinas by crawling on Müller cell end-feet (MCEF) to which they adhere. These microglial cells can be cultured immediately after dissection of the eye and isolation of sheets containing the inner limiting membrane (ILM) covered by a carpet of MCEF (ILM/MCEF sheets), to which the cells remain adhered. Morphological changes of microglial cells cultured on ILM/MCEF sheets for 4 days were characterized in this study. During the first minutes in vitro, lamellipodia-bearing bipolar microglial cells became rounded in shape. From 1 to 24 h in vitro (hiv), microglial cells swept and phagocytosed the MCEF on which they were initially adhered, becoming directly adhered on the ILM. MCEF sweep was dependent on active cell motility, as shown by inhibition of sweep after cytochalasin D treatment. From 24 hiv on, after MCEF phagocytosis, microglial cells became more flattened, increasing the surface area of their adhesion to substrate, and expressed the beta1 subunit of integrins on their membrane. Morphological evidence suggested that microglial cells migrated for short distances on ILM/MCEF sheets, leaving tracks produced by their strong adhesion to the substrate. The simplicity of the isolation method, the immediate availability of cultured microglial cells, and the presence of multiple functional processes (phagocytosis, migration, upregulation of surface molecules, etc.) make cultures of microglial cells on ILM/MCEF sheets a valuable model system for in vitro experimental investigation of microglial cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Tassi
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
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Sakurai-Yamashita Y, Shigematsu K, Yamashita K, Niwa M. Expression of MCP-1 in the Hippocampus of SHRSP with Ischemia-Related Delayed Neuronal Death. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2006; 26:823-31. [PMID: 16758320 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-006-9077-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2005] [Accepted: 04/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
1. The expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) was examined in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats with transient global ischemia in order to study the involvement of the infiltration of blood monocytes in the mechanism of ischemia-related neuronal death. 2. The brains of the animals with occlusion of the bilateral carotid arteries for 10 min were removed at 8 h, 1, 2, 4 and 7 days after reperfusion. Frozen sections were used for in situ hybridization and tissue specimens from the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex were used to measure the concentration of MCP-1 by ELISA. 3. No MCP-1 mRNA was detected in the hippocampus of the sham group animals. One day after ischemia-reperfusion, MCP-1 mRNA was clearly expressed in the CA4 subfield and the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus, while it was slightly expressed in the lacnosum moleculare of the CA1 subfield. A dramatic expression was demonstrated in the entire CA1 subfield at 2 days after the operation. Most of the cells expressing MCP-1 were astrocytes. At 4 and 7 days after reperfusion, no MCP-1 mRNA was detected in the hippocampus. The concentration of MCP-1 protein dramatically increased in the hippocampus at 2 days after reperfusion. 4. Taken together with the findings of our previous study showing an increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier in the hippocampus from 12 h after ischemia-reperfusion, the astrocytes expressing MCP-1 might therefore induce the migration of monocytes into the brain parenchyma. As a result, such astrocytes expressing MCP-1 may therefore be related to the pathological events of delayed neuronal death in the pyramidal neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuko Sakurai-Yamashita
- Department of Pharmacology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, 852-8523, Japan.
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30
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Cacci E, Claasen JH, Kokaia Z. Microglia-derived tumor necrosis factor-α exaggerates death of newborn hippocampal progenitor cells in vitro. J Neurosci Res 2005; 80:789-97. [PMID: 15884015 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Production of new hippocampal neurons continues in adult mammals and different brain insults can significantly increase this process. However, many hippocampal progenitor cells (HPC) die shortly after birth. Here we investigated the possibility that increased release of cytokines by activated microglia contributes to the death of HPC. We showed that addition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) to the medium of a cultured HPC line (HiB5) shortly after the cells stopped division causes significant apoptotic cell death. Conditioned medium from an activated microglial cell line (BV-2) had a similar effect, though conditioned medium from nonactivated microglia increased the survival of HPC. Reverse transcription-PCR indicated that HPC and microglial cells express both TNF receptors, TNF-R1 and TNF-R2. Coculturing of HPC with activated microglial cells aggravated death of hippocampal progenitors and also caused death of microglial cells themselves. Our data indicate that activated microglia-released TNFalpha might be an important contributor in inflammation-induced exaggeration of death of newly formed HPC in the adult brain after an insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Cacci
- Laboratory of Neural Stem Cell Biology, Section of Restorative Neurology, University Hospital, and Lund Strategic Research Center for Stem Cell Biology and Cell Therapy, Sweden
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31
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Dudal S, Morissette C, Lacombe D, Tremblay P, Gervais F. Differences in the amyloid-beta-induced inflammatory response in microglia from C57BL/6 and A/J strains of mice. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 153:26-35. [PMID: 15265660 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2003] [Revised: 03/01/2004] [Accepted: 04/21/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The microglial inflammatory response to Abeta(1-42) stimulation with or without IFN-gamma priming was investigated in low and high responder strains of mice, A/J and C57BL/6, respectively. A/J microglia showed moderate morphological changes upon stimulation with IFN-gamma alone or with Abeta(1-42). Conversely, C57BL/6 microglia showed major changes in their cellular morphology, which were accompanied by a decrease in NO release and a marked increase in TNF-alpha production. These results indicate that the magnitude of the microglial inflammatory response to Abeta is strongly influenced by genetic factors. Individual differences in the regulation of the microglial response may be a key player in the rate of development of the neuropathology of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherri Dudal
- Department of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3A 2T5
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Morgan SC, Taylor DL, Pocock JM. Microglia release activators of neuronal proliferation mediated by activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt and delta-Notch signalling cascades. J Neurochem 2004; 90:89-101. [PMID: 15198670 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02461.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Microglia, the resident macrophage of the brain, can release substances that aid neuronal development, differentiation and survival. We have investigated the effects of non-activated microglia on the survival of cultured rat cerebellar granule neurones. Microglial-conditioned medium, collected from primary rat microglial cultures, was used to treat 7-day-in-vitro neurones, and neuronal viability and proliferation was assessed following a further 1 or 7 days in culture. Microglial-conditioned medium enhanced neuronal survival by up to 50% compared with untreated neurones and this effect was completely abated by pretreatment of the microglia with l-leucine methyl ester. The expression of the proliferation marker Ki-67 increased in neuronal cultures treated with microglial-conditioned medium suggesting enhanced proliferation of precursor neurones. Microglial-induced neuronal proliferation could be attenuated by specific inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase or phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt signalling pathways, and by selective fractionation and immunodepletion of the microglial-conditioned medium. Activation of the Notch pathway was enhanced as antibody against the Notch ligand, delta-1, prevented the microglial-induced neuronal proliferation. These results show that microglia release stable neurotrophic factors that can promote neuronal precursor cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Morgan
- Department of Neuroinflammation, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
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Pérez-Capote K, Serratosa J, Solà C. Glial activation modulates glutamate neurotoxicity in cerebellar granule cell cultures. Glia 2003; 45:258-68. [PMID: 14730699 DOI: 10.1002/glia.10329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
We studied the influence of glial cells on the neuronal response to glutamate toxicity in cerebellar granule cell cultures. We compared the effect of glutamate on neuronal viability in neuronal vs. neuronal-glial cultures and determined this effect after pretreating the cultures with the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Escherichia coli, agent widely used to induce glial activation. Morphological changes in glial cells and nitric oxide (NO) production were evaluated as indicators of glial activation. We observed that glutamate neurotoxicity in neuronal-glial cultures was attenuated in a certain range of glutamate concentration when compared to neuronal cultures, but it was enhanced at higher glutamate concentrations. This enhanced neurotoxicity was associated with morphological changes in astrocytes and microglial cells in the absence of NO production. LPS treatment induced morphological changes in glial cells in neuronal-glial cultures as well as NO production. These effects occurred in the absence of significant neuronal death. However, when LPS-pretreated cultures were treated with glutamate, the sensitivity of neuronal-glial cultures to glutamate neurotoxicity was increased. This was accompanied by additional morphological changes in glial cells in the absence of a further increase in NO production. These results suggest that quiescent glial cells protect neuronal cells from glutamate neurotoxicity, but reactive glial cells increase glutamate neurotoxicity. Therefore, glial cells play a key role in the neuronal response to a negative stimulus, suggesting that this response can be modified through an action on glial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamil Pérez-Capote
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
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Morino T, Ogata T, Horiuchi H, Takeba J, Okumura H, Miyazaki T, Yamamoto H. Delayed neuronal damage related to microglia proliferation after mild spinal cord compression injury. Neurosci Res 2003; 46:309-18. [PMID: 12804792 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-0102(03)00095-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In order to investigate the mechanism of delayed progressive or secondary neuronal damage after the spinal cord injury, we developed a mild-compression injury model in the rat thoracic spinal cord. Our compression device consists of a soft silicone point of contact to the dura, in order to prevent violent injury that may cause axonal tears or hemorrhages in the spinal cord. Since rats often assume a 'standing' posture, i.e. raising head with lifting their fore-limbs, damage to the thoracic spinal cord was evaluated by measuring the frequency of 'standing', which effectively indicates hind limb function. Twenty-four hours after compression by a 20 g weight for 10 or 20 min, the standing frequency of the injured rat was almost the same as that of sham animals that underwent laminectomy without compression. However, the standing frequency decreased with time; the frequency of standing at 72 h was approximately 30-50% that of sham animals. In the compressed spinal cord tissue, microglial cells, detected by lectin staining, proliferated with time. An enormous amount of microglia was observed at 48 and 72 h after compression, although only a small amount of cells were positive to lectin staining at 24 h after the compression. These results suggest that our mild-compression spinal cord injury model showed late-onset or delayed neuronal damage that may be related to pathological microglia proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Morino
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ehime University School of Medicine, Shigenobu, 791-0295, Ehime, Japan
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35
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Eskes C, Juillerat-Jeanneret L, Leuba G, Honegger P, Monnet-Tschudi F. Involvement of microglia-neuron interactions in the tumor necrosis factor-alpha release, microglial activation, and neurodegeneration induced by trimethyltin. J Neurosci Res 2003; 71:583-90. [PMID: 12548715 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.10508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Trimethyltin (TMT) is a neurotoxicant known to induce early microglial activation. The present study was undertaken to investigate the role played by these microglial cells in the TMT-induced neurotoxicity. The effects of TMT were investigated in monolayer cultures of isolated microglia or in neuron-enriched cultures and in neuron-microglia and astrocyte-microglia cocultures. The end points used were morphological criteria; evaluation of cell death and cell proliferation; and measurements of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and nitric oxide (NO) release in culture supernatant. The results showed that, in cultures of microglia, TMT (10(-6) M) caused, after a 5-day treatment, an increased release of TNF-alpha, without affecting microglial shape or cell viability. When microglia were cocultured with astrocytes, TNF-alpha release was decreased to undetectable levels. In contrast, in neuron-microglia cocultures, TNF-alpha levels were found to increase at lower concentrations of TMT (i.e., 10(-8) M). Moreover, at 10(-6) M of TMT, microglia displayed further morphological activation, as suggested by process retraction and by decrease in cell size. No morphological activation was observed in cultures of isolated microglial cells and in astrocyte-microglia cocultures. With regard to neurons, 10(-6) M of TMT induced about 30% of cell death, when applied to neuron-enriched cultures, whereas close to 100% of neuronal death was observed in neuron-microglia cocultures. In conclusion, whereas astrocytes may rather dampen the microglial activation by decreasing microglial TNF-alpha production, neuronal-microglial interactions lead to enhanced microglial activation. This microglial activation, in turn, exacerbates the neurotoxic effects of TMT. TNF-alpha may play a major role in such cell-cell communications.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Eskes
- Institute of Physiology, CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Zhang SC, Goetz BD, Duncan ID. Suppression of activated microglia promotes survival and function of transplanted oligodendroglial progenitors. Glia 2003; 41:191-8. [PMID: 12509809 DOI: 10.1002/glia.10172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
To evaluate the functional consequence of microglial activation in vivo, oligodendroglial progenitors were transplanted into the spinal cord of Long Evans shaker, a myelin mutant rat in which myelin defects are associated with progressive microglial activation. Cells grafted into neonatal rats at the initiation of gliosis successfully myelinated axons. However, cells transplanted during peak microglial activation did not lead to myelination due to death of the grafted cells within 3 days after transplantation. Pretreatment of these animals with minocycline, a tetracycline derivative, resulted in cell survival and myelination by the grafted cells. In culture, minocycline did not affect the survival, proliferation, or differentiation of oligodendroglial progenitors. Hence, minocycline likely modulates the function of reactive glia in vivo to promote the survival and myelination of transplanted oligodendroglial progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Chun Zhang
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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Chuai M, Ogata T, Morino T, Okumura H, Yamamoto H, Schubert P. Prostaglandin E1 analog inhibits the microglia function: suppression of lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide and TNF-alpha release. J Orthop Res 2002; 20:1246-52. [PMID: 12472236 DOI: 10.1016/s0736-0266(02)00068-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Release of nitric oxide and TNF-alpha, a toxic cytokine, have been reported to accelerate neuronal damage under several pathological conditions, such as trauma or ischemia in the central nervous system. In the present study, we tested the effect of alprostadil alfadex, a prostaglandin E1 analog, on cultured microglia from the rat spinal cord. The cultured microglia were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (100 ng/ml), an endotoxin, for 24 h, then the released nitric oxide and TNF-alpha in the culture media was analyzed. The released nitric oxide was detected by the Griess reaction and released TNF-alpha was measured using ELISA method. The LPS-induced nitric oxide release was inhibited by the simultaneous addition of alprostadil alfadex in a dose-dependent manner (0.1-100 microM). The LPS-induced TNF-alpha release was also inhibited by alprostadil alfadex addition (0.1-100 microM). The IC50 values of alprostadil alfadex on nitric oxide and TNF-alpha release were about 1 and 10 microM, respectively. These results suggest that prostaglandin E1 possibly protects spinal cord neurons from several types of neurodegenerative damage, not only via increased blood supply, but also via inhibition of pathological immunoreactions of activated microglia.
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He Y, Appel S, Le W. Minocycline inhibits microglial activation and protects nigral cells after 6-hydroxydopamine injection into mouse striatum. Brain Res 2001; 909:187-93. [PMID: 11478935 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)02681-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To determine the role of immune/inflammatory factors in dopaminergic cell degeneration in parkinsonian substantia nigra, we assayed tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive immunoreactive neuronal numbers with stereologic techniques and CD11b-positive immunoreactive microglial profiles following 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) injection into ipsilateral striatum of mice. We further investigated the effect of minocycline on the inhibition of microglial activation and subsequent protection of nigral cells. The relative number of microglial profiles in the substantia nigra (SN) ipsilateral to the injection increased from 31 to 32% 1-3 days after injection, and increased further to 55% by 7 days and 59% by 14 days, compared with the contralateral SN. These changes started prior to the decrease of TH immunoreactivity of 34% on day 7 and of 42% by day 14. In animals treated with minocycline, microglial activation was inhibited by 47%, and TH positive cells were protected by 21% at day 14 after 6-OHDA injection, compared with those parkinsonian animals without minocycline treatment. All these results suggest that microglial activation may be involved in the nigral cell degeneration in 6-OHDA induced parkinsonian mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y He
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Yeo JF, Liu HP, Leong SK. Sustained microglial immunoreactivity in the caudal spinal trigeminal nucleus after formalin injection. J Dent Res 2001; 80:1524-9. [PMID: 11499506 DOI: 10.1177/00220345010800060901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies indicate that glia may be involved in altered nociceptive processing after a peripheral inflammatory lesion produced by injection of inflammatory reagents such as formalin and zymosan. Most of these studies, however, confined their observations to a period shortly after the injections. This study investigated the immunohistochemical responses of microglia in the caudal part of the spinal trigeminal nucleus for up to 60 days after subcutaneous injection of formalin into the lateral faces of Wistar rats. The results showed obvious up-regulation of microglial markers such as OX-18, OX-42 and OX-6 up to 21 days after formalin injection. These were somewhat reduced at 30 days after injection. Electron microscope investigation revealed no evidence of significant phagocytosis of degenerative neuronal elements by microglia in the nucleus at the time--that is, 7 days after formalin injection, when microglial activation was at its peak. Significantly, however, the period of microglial activation corresponded closely to that showing enhanced nociceptive behavior after perioral formalin injection (Cadet et al., 1995). This study indicates a microglial role in the genesis of enhanced nociceptive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Yeo
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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Popovich PG. Immunological regulation of neuronal degeneration and regeneration in the injured spinal cord. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2001; 128:43-58. [PMID: 11105668 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(00)28006-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P G Popovich
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology and Medical Genetics, College of Medicine and Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus 43210, USA.
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Chang RC, Chen W, Hudson P, Wilson B, Han DS, Hong JS. Neurons reduce glial responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and prevent injury of microglial cells from over-activation by LPS. J Neurochem 2001; 76:1042-9. [PMID: 11181823 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00111.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The microenvironment of the CNS has been considered to tonically inhibit glial activities. It has been shown that glia become activated where neuronal death occurs in the aging brain. We have previously demonstrated that neurons tonically inhibit glial activities including their responses to the bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS). It is not clear whether activation of glia, especially microglia in the aging brain, is the consequence of disinhibition due to neuronal death. This study was designed to determine if glia regain their responsiveness to LPS once the neurons have died in aged cultures. When cultured alone, glia from postnatal day one rat mesencephalons stimulated with LPS (0.1-1000 ng/mL) produced both nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), yielding a sigmoid and a bell-shaped curve, respectively. When neuron-containing cultures were prepared from embryonic day 14/15 mesencephalons, the shape of the dose-response curve for NO was monotonic and the bell-shaped curve for TNFalpha production was shifted to the right. After 1 month of culture under conditions where neurons die, the production curves for NO and TNFalpha in LPS-stimulated glia shifted back to the left compared to mixed neuron-glia cultures. Immunostaining of rat microglia for the marker CR3 (the receptor for complement component C3) demonstrated that high concentrations of LPS (1 microg/mL) reduced the number of microglia in mixed-glial cultures. In contrast, reduction of CR3 immunostaining was not observed in LPS-stimulated mixed neuron-glia cultures. Taken together, the results demonstrate that disinhibition of the glial response to LPS occurs after neurons die in aged cultures. Once neurons have died, the responsiveness of glia to LPS is restored. Neurons prevented injury to microglia by reducing their responsiveness to LPS. This study broadens our understanding of the ways in which the CNS microenvironment affects cerebral inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Chang
- Neuropharmacology section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, North Carolina, USA.
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Canudas AM, Friguls B, Planas AM, Gabriel C, Escubedo E, Camarasa J, Camins A, Pallàs M. MPP(+) injection into rat substantia nigra causes secondary glial activation but not cell death in the ipsilateral striatum. Neurobiol Dis 2000; 7:343-61. [PMID: 10964606 DOI: 10.1006/nbdi.2000.0308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Injection of MPP(+) into the substantia nigra causes extensive necrosis and anterograde degeneration of pars compacta dopaminergic neurons. We studied secondary effects in the ipsilateral striatum by examining dopaminergic terminals, signs of neuronal damage, and glial reactivity at 1, 2, 3, and 7 days after injection of MPP(+) into the substantia nigra. Dopaminergic terminals and uptake sites were evaluated with [(3)H]GBR-12935 binding and tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity. Glial reaction was examined with markers of astrocytes and microglia. Stereology was used to evaluate any changes in neuronal density. Tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity and [(3)H]GBR-12935 binding markedly decreased (74%) from days 2 to 7. Loss of dopaminergic terminals in the ipsilateral striatum was accompanied by an intense astroglial and, to a lesser extent, microglial reaction. However, no signs of cell damage, neuronal loss, or disruption of the blood-brain barrier were found in the striatum. Resident astroglial and microglial cells showed a morphological shift and notable changes in protein expression typical of glial reactivity, yet the presence of macrophage-like cells was not detected. This study shows that injection of MPP(+) in the substantia nigra causes a secondary reaction within the ipsilateral striatum involving the transformation of quiescent glia to reactive glia. It is suggested that stimuli derived from damaged dopaminergic terminals within the striatum are able to activate resident glia and that this glial transformation may promote repair and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Canudas
- Unitat de Farmacologia i Farmacognòsia, Nucli Universitari de Pedralbes, Barcelona, E-08028, Spain
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Rogove AD, Siao C, Keyt B, Strickland S, Tsirka SE. Activation of microglia reveals a non-proteolytic cytokine function for tissue plasminogen activator in the central nervous system. J Cell Sci 1999; 112 ( Pt 22):4007-16. [PMID: 10547361 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.112.22.4007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue plasminogen activator mediates excitotoxin-induced neurodegeneration and microglial activation in the mouse hippocampus. Here we show that tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) acts in a protease-independent manner to modulate the activation of microglia, the cells of the central nervous system with macrophage properties. Cultured microglia from tPA-deficient mice can phagocytose as efficiently as wild-type microglia. However, tPA-deficient microglia in mixed cortical cultures exhibit attenuated activation in response to lipopolysaccharide, as judged by morphological changes, increased expression of the activation marker F4/80 and the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-(α). When tPA is added to tPA deficient cortical cultures prior to endotoxin stimulation, microglial activation is restored to levels comparable to that observed in wild-type cells. Proteolytically-inactive tPA can also restore activation of tPA-deficient microglia in culture and in vivo. However, this inactive enzyme does not restore susceptibility of tPA-deficient hippocampal neurons to excitotoxin-mediated cell death. These results dissociate two different functions of tPA: inactive enzyme can mediate microglial activation, whereas proteolytically-competent protein also promotes neuronal degeneration. Thus tPA is identified as a new cytokine in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Rogove
- Program in Pharmacology, MSTP Program, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8101, USA
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Popovich PG, Guan Z, Wei P, Huitinga I, van Rooijen N, Stokes BT. Depletion of hematogenous macrophages promotes partial hindlimb recovery and neuroanatomical repair after experimental spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 1999; 158:351-65. [PMID: 10415142 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.1999.7118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 518] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic injury to the spinal cord initiates a series of destructive cellular processes which accentuate tissue damage at and beyond the original site of trauma. The cellular inflammatory response has been implicated as one mechanism of secondary degeneration. Of the various leukocytes present in the spinal cord after injury, macrophages predominate. Through the release of chemicals and enzymes involved in host defense, macrophages can damage neurons and glia. However, macrophages are also essential for the reconstruction of injured tissues. This apparent dichotomy in macrophage function is further complicated by the overlapping influences of resident microglial-derived macrophages and those phagocytes that are derived from peripheral sources. To clarify the role macrophages play in posttraumatic secondary degeneration, we selectively depleted peripheral macrophages in spinal-injured rats during a time when inflammation has been shown to be maximal. Standardized behavioral and neuropathological analyses (open-field locomotor function, morphometric analysis of the injured spinal cord) were used to evaluate the efficacy of this treatment. Beginning 24 h after injury and then again at days 3 and 6 postinjury, spinal cord-injured rats received intravenous injections of liposome-encapsulated clodronate to deplete peripheral macrophages. Within the spinal cords of rats treated in this fashion, macrophage infiltration was significantly reduced at the site of impact. These animals showed marked improvement in hindlimb usage during overground locomotion. Behavioral recovery was paralleled by a significant preservation of myelinated axons, decreased cavitation in the rostrocaudal axis of the spinal cord, and enhanced sprouting and/or regeneration of axons at the site of injury. These data implicate hematogenous (blood-derived) macrophages as effectors of acute secondary injury. Furthermore, given the selective nature of the depletion regimen and its proven efficacy when administered after injury, cell-specific immunomodulation may prove useful as an adjunct therapy after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- P G Popovich
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, The Ohio State University College of Medicine and Public Health, 333 W. 10th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
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Kunert KS, Fitzgerald ME, Thomson L, Dorey CK. Microglia increase as photoreceptors decrease in the aging avian retina. Curr Eye Res 1999; 18:440-7. [PMID: 10435831 DOI: 10.1076/ceyr.18.6.440.5265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE There is evidence that microglial activation occurs with normal aging in some regions of the brain of rodents. We investigated the pattern of microglia in the retinas of young and aged quail and pigeons to determine if age-related retinal changes evoked migration of microglia into the outer retina. In quail we also investigated the correlation between activated microglia and age-related photoreceptor loss. METHODS Microglia were identified with the monoclonal antibody QH1 in cryosectioned eyes from pigeons, ages 2 to 20 years (n = 14), and in paraffin sections from six-month (n = 15) and one-year-old quail (n = 30). Rounded microglia in the photoreceptor layer were counted in consecutive 400x fields from temporal to nasal. Photoreceptor counts were made from 10 quail retina flat mounts. The photoreceptor number was compared to the number of microglia in corresponding regions of the same retina. RESULTS Rounded microglia were detected among the photoreceptors of pigeons and quail. Significantly more of these microglia were found in peripheral than in central regions close to the pecten (pigeon p < 0.002 and quail p < 0.01). Furthermore, more microglial cells were present among peripheral photoreceptors of older quail (p < 0.03) and pigeons (p < 0.05) than in the younger birds. In the peripheral retina of the older quail, microglia were significantly and inversely related to the number of photoreceptors (r2 = 0.9; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Increased microglial were observed in the peripheral retina of both old quail and old pigeons. In the quail, the rounded (activated) microglia were distributed preferentially in regions of greatest photoreceptor loss. Microglial activation does not appear to be a general phenomenon of the aging retina, but in quail activation appears directly related to photoreceptor loss. It is unclear at this time how the change in microglia shape and distribution is related to their neuroprotective / neurotoxic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Kunert
- Schepens Eye Research Institute and Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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Fukai K, Kawai K, Ishizu H, Tanabe Y, Komoto Y, Kuroda S. Ultracytochemical demonstration of the polarity of Ca2+-ATPase activity in microglia. Neuropathology 1998. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1789.1998.tb00116.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Rogove AD, Tsirka SE. Neurotoxic responses by microglia elicited by excitotoxic injury in the mouse hippocampus. Curr Biol 1998; 8:19-25. [PMID: 9427623 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-9822(98)70016-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Injury to the brain induces dramatic local changes in gene expression, cellular morphology and behavior. Activation of microglial cells occurs as an early event after central nervous system (CNS) injury, but it has not been determined whether such activation plays a causal role in neuronal death. We have investigated this question using an excitotoxin-mediated brain injury model system, in conjunction with an endogenous peptide factor (macrophage/microglial inhibiting factor, MIF) that ablates microglial contribution to the cascade. RESULTS Using MIF, we inhibited the microglial activation that normally follows excitotoxic injury. In cell culture studies, we found that such inhibition blocked the rapid release of microglia-derived tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), an extracellular serine protease made by both neurons and microglia, which we had previously identified as mediating a critical step in excitotoxin-induced neuronal death. Finally, infusion of MIF into the mouse brain prior to excitotoxic insult resulted in the protection of neurons from cell death. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that microglia undertake a neurotoxic role when excitotoxic injury occurs in the CNS. They also suggest that the tPA released from microglia has a critical role in triggering neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Rogove
- MSTP Program, University Medical Center at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York 11794-8651, USA
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Abstract
Owing to the difficulties of isolating adequate numbers of microglia from adult tissue, much of our understanding of their function is based on characterizations of microglia that develop in mixed glial cultures. To learn more about the nature of these cells in vivo, we have compared the phenotypes of murine microglia isolated from adults, neonates, and from mixed glial cultures with spleen cells from fetuses, neonates, and adults. In the adult CNS, the only resident population of cells that express CD45, a protein tyrosine phosphatase, are the F4/80+ and FcR+ cells: the microglia. In contrast to all other differentiated cells of hemopoietic origin, microglial CD45 levels fail to increase from the neonatal period through adulthood. Rather, their levels are indistinguishable from the low levels found on a small population of embryonic day 16 liver cells. Conversely, we find that the F4/80 values of microglia are elevated as compared to splenic macrophages. Strikingly, microglia that develop in mixed glial cultures display a more activated phenotype, with low F4/80 values, weak MHC class II expression, and the appearance of a subset of cells positive for the dendritic cell marker, NLDC145. Additionally, CD45 values are elevated to a level intermediate between that of adult microglia and adult spleen, a level similar to that found on microglia activated in vivo. Consistent with this activated phenotype, indomethacin revealed the ability of mixed glial culture microglia to present a peptide antigen to naive T-cells expressing a defined T-cell receptor. Although adult microglia did express costimulatory molecules, B7.2, ICAM-1, and CD40, and could be induced to express MHC class II, they failed to present antigen in the same assay. Interestingly, these same cells could stimulate T-cell proliferation in a mixed lymphocyte reaction but not in an allogeneic specific manner. Taken together these data suggest that adult microglia remain in a relatively immature and unactivated state of differentiation as compared to other tissue macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Carson
- Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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Si QS, Nakamura Y, Kataoka K. Hypothermic suppression of microglial activation in culture: inhibition of cell proliferation and production of nitric oxide and superoxide. Neuroscience 1997; 81:223-9. [PMID: 9300414 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(97)00172-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
In order to elucidate the mechanism(s) of neuronal protection by hypothermia against ischemic damage, we examined the effect of lowering temperature on the microglial activation that is thought to cause the development of ischemia-induced neuronal damages. Cultured microglia from neonatal rats were measured for microglial activation by the following indices: production of superoxide and nitric oxide by the methods of acetyl-cytochrome c reduction and nitrite accumulation in the culture medium, respectively, and cell proliferation evaluated by [3H]thymidine uptake. At 30 degrees C, superoxide production induced by phorbol ester was approximately as low as 30% of the control at 37 degrees C, and nitric oxide production after addition of lipopolysaccharide was decreased to approximately 25% of the control. The time course of nitric oxide production indicates that the induction of nitric oxide synthase seemed to be significantly suppressed by lowering temperature. In addition, the proliferation of microglia was remarkably inhibited at 30 degrees C. The level of proliferation in the hypothermic condition is much lower in microglia (14% of the control) than those in astrocytes cultured from brain cortices (96%) and fibroblasts cultured from brain meninges (53%), suggesting that the microglial activation is highly susceptible to lowering temperature. The present study indicates that hypothermia potently inhibits proliferation, superoxide and nitric oxide production of cultured microglia and that the hypothermic protection against postischemic neuronal damage might be, at least in part, due to the suppression of microglial activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q S Si
- Department of Physiology, Ehime University School of Medicine, Japan
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He BP, Tay SS, Leong SK. Microglia responses in the CNS following sciatic nerve transection in C57BL/Wld(s) and BALB/c mice. Exp Neurol 1997; 146:587-95. [PMID: 9270072 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.1997.6561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The present study employed C57BL/Wld(s) mice to investigate whether a delay in microglia reaction would occur similar to the delay that occurs in macrophage response after sciatic neurectomy. The results were compared with control BALB/c mice. The observations showed that in both strains of mice there was no delayed microglia response around lesioned motoneurons and around the central processes of the dorsal root ganglion cells after sciatic neurectomy in the adult. The increased Mac-1 staining appeared as early as 1 day postoperation (dpo). This indicates that microglial cells and macrophages respond to different signals generated by neurectomy. In both strains of mice, the number of microglia in the neonate was much less than that in the adult and the increase in Mac-1 staining was detectable only at 3 dpo in both strains of mice. A significant loss of motoneurons was detected after sciatic neurectomy in the neonate. However, there were no significant differences in the mean percentages of motoneuron loss between the two strains of mice at 5, 10, and 15 dpo. It is surmised that the lack of an adequate number of mature microglia in the neonates and their tardy expression of CR3 antigenicity may contribute to the motoneuron loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- B P He
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Singapore
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