Parenting as a Mediator of Associations between Depression in Mothers and Children’s Functioning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The effects of maternal childhood victimization on depression, harsh parenting, and child externalizing problems over 10 years

Physical and sexual abuse have far-reaching mental and behavioral health consequences, extending across the lifespan and, in some cases, across generations. However, empirical work in this area is limited by cross-sectional study designs, short follow-up durations, and data analytic techniques that fail to capture the nuanced developmental processes through which caregivers and children impact one another. The present study investigated the cross-lagged and bidirectional pathways between maternal childhood victimization, depression, harsh parenting, and their children's externalizing symptoms over a 10-year period. Participants were 818 mother-child dyads prospectively identified as at-risk for family violence when children were four years old. Traditional cross-lagged panel modeling (CLPM) and random-intercept cross-lagged panel modeling (RI-CLPM) documented that maternal depression, harsh parenting, and child externalizing problems - all predicted by mothers' early abuse experiences - exacerbated one another across time. Discrepancies between the CLPM and RI-CLPM highlighted the advantages, disadvantages, and methodological implications of each approach. Findings highlight maternal psychopathology and parenting as key mechanisms in the intergenerational impact of abuse, emphasizing the importance of trauma-informed, parent-mediated interventions for breaking long-term cycles of family dysfunction. The present findings support separating out between-person, trait-like components when interpreting cross-lagged associations, as these may confound within-person effects.

The Intimate Partner Violence Impact on Maternal Parenting: The Mediational Role of Depressive Symptoms

Currently, intimate partner violence (IPV) constitutes a major public health issue and those women experiencing IPV in the context of motherhood have to face additional challenges related to parenting. Literature on how IPV impact on maternal parenting characteristics is controversial and the role of maternal depression on parenting in the context of IPV is still understudied. The current preliminary study included 61 Italian women victims of IPV who completed an online questionnaire. We tested a path-analysis model in which IPV was expected to explain parental practices and stress through the mediation of maternal depression. Our results showed that depressive symptoms in mothers mediated the relationships between IPV and higher engagement in maternal inconsistent discipline and higher parental stress. Findings supported the spillover hypothesis and, at the same time, suggest the need to consider another important factor in the link between IPV and parenting that is mothers' mental health. It emerged the need to take care of women victims of IPV and also fostering parenting skills and strategies.

Body Dysmorphic Disorder in Adolescents: Family History, Parental Distress, Rearing, and Accommodation

OBJECTIVE

The family environment of adolescents with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is under researched. The current study aimed to investigate family psychiatric history, as well as parental distress, rearing practices, accommodation of appearance concerns, and appearance messages in a clinical sample of adolescents with BDD.

METHOD

Twenty-six adolescents (12-17 years) with BDD were compared to 27 adolescents with anxiety disorders and 25 adolescents without mental disorders. Adolescents and their primary caregivers completed self-report measures and participated in a discussion task that was independently coded for parental rearing styles.

RESULTS

Parents of adolescents with BDD reported experiencing significantly more emotional distress than parents in the non-clinical group (p = .003, d = 1.02). The majority (92%) of parents in the BDD group reported accommodating their child's appearance concerns and reported performing significantly more frequent appearance accommodations than parents of anxious adolescents (p < .001, d = 1.40) and the non-clinical group (p < .001, d = 1.83). An independent observer rated parents of adolescents with BDD (p = .002, d = 1.19) and anxiety disorders (p = .008, d = 0.87) as more critical than parents in the non-clinical group during a body-image related discussion, but parents of adolescents with BDD were not rated as more critical in other discussion scenarios. There were no significant differences in parental warmth, overprotection, or appearance messages between parents in the BDD group and comparison groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of the study can inform cognitive-behavioral models of adolescent BDD as well as family-based treatment approaches.

Infant Gaze Following Is Stable Across Markedly Different Cultures and Resilient to Family Adversities Associated With War and Climate Change

Gaze following in infancy allows triadic social interactions and a comprehension of other individuals and their surroundings. Despite its importance for early development, its ontology is debated, with theories suggesting that gaze following is either a universal core capacity or an experience-dependent learned behavior. A critical test of these theories among 809 nine-month-olds from Africa (Uganda and Zimbabwe), Europe (Sweden), and Asia (Bhutan) demonstrated that infants follow gaze to a similar degree regardless of environmental factors such as culture, maternal well-being (postpartum depression, well-being), or traumatic family events (related to war and/or climate change). These findings suggest that gaze following may be a universal, experience-expectant process that is resilient to adversity and similar across a wide range of human experiences-a core foundation for social development.

Refusal of male partner responsibility and pregnancy support: prevalence, associated factors and health outcomes in a cross sectional study in Harare, Zimbabwe

BACKGROUND

The phenomenon of fathers refusing responsibility during pregnancy has not received adequate attention in African studies. This paper assesses associated factors and pregnancy-related outcomes when fathers refuse to support partners' pregnancies and undertake parental responsibilities.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey of 15-49-year-old postnatal (1-6 weeks) women was conducted at six urban health facilities in Harare. Participants were interviewed about their male partners' refusal to support their pregnancies and parenting, bride price payments (indicating marriage commitment), partner violence and control, alcohol abuse and family planning decision-making. Pregnancy health outcome data including antenatal care attendance, low birth weight (LBW)(< 2500 g) and postnatal depression were collected through interviews and clinic records. Multiple regression models were built to assess gender-related factors and health outcomes associated with male partners' refusal of parenting responsibilities.

RESULTS

Of the 2042 women interviewed, 6.4% reported partner refusal to support the pregnancy or parenting. Higher odds of partner refusal of fathering responsibility were associated with partners not paying bride price (aOR 9.31; 95% CI 1.16-74.59), violence perpetration during pregnancy (aOR 2.84; 1.28-6.23), highly controlling behaviours (aOR 4.96; 2.83-8.69), alcohol abuse (aOR 1.78; 1.05-3.02), unintended pregnancy (aOR 3.72; 1.84-7.53) and partner refusal to use contraceptives (aOR 3.64; 1.86-7.14). Women who used contraceptives (aOR 0.40; 0.23-0.71), made joint (aOR 0.30; 0.14-0.67) or individual (aOR 0.25; 0.07-0.94) pregnancy decisions were protected from partner refusal of parenting responsibility. Women's depressive symptomatology (aOR2.64; 1.52-4.59), LBW (aOR5.30; 1.18-23.74) and partner discouragement of antenatal care attendance (aOR 3.86; 1.13-13.17) were pregnancy outcomes associated with partner refusal of parenting responsibility.

CONCLUSIONS

Male partners' refusal to acknowledge parenting responsibility was associated with men's abusiveness, absence of commitment to long-term relationship/marriage, gender unequal practices and negative maternal and child health outcomes. Parenting programmes must be instituted and prioritise transforming traditional gender norms to improve fathering responsibilities.

Sex differences in how are mothers' SES related to late adolescents' emotional stability in China: the mediating role of maternal parenting styles

BACKGROUND

The impact of mothers' socioeconomic status (SES) on late adolescents' emotional stability, as well as the mechanisms underlying this relationship, remain poorly understood in China. Additionally, the mechanisms by which SES impacts emotional stability may need investigated separately for the male and female adolescents.

METHOD

This study conducted a snowball sampling and invited undergraduates to complete a survey via online. A sample of 445 Chinese undergraduate students (229 males, age range of 18-25 years) completed questionnaires concerning their mothers' monthly income and educational levels, emotional stability, and maternal parenting styles. Independent samples t-test, correlation analyses and regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

The findings suggested the levels of emotional stability in female students were significantly lower than those of male students. Mothers' SES was related to late adolescents' emotional stability significantly. Moreover, maternal parenting styles (emotional warmth, punishment, overprotection, and rejection) significantly mediated the relationship between mothers' SES and late adolescents' emotional stability. Additionally, the particular features of these relationships varied according to the sex of the late adolescents. For the male students, maternal parenting styles could not significantly serve as mediating roles. For the female adolescents, the effect of maternal SES on emotional stability was partially mediated by four separate pathways: (1) maternal emotional warmth, (2) maternal punishment, (3) maternal overprotection, and (4) maternal rejection. These findings provide crucial practical implications for identification, prevention, and intervention efforts in late adolescents' emotional stability across sex.

CONCLUSION

This study sheds light on the relationship between mothers' SES and late adolescents' emotional stability, and the indirect effects of maternal emotional warmth, punishment, overprotection, and rejection serving as mediating roles. Maternal parenting styles had a higher effect on the emotional stability in female adolescents than male adolescents. This also provides crucial practical implications for identifying, preventing, and intervening in late adolescent emotional stability, which may differ between female and male adolescents.

Socioeconomic factors and sex effects of postpartum maternal depression on offspring internalizing symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Postpartum maternal depression and socioeconomic factors are established risk factors for the mental health of offspring. It has been consistently unclear as to whether female or male offspring are more vulnerable to the effects of postpartum maternal depression at different stages of the child's life course. To determine whether the characteristics of postpartum maternal depression with a history of prenatal depression influence sex differences in offspring internalizing symptoms across childhood and adolescence, socioeconomic factors should be considered.

METHODS

We systematically searched PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, CNKI, and SinoMed databases from inception to November 28, 2023, and selected longitudinal cohort studies that quantified sex differences in internalizing symptoms of children and adolescents. Pooled standardized mean differences (SMDs) were calculated using random-effects models. ROBINS-E tool was used to rate the quality of evidence.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight studies were eligible between 1997 and 2023, including 24,022 mother-child dyads. Sex-difference trajectories of offspring internalizing symptoms were identified after exposure to postpartum maternal depression, ranging from a lack of significant sex differences in childhood to a higher prevalence observed among girls than boys in adolescence (SMD, 0.25, 95% CI, 0.13-0.38). Economic income and maternal education affected the associations between the magnitude and concurrent recurrence of postpartum depression and significant sex differences in adolescent internalizing symptoms, respectively. After adjusting for socioeconomic factors, early nonconcurrent recurrence of postpartum depression was associated with greater odds of internalizing symptoms among adolescent girls than among boys (β = 0.03, 95% CI, 0.01-0.06); however, there was no statistical significance after adjusting for prenatal depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Socioeconomic factors differentially impacted the association between postpartum maternal depression and significant sex differences in adolescent internalizing symptoms. Independent of socioeconomic factors and prenatal depression, postpartum maternal depression was not associated with significant sex differences in adolescent internalizing symptoms. Therefore, the significant sex effects of postpartum maternal depression are more likely due to complex interactions between maternal depression and the intrauterine and postpartum environments that shape offspring sex-difference trajectories, with consequences occurring for later internalizing symptoms in adolescence.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO, CRD42022301445.

Examining the association between child development and parental mental health after preterm birth-related stress: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis protocol

INTRODUCTION

Preterm infants born before 32 weeks of gestation are generally admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) to receive life-saving treatment, resulting in early exposure to stressful events. Yet, NICU admission is not only stressful for the infant but can also have a long-lasting negative impact on parental mental health, who may worry about their child. Parental mental health problems might affect child development through parental behaviour and the parent-infant relationship. Simultaneously, adverse child development after preterm birth can (further) elevate parental stress and mental health problems, straining parental behaviour, the parent-infant relationship and child development. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to examine the association between preterm-born children's development (<32 weeks' gestation) and parental mental health after preterm birth-related stress following NICU admission at any point in time.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A systematic review will be performed and reported following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A concept-based search on preterm birth, child development and parental mental health is performed using MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO and Cochrane Library on 22 March 2024. Eligible are studies with original results on the association between child development after preterm birth (<32 weeks' gestation) and parental mental health. Independent reviewers will screen the articles, assess study quality using a Newcastle-Ottawa or Cochrane tool and determine the quality of evidence using Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation. Meta-analyses are planned on the association between child development and parental mental health after preterm birth.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

No ethical approval is required. The results will enhance knowledge of the association between child development and parental mental health after preterm birth-related stress following NICU admission. This might lead to adjustments in follow-up care, optimising outcomes for infants and parents. Findings will be published in an international, peer-reviewed ad open-access journal.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42024518307.

Dyadic resilience after postpartum depression: The protective role of mother-infant respiratory sinus arrhythmia synchrony during play for maternal and child mental health across early childhood

Coordination in mothers' and their infants' parasympathetic nervous system functioning (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA] synchrony) specifically during playful interactions may promote resilience against exposure to postpartum depressive symptoms (PPD), for both members of the dyad. To test biobehavioral synchrony theory-derived hypotheses, we evaluated whether positive mother-infant RSA synchrony during play attenuated associations between maternal PPD symptoms and future child behavior problems and maternal depressive symptoms. 322 low-income, Mexican-origin mothers and their children participated in 5-min resting baseline and free play interaction tasks when children were 24 weeks of age; mothers reported on their PPD symptoms and on child behavior problems and maternal depressive symptoms at 12- and 36-months child age. Results of multilevel structural equation models demonstrated that, though the associations between maternal PPD symptoms and future child behavior problems and maternal depressive symptoms differed depending on levels of RSA synchrony during play and non-interactive tasks, the protective benefits of positive RSA synchrony on 12-month maternal depressive symptoms and 36-month child internalizing problems were specific to its assessment during a playful interaction. Results suggest that the dyadic coordination of physiological capacities during playful interactions is an active mechanism that promotes resilience to emotional distress for mothers and their children.

The association of deployment stressors and PTSD and depression symptoms in military mothers

Previously deployed mothers report higher levels of posttraumatic stress and depression symptoms than non-deployed mothers. However, the specific stressors encountered during deployment that account for elevated clinical symptoms are not well understood including the impact of Military Sexual Trauma (MST) in the context of other deployment-related stressors. This study examined whether MST during deployment, degree of combat exposure, and length of deployment will each be associated with posttraumatic stress and depression symptoms among previously deployed mothers. Participants included 113 mothers (86.6% White) who had previously been deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan during the post 9/11 conflicts. Logistic regressions revealed that mothers who experienced MST during deployment were five times more likely to report clinically significant posttraumatic stress symptoms and two times more likely to report clinically significant depression symptoms. When controlling for MST, degree of combat exposure and length of deployment were not significantly associated with posttraumatic stress or depression symptoms. The present study fills an important gap in the literature and implicates MST as an important correlate of post-deployment functioning for military mothers. Findings from this study can be used to inform both prevention and intervention efforts.

Early Family Conflict and Behavioral Outcomes in Children from Low-Income Families: The Indirect Effects of Parental Depression and Parenting Practices

Family conflict has been demonstrated as a risk factor impacting children's mental health and behaviors; however, the mechanisms underlying these connections are unclear. Focusing on 1622 children from low-income families (51.4% boys, 38.3% White, 35.5% Hispanic/Latino, 22.1% African American, 4.1% other), the current study examines the role that maternal depression and parenting behaviors play in the associations between family conflict in early childhood and children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors in early adolescence. Family conflict was positively associated with maternal depression at age 3 and detached parenting at age 5; however, maternal depression was linked to increased child internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and detached parenting was associated with decreased behavioral outcomes. Maternal depression at age 3 and intrusive parenting at age 5 successively mediated the association between family conflict and child externalizing. Multi-group analysis indicated different indirect paths of parenting behaviors in boys and girls. Specifically, in boys, the indirect effect of detached parenting on the links between family conflict and externalizing and internalizing behaviors was sustained. In girls, maternal depression and intrusive parenting sequentially explained the link between family conflict and externalizing behaviors. The findings highlighted the importance of addressing family well-being and parenting support, especially for children from low-income families.

Parental Distress and Parenting Behavior in Families of Preschool Children with and Without ASD: Spillover and Buffering

Parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) report increased distress relative to parents of children with neurotypical development. Parent well-being is generally considered a key determinant of parenting behavior, thus increased distress may spill over into less optimal parenting in families of children with ASD. However, evidence is mixed regarding the degree to which parenting is actually compromised in this population, suggesting the possibility of buffering, wherein the parenting of children with ASD may be robust against spillover from increased parental distress. The current study tested competing spillover and buffering models with regard to relations among child ASD status, parental distress, and parenting behavior. Parents of preschoolers with (n = 73) and without (n = 55) ASD completed self-report measures of parenting stress, depressive symptoms, and emotion dysregulation, as well as of positive and negative parenting behaviors. Families of preschoolers with ASD reported higher distress and negative parenting, and lower positive parenting than did their counterparts. Findings supported the spillover model for negative parenting such that increased parental distress accounted for status-group differences in negative parenting. In contrast, potential buffering was observed for positive parenting in that an inverse association between distress and parenting was observed for parents of children with neurotypical development only. Findings highlight the potential benefit of intervention to reduce parental distress in families of children with ASD, but also suggest some existing ability of these families to buffer certain parenting behaviors from deleterious effects of parent distress.

Parenting stress and child behavior problems: Developmental psychopathology perspectives

The growing base of research on parenting stress and its relation to child behavior problems has largely paralleled the emergence of developmental psychopathology as a field of inquiry. Specifically, the focus on mechanism rather than main effects has begun to elevate explanatory models in the connection between parenting stress and a variety of adverse child and parent conditions. Still, work on parenting stress is limited by conceptual confusion, the absence of attention to developmental differentiation, a focus on child-specific rather than system influences. Recent research on these parenting stress issues is briefly reviewed, highlighting studies that have illustrated developmental psychopathology perspectives. A conceptual model is offered to illustrate the complex recursive nature of connections between parenting stress, parenting behavior, parent well-being, and children's adjustment, and I make a case for the adoption of a more systemic perspective to influence the next generation of developmental psychopathology research on parenting stress.

Language use in depressed and non-depressed mothers and their adolescent offspring

BACKGROUND

Approximately 10% of mothers experience depression each year, which increases risk for depression in offspring. Currently no research has analysed the linguistic features of depressed mothers and their adolescent offspring during dyadic interactions. We examined the extent to which linguistic features of mothers' and adolescents' speech during dyadic interactional tasks could discriminate depressed from non-depressed mothers.

METHODS

Computer-assisted linguistic analysis (Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count; LIWC) was applied to transcripts of low-income mother-adolescent dyads (N = 151) performing a lab-based problem-solving interaction task. One-way multivariate analyses were conducted to determine linguistic features hypothesized to be related to maternal depressive status that significantly differed in frequency between depressed and non-depressed mothers and higher and lower risk offspring. Logistic regression analyses were performed to classify between dyads belonging to the two groups.

RESULTS

The results showed that linguistic features in mothers' and their adolescent offsprings' speech during problem-solving interactions discriminated between maternal depression status. Many, but not all effects, were consistent with those identified in previous research using primarily written text, highlighting the validity and reliability of language behaviour associated with depressive symptomatology across lab-based and natural environmental contexts.

LIMITATIONS

Our analyses do not enable to ascertain how mothers' language behaviour may have influenced their offspring's communication patterns. We also cannot say how or whether these findings generalize to other contexts or populations.

CONCLUSION

The findings extend the existing literature on linguistic features of depression by indicating that mothers' depression is associated with linguistic behaviour during mother-adolescent interaction.

Puberty and NeuroDevelopment in adolescents (PANDA): a study protocol

BACKGROUND

Biopsychosocial changes during adolescence are thought to confer risk for emotion dysregulation, and in particular, anxiety disorders. However, there are substantial gaps in our knowledge about the biological mechanisms underlying anxiety during adolescence, and whether this contributes to the higher prevalence in females. The Puberty and NeuroDevelopment in Adolescents (PANDA) study aims to examine links between biological (sex hormones, cortisol) and social environmental factors and brain function during adolescence, with a focus on key processes (emotion regulation, fear learning) identified as relevant for the development of anxiety disorders.

METHODS

PANDA is a cross-sectional study with an observational design that aims to recruit a total of 175 adolescents aged 11-16 (majority female) and their parents/guardians, from the community. Brain function will be examined using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), including functional MRI tasks of emotion regulation and fear learning. Hormones will be measured from hair (i.e., cortisol) and weekly saliva samples (i.e., oestradiol, progesterone, five across a month in females). Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews will be used to assess mental health and social environmental factors such as parenting and adverse childhood experiences. An online study of 113 adolescents was also incorporated during the COVID-19 pandemic as a questionnaire-only sub-study.

DISCUSSION

Strengths of this study include the collection of multiple saliva samples to assess variability in hormone levels, examination of the timing of adverse childhood experiences, inclusion of both maternal and paternal parental factors, exploration of mechanisms through the examination of brain structure and function, and multi-method, multi-informant collection of mental health symptoms. This study addresses important gaps in the literature and will enhance knowledge of the biological and environmental contributors to emotion dysregulation and anxiety in adolescents.

Deciphering the genetic interplay between depression and dysmenorrhea: a Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

This study aims to explore the link between depression and dysmenorrhea by using an integrated and innovative approach that combines genomic, transcriptomic, and protein interaction data/information from various resources.

METHODS

A two-sample, bidirectional, and multivariate Mendelian randomization (MR) approach was applied to determine causality between dysmenorrhea and depression. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) data were used to identify genetic variants associated with both dysmenorrhea and depression, followed by colocalization analysis of shared genetic influences. Expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) data were analyzed from public databases to pinpoint target genes in relevant tissues. Additionally, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed using the STRING database to analyze interactions among identified proteins.

RESULTS

MR analysis confirmed a significant causal effect of depression on dysmenorrhea ['odds ratio' (95% confidence interval) = 1.51 (1.19, 1.91), P = 7.26 × 10-4]. Conversely, no evidence was found to support a causal effect of dysmenorrhea on depression (P = .74). Genetic analysis, using GWAS and eQTL data, identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms in several genes, including GRK4, TRAIP, and RNF123, indicating that depression may impact reproductive function through these genetic pathways, with a detailed picture presented by way of analysis in the PPI network. Colocalization analysis highlighted rs34341246(RBMS3) as a potential shared causal variant.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that depression significantly affects dysmenorrhea and identifies key genes and proteins involved in this interaction. The findings underline the need for integrated clinical and public health approaches that screen for depression among women presenting with dysmenorrhea and suggest new targeted preventive strategies.

The Impact of Maternal Childhood Trauma on Children's Problem Behaviors: The Mediating Role of Maternal Depression and the Moderating Role of Mindful Parenting

Objective

This study investigates the impact of maternal childhood trauma on children's problem behaviors, focusing on the mediating role of maternal depression and the moderating role of mindful parenting.

Methods

The study used a convenience sampling method to survey 385 mother-child pairs from kindergartens in Jinan, China. Data were collected in two waves, and various validated questionnaires were used to assess maternal childhood trauma, depression, mindful parenting, and children's problem behaviors.

Results

Maternal childhood trauma positively predicted children's problem behaviors. Maternal depression was found to mediate this relationship. Mindful parenting moderated the effects of maternal childhood trauma and depression on children's problem behaviors, with high levels of mindful parenting mitigating these adverse effects.

Conclusion

Maternal childhood trauma impacts children's problem behaviors both directly and indirectly through maternal depression. Mindful parenting serves as a protective factor, reducing the negative impact of maternal childhood trauma and depression on children's problem behaviors. These findings highlight the importance of interventions aimed at enhancing mindful parenting practices to improve child outcomes.

Bidirectional effects of parenting and ADHD symptoms in young children: Effects of comorbid oppositional symptoms

Psychosocial factors play an important role in the manifestation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and accompanying impairment levels in children. In a community sample of 796 children evaluated at 4, 5, and 6 years of age, bidirectional effects were examined for each of three components of parenting (parental support, hostility, scaffolding skills) and ADHD-specific symptoms that are not associated with symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder. Results indicated that (a) age 4 parenting factors were not associated with changes in ADHD-I (inattention) or ADHD-H (hyperactive-impulsive) symptoms in the subsequent year, (b) ADHD-I and ADHD-H symptoms at age 4 were not associated with changes in parenting factors at age 5, (c) age 5 ADHD-I and ADHD-H symptoms were associated with decreases in parental scaffolding skills and increases in parental hostility from ages 5 to 6 years, and (d) parental support at age 5 was associated with a decrease in ADHD-H symptoms at age 6. Findings suggest that ADHD symptoms can lead to poorer parenting attitudes and behavior, while parental support during kindergarten has a small effect on decreasing ADHD-H symptoms over time.

Longitudinal Pathways from Parent Internalizing Symptoms to Parent and Youth Emotion Functioning

The current study utilized mediation analyses to examine how parental symptoms of depression and anxiety impact child emotion regulation (ER) and emotion stability (ES) through parent emotion functioning, parenting, and the coparent relationship. 564 parents of children between 3 and 17 years (Mage = 9.47; 54.4% male) were recruited via Amazon's Mechanical Turk across three time points: baseline (Wave 1), 4 months (Wave 2), 8 months (Wave 3). Mediation results demonstrated that symptoms of parent depression at Wave 1 predicted worse coparent relationships and decreases in parents' ability to identify their own emotions at Wave 2. Symptoms of parental anxiety at Wave 1 predicted decreases in positive parenting and an increased tendency to have negative secondary emotional responses, impulse-control difficulties, and difficulty accessing emotion-regulation strategies at Wave 2. Additionally, symptoms of parental anxiety at Wave 1 directly predicted lower child ER and ES at Wave 3. However, no significant indirect pathways were identified between parent symptoms and child ER and ES. Sensitivity analyses examined the effects of three youth developmental stages (i.e., early and middle childhood and adolescence), as well as parent gender (i.e., mother and father), and found no significant differences across groups. Thus, even at non-clinical levels, parental symptoms of anxiety and depression may negatively impact parenting, parent regulation, and the coparent relationship, while parental anxiety symptoms may contribute to lower child ER and ES.

Anxiety Symptom Trajectories Predict Depression Symptom Trajectories up to Four Years After CBT for Youth Anxiety Disorders

Long-term data on depression symptoms after cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for youth anxiety disorders are scant. We examined depression symptoms up to four years post CBT for anxiety addressing youth age and gender, family social class, and parent mental health as predictors. The sample comprised 179 youth (M age at pre-treatment = 11.5 years; SD = 2.1) in a randomized controlled trial. Clinically assessed anxiety diagnoses and youth and parent-reported anxiety and depression symptoms were measured before, after, and one and four years after CBT. Parent self-reported mental health was measured before CBT. We used regression analyses to determine whether full diagnostic recovery at post-CBT predicted depression trajectories across the four-year assessment period. We used growth curve models to determine whether anxiety trajectories predicted depression trajectories across the four-year assessment period. Youth who lost their anxiety diagnoses after CBT had significantly lower parent-reported depression levels over time, but not lower youth self-reported depression levels. The anxiety symptom trajectory predicted the depression symptom trajectory up to four years post-treatment. There was more explained variance for within-informant (youth-youth; parent-parent) than cross-informants. Being older, female, having lower socio-economic status and parents with poorer mental health were associated with more youth-rated depression over time. However, these demographic predictors were not significant when anxiety symptoms trajectories were added to the models. Successful CBT for anxiety in children is associated with less depression symptoms for as long as four years. Anxiety symptom improvement appears to be a stronger predictor that demographic variables and parent mental health.

Understanding modifiable caregiver factors contributing to child development among young children in rural Malawi

This study examined modifiable caregiver factors influencing child development in Malawi using baseline data from 1,021 mothers and their children <2 years of age participating in a cluster-randomized controlled trial implemented in rural Malawi (2022-2025). We fit an evidence-based theoretical model using structural equation modelling examining four caregiver factors: (1) diet diversity (sum of food groups consumed in the past 24 h), (2) empowerment (assessed using the project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index), (3) mental health (assessed using the Self-Reported Questionnaire, SRQ-20), and (4) stimulation (number of stimulation activities the mother engaged in the past 3 days). Child development was assessed using the Malawi Development Assessment Tool (norm-referenced aggregate Z-score). The model controlled for child, caregiver, and household socioeconomic characteristics. Results showed that caregiver dietary diversity was directly associated with higher child development scores (standardized coefficient 0.091 [95% CI 0.027, 0.153]) and lower SRQ-20 scores -0.058 (-0.111, -0.006). Empowerment was directly associated with higher child development scores (0.071 [0.007, 0.133]), higher stimulation score (0.074 [0.013, 0.140]), higher dietary diversity (0.085 [0.016, 0.145]), and lower SRQ-20 scores (-0.068 [-0.137, -0.002]). Further, higher empowerment was indirectly associated with improved child development through enhancement of caregiver dietary diversity, with an indirect effect of 0.008 (0.002, 0.018). These findings highlight the important role that caregiver diet and empowerment play in directly influencing child development and other aspects of caregiver well-being. Interventions aimed at enhancing child development should consider these factors as potential targets to improve outcomes for children and caregivers.

Disentangling the trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms and partnership problems in the transition to parenthood and their impact on child adjustment difficulties

Maternal perinatal depression (PND) and partnership problems have been identified to influence the development of later child adjustment difficulties. However, PND and partnership problems are closely linked which makes it difficult to draw conclusions about the exact transmission pathways. The aim of the present study was to investigate to what extent PND symptoms and partnership problems influence each other longitudinally and to examine the influence of their trajectories on child adjustment difficulties at the age of three. Analyses were based on publicly available data from the German family panel "pairfam". N = 354 mothers were surveyed on depressive symptoms and partnership problems annually from pregnancy (T0) until child age three (T4). Child adjustment difficulties were assessed at age three. Results of latent change score modeling showed that partnership problems predicted change in PND symptoms at T0 and T3 while PND symptoms did not predict change in partnership problems. Child adjustment difficulties at age three were predicted by PND symptoms, but not by partnership problems. Partnership problems predicted externalizing, but not internalizing symptoms. Results underline the effects of family factors for the development of child adjustment difficulties and emphasize the importance of early interventions from pregnancy onwards.

Parental Depression and Self-Stigma Among Chinese Young People Living With Depression: A Qualitative Study

Self-stigma is detrimental to psychosocial well-being and the recovery journey among people living with depression. However, there has been limited research exploring the experience of stigma internalization when depression runs in families. This study aims to address this gap by (1) characterizing the manifestations of self-stigma among individuals living with depression whose parent(s) also have depression and (2) exploring the potential mechanisms underlying the impact of parental depression on self-stigma. Essential principles of the constructivist grounded theory approach were adopted to collect data through in-depth interviews with 27 participants aged 15-30, living in Mainland China. Many participants perceived depression running in their family as an endless disaster and an incurable illness. These beliefs further led to stigmatizing emotions (such as suppression, anger, and guilt) and behaviors (such as concealment and social withdrawal). Participants also highlighted ambivalent intergenerational relationships, tense family atmospheres, lower parental emotional involvement and support, and a lack of family flexibility due to parental depression. Furthermore, parental depression impacted participants' self-stigma by interfering with family relationships, family functioning, and parenting styles. It also shaped their perceptions of family, illness attribution, and public stigma. Additionally, parental depression had an impact on participants' social functioning, self-esteem, and personality, making them more susceptible to self-stigma. This study emphasizes the crucial role that the family plays in the internalization of stigma among individuals living with depression. It suggests that family dynamics, rather than family structure or economic backgrounds alone, shape this process.

Caregiver mental health and school-aged children's academic and socioemotional outcomes: Examining associations and mediators in Northern Ghana

While there is a strong link between caregiver mental health, caregiver engagement, and child development, limited research has examined the underlying mechanisms of these associations in Africa. We examined the mediating role of dimensions of caregiver engagement in the association of caregiver psychological distress with children's academic and socioemotional outcomes in Ghana. Data came from 4,714 children (aged 5-17 years) and their caregivers in five regions of northern Ghana. Caregiver psychological distress and engagement (i.e., engagement in education, emotional supportiveness, and parenting self-efficacy) were self-reported by children's primary caregiver. Children's academic (literacy and numeracy) and socioemotional (prosocial skills and socioemotional difficulties) outcomes were directly assessed using validated measures. Structural equation modelling was used to estimate mediation models. We tested moderation by caregiver exposure to formal education, child's age, and child's sex. Fourteen percent of caregivers experienced elevated psychological distress. Higher levels of psychological distress were associated with children's poorer literacy and numeracy skills, and higher socioemotional difficulties, but not prosocial skills. The mediating role of caregiver engagement varied by caregiver exposure to formal education but not child's age or sex. Caregiver engagement in education explained the association between psychological distress and children's literacy skills (but not numeracy or socioemotional) in families where the caregiver had no formal education (indirect effect: β = 0.007 [95% CI: 0.000, 0.016]), explaining 23% of the association. No mediator explained the association of psychological distress with child outcomes among families where the caregiver had some formal education. The mechanisms through which caregiver psychological distress is associated with child outcomes in rural Ghana differ as a function of caregivers' exposure to formal education. These results highlight the importance of developing multi-component and culturally-sensitive programs to improve child outcomes. Further research in similar contexts is needed to advance scientific understanding on how to effectively promote child and family wellbeing.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure effects on trajectories of maternal and adolescent mental health

BACKGROUND

Parental psychological distress is a well-known risk factor for developmental psychopathology, with longer term parental distress associated with worse youth mental health. Neurotoxicant exposure during pregnancy is a risk factor for both poor maternal and youth mental health. The impact of one class of pollutant, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), on long-term trajectories of maternal distress and youth self-reported mental health symptoms in adolescence has been understudied.

METHODS

PAH exposure was measured by DNA adducts in maternal blood sampled during the third trimester of pregnancy. Maternal distress, operationalized as maternal demoralization, was measured at 11 timepoints (prenatal to child age 16). Adolescent mental health symptoms were measured at age 13-15. Follow up analyses examined a subset of measures available at age 15-20 years. Structural equation modeling examined associations between PAH exposure during pregnancy and latent growth metrics of maternal distress, and between maternal distress (intercept and slope) and youth mental health symptoms in a prospective longitudinal birth cohort (N = 564 dyads).

RESULTS

Higher prenatal PAH exposure was associated with higher concurrent maternal distress. Prenatal maternal distress was associated with adolescent's self-reported anxiety, depression, and externalizing problems. On average, maternal distress declined over time; a slower decline in mother's distress across the course of the child's life was associated with greater self-reported anxiety and externalizing problems in youth.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings are consistent with an intergenerational framework of environmental effects on mental health: PAH exposure during pregnancy affects maternal mental health, which in turn influences mental health outcomes for youth well into adolescence. Future research is necessary to elucidate the possible social and biological mechanisms (e.g., parenting, epigenetics) underlying the intergenerational transmission of the negative effects of pollution on mental health in caregiver-child dyads.

Effects of multi-component parenting and parental mental health interventions on early childhood development and parent outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Interventions supporting parents of young children often target parenting or parental mental health separately. Multi-component parenting and parental mental health interventions have the potential to improve parenting practices, mental health, and early childhood development. We aimed to examine their impact on child and parent outcomes.

METHODS

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science Core Collection, APA PsycINFO, CINAHL Complete, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and the Global Health Database from inception to Jan 23, 2024. Eligible studies were randomised controlled trials of interventions explicitly targeting parenting behaviours and parental mental health antenatally or in children's first 3 years of life. Screening, extraction, and quality assessment were done independently by two authors. Primary outcomes were cognitive and social-emotional functioning in children and depressive symptoms in parents, meta-analysed as standardised mean differences (SMDs), relative to control. This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42022302848.

FINDINGS

We found 5843 records. After screening 2636 (45·1%) titles and abstracts, we manually identified and screened three additional articles and excluded 2177 records. After screening 462 full-length articles, 25 articles, representing a sample size of 8520 children and caregivers, were included. At baseline, mean caregiver age was 27·7 years (SD 5·9) and mean child age (excluding those enrolled during pregnancy) was 14·4 months (8·0). Interventions lasted a mean of 14 months (SD 11) and used a mean of 3·7 behaviour change techniques (2·0). Most interventions dedicated more time to parenting behaviours than to parental mental health. We found significant intervention effects on children's cognitive (SMD 0·19 [95% CI 0·04 to 0·34]; I2=69%) and social-emotional (0·26 [0·17 to 0·34]; I2=47%) outcomes but not on depressive symptoms in female caregivers (-0·18 [-0·36 to 0·002]; I2=86%) relative to control conditions. Risk of bias across studies was moderate, and we found heterogeneity across results.

INTERPRETATION

Multi-component parenting and mental health interventions had a positive effect on child cognitive and social-emotional outcomes, but not on depressive symptoms in parents, suggesting that other factors might contribute to positive ECD outcomes. Interventions might lack adequate focus on mental health to make a discernible impact, highlighting a need for future studies to differentiate and assess contributions of parenting and mental health components to understand independent and collective effects on family outcomes.

FUNDING

Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

Fluctuations in Maternal Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety, and Anger and Children's Depression Risks in Middle Childhood

Research suggests a robust link between the severity of maternal depression and children's depression risks in middle childhood. Variations among depressed mothers in terms of affective dysregulation and frequent mood changes are also observed. However, the understanding of how fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms and negative affect influence children is limited. Guided by life history theory, the current study tested whether the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms, anxiety, and anger contributed to depression risks among school-aged children. The sample included 1,364 families where maternal depressive symptoms, anxiety, and anger were longitudinally assessed when children were in Grades 1, 3, 5, and 6. Children's anxious depression and withdrawn depression behaviors were rated in Grades 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 by two caregivers. Parallel latent growth curve analyses revealed that, first, fluctuations in maternal anxiety from Grade 1 to 6 were related to an increase in children's withdrawn depression over the same period. Second, mean maternal anger over time was related to higher mean levels of child anxious and withdrawn depression, yet fluctuations in maternal anger were not linked to child outcomes. Findings support life history theory by highlighting the degree of fluctuations in maternal anxiety as a source of environmental unpredictability and reveal different effects of maternal anxiety and anger in the intergenerational transmission of depression, with important theoretical and clinical implications.

A meta-analytic examination of sensitive responsiveness as a mediator between depression in mothers and psychopathology in children

The current meta-analysis examined the mediating role of sensitive-responsive parenting in the relationship between depression in mothers and internalizing and externalizing behavior in children. A systematic review of the path of maternal sensitive responsiveness to child psychopathology identified eligible studies. Meta-analytic structural equation modelling (MASEM) allowed for the systematic examination of the magnitude of the indirect effect across 68 studies (N = 15,579) for internalizing and 92 studies (N = 26,218) for externalizing psychopathology. The synthesized sample included predominantly White, English-speaking children (age range = 1 to 205 months; Mage = 66 months; 47% female) from Western, industrialized countries. The indirect pathway was small in magnitude and similar for externalizing (b = .02) and internalizing psychopathology (b = .01). Moderator analyses found that the indirect pathway for externalizing problems was stronger when mother-child interactions were observed during naturalistic and free-play tasks rather than structured tasks. Other tested moderators were not significant.

Identifying vulnerable mother-infant dyads: a psychometric evaluation of two observational coding systems using varying interaction periods

Introduction

Clinical services require feasible assessments of parent-infant interaction in order to identify dyads requiring parenting intervention. We assessed the reliability and predictive validity of two observational tools and tested whether briefer forms could be identified which retain acceptable psychometric properties over short observation periods.

Methods

A stratified high-risk community sample of 250 mother-infant dyads from The Wirral Child Health and Development Study completed 7-min play-based interaction at 6-8 months. Film-footage was independently coded by two trained raters using PIIOS and NICHD-SECCYD systems. Incremental predictive validity was assessed from 3, 5 and 7 min observation to attachment outcomes (Strange Situation; 14 months) and infant mental health (BITSEA; 14 and 30 months).

Results

Excellent inter-rater reliability was evident at code and subscale level for each tool and observation period. Stability of within-rater agreement was optimal after 5 min observation. ROC analysis confirmed predictive (discriminant) validity (AUCs >0.70) to top decile age 2 mental health outcomes for PIIOS total score and a brief 3-item composite from NICHD-SECCYD (sensitivity, intrusiveness, positive regard; NICHD-3), but not to attachment outcomes. Logistic regression showed dyads rated at-risk for externalizing problems using NICHD-3 were also at significantly higher risk for insecurity at 14 months (OR = 2.7, p = 0.004).

Conclusion

PIIOS total and NICHD-3 ratings from 5 min observation are both reliable and valid tools for use in clinical practice. Findings suggest NICHD-3 may have greater utility due to its comparative brevity to train and code, with suitability for use over a broader developmental time frame (3-24 months).

Parental depression moderates the relationship between childhood maltreatment and the recognition of children expressions of emotions

Background

Sensitivity plays a crucial role in parenting as it involves the ability to perceive and respond appropriately to children's signals. Childhood maltreatment and depression can negatively impact adults' ability to recognize emotions, but it is unclear which of these factors has a greater impact or how they interact. This knowledge is central to developing efficient, targeted interventions. This paper examines the interaction between parents' depressive symptoms and childhood maltreatment and its influence on their ability to recognize the five basic emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust) in children's faces.

Method

The sample consisted of 52 parents. Depressive symptoms were measured by the depression subscale of the Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18), and maltreatment history was assessed by the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). Children's emotional stimuli were morphed images created using The Child Affective Facial Expression (CAFE) database.

Results

Our findings indicate that depressive symptoms moderate the relationship between parents' history of childhood maltreatment and emotion recognition skills. Parents with higher depressive symptoms had lower emotion recognition accuracy when they had not experienced maltreatment. When childhood maltreatment was severe, emotion recognition skills were more consistent across all levels of depression. The relationship between depression and emotion recognition was primarily linked to recognizing sadness in children's faces.

Conclusion

These findings highlight how different experiences can affect parental abilities in emotion recognition and emphasize the need for interventions tailored to individual profiles to improve their effectiveness.

Intergenerational Transmission of Depressive Symptoms from Mothers to Adolescents: A Moderated Mediation Model

Substantial literature investigating the intergenerational transmission of depressive symptoms has primarily focused on mothers and adolescents, whereas less is known about the potential role of fathers, especially their parenting behaviors. This study aimed to address this gap by examining the mediating role of maternal parenting, and the moderating role of paternal parenting in this intergenerational transmission pathway. A total of 528 Chinese community adolescents (Mage = 12.70 ± 1.49 years; 48.7%, girls) and their mothers participated. After adolescent sex, age, maternal educational levels, and monthly household income were controlled for, both maternal warmth and rejection mediated the association between maternal and adolescent depressive symptoms. More importantly, paternal warmth buffered the adverse effect of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal rejection on adolescent depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the buffering role of paternal parenting in blocking the intergenerational transmission risk of depressive symptoms from mothers to adolescents and emphasize the need for father-focused interventions.

Gaze Orienting in the Social World: An Exploration of the Role Played by Caregiving Vocal and Tactile Behaviors in Infants with Visual Impairment and in Sighted Controls

Infant attention is a cognitive function that underlines sensory-motor integration processes at the interface between the baby and the surrounding physical and socio-relational environment, mainly with the caregivers. The investigation of the role of non-visual inputs (i.e., vocal and tactile) provided by the caregivers in shaping infants' attention in the context of visual impairment is relevant from both a theoretical and clinical point of view. This study investigated the social attention (i.e., gaze orientation) skills in a group of visually impaired (VI) and age-matched sighted controls (SCs) between 9 and 12 months of age. Moreover, the role of VI severity and maternal vocalizations and touch in shaping the social attention were investigated. Overall, 45 infants and their mothers participated in a video-recorded 4 min interaction procedure, including a play and a still-face episode. The infants' gaze orientation (i.e., mother-directed, object-directed, or unfocused) and the types of maternal vocalizations and touch (i.e., socio-cognitive, affective) were micro-analytically coded. Maternal vocalizations and touch were found to influence gaze orientation differently in VI infants compared SCs. Moreover, the group comparisons during the play episode showed that controls were predominantly oriented to the mothers, while VI infants were less socially oriented. Visual impairment severity did not emerge as linked with social attention. These findings contribute to our understanding of socio-cognitive developmental trajectories in VI infants and highlight the need for tailored interventions to promote optimal outcomes for VI populations.

Trauma-sensitive school concepts for students with a refugee background: a review of international studies

Children and adolescents with a refugee background are at high risk for traumatization. Once they arrive in safe countries, schools are the institutions where teachers are responsible for caring for them sensitively and competently. Furthermore, schools are organized in learning groups consisting of multiple peers of the same age, which provides excellent opportunities for social learning and experiences of social support. In this respect, schools are the appropriate places where preventive concepts can be applied to students with a refugee background. This systematic review summarizes studies that examine or evaluate existing international concepts of trauma-sensitive schools for supporting traumatized students with a refugee background. Based on N = 41 selected articles, 17 relevant concepts of trauma-sensitive schools were identified. In 35.3% of the concepts, traumatized students with a refugee background are explicitly included in the target group of the concept, while 47.1% of the concepts refer to groups of students with trauma as a result of various adverse childhood experiences, which also occur more frequently within the population of refugee children and adolescents 17.6% of the concepts contain specific adaptations for pupils with a refugee background. The majority of these concepts were developed in the United States. Additional concepts can be reported for Australia, the United Kingdom, Turkey, and Cambodia. Based on available empirical data, no significant effectiveness regarding the researched concepts' effects on academic and other school-related data can be determined. Although some studies indicate positive effects concerning school-related target variables, most of the studies have only limited significance due to inadequate research designs and methodological deficiencies. Therefore, there is a great need for further development, careful implementation, and evaluation of trauma-sensitive concepts in schools, especially for the growing group of refugee students.

The Degree of Fluctuations in Maternal Depressive Symptoms in Early Childhood is Associated with Children's Depression Risk: Initial Evidence and Replication Between Two Independent Samples

Guided by life history theory, the present study examined whether the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms in early childhood was prospectively linked to children's risk for depression. This was the first study to present preliminary evidence on this topic and replicated main findings across two large, independent longitudinal samples. Study 1 included 1,364 families where maternal depressive symptoms were longitudinally assessed at child ages 1, 6, 15, 24, and 36, and 54 months, where child depressed/anxious behaviors at Grade 1 were reported. Study 2 included 1,292 families where maternal depressive symptoms were assessed at child ages 2, 6, 15, and 24 months. At 36 months, child internalizing symptoms and inhibitory control were assessed. In Study 1, findings revealed that the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms over 54 months was associated with higher child depressed/anxious behaviors at Grade 1, only when mothers had higher but decreasing depressive symptoms. Study 2 revealed that the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms over 24 months was related to higher child internalizing symptoms at 36 months, for mothers whose depressive symptoms were higher but decreasing, higher and increasing, and lower and decreasing. In addition, the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms over 24 months was related to lower child inhibitory control at 36 months, for mothers who had higher but decreasing depressive symptoms. Findings highlighted the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms during early childhood can contribute to environmental unpredictability, which can increase children's depression risks.

Network analysis of maternal parenting practices and adolescent mental health problems: a longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

An extensive literature has shown a strong connection between maternal parenting practices and adolescent mental health problems. However, it has been difficult for previous research to map a dynamic concurrent and prospective relationships within and between types of parenting practices and adolescent mental health problems. The present study addressed these issues using a network analysis approach and a longitudinal design.

METHODS

This study involved 591 Chinese adolescents (249 males; mean age at T1 = 13.53) and their mothers (mean age at T1 = 39.71) at two time points (T1 and T2) with eighteen months apart. Mothers reported their parenting practices including warmth, monitoring, inductive reasoning, hostility, and harshness, while adolescents reported their mental health problems including anxiety, depression, aggression, and conduct problems. Network analysis was conducted for contemporaneous networks at T1 and T2 and temporal networks from T1 to T2.

RESULTS

The contemporaneous networks revealed the negative association between monitoring and conduct problems served as the main pathway through which parenting practices and adolescent mental health mutually influenced each other, and further, warmth was the most influential parenting practice on adolescent mental health. The temporal network revealed that maternal hostility exerted the most influence on adolescent mental health problems, whereas adolescents' depression was most influenced by maternal parenting practices. Moreover, maternal hostility was most predicted by maternal harshness.

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents a novel perspective to gain a better understanding of the dynamics between and within maternal parenting practices and adolescent mental health problems. Findings highlight maternal harshness and warmth as potential prevention and intervention targets for adolescent mental health problems.

The Impact of Children's and Parents' Perceptions of Parenting Styles on Attention, Hyperactivity, Anxiety, and Emotional Regulation

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology can be studied by examining the associated neurobiological factors or by looking at the environmental factors involved, such as parenting styles. Negative parenting styles have been associated with ADHD symptoms in childhood and adolescence. The present study aimed to analyze the predictive power of two parenting style dimensions (warmth-communication and criticism-rejection) and three factors about rule-setting and compliance (inductive, strict, and indulgent styles) in the explanation of ADHD symptoms (attention and hyperactivity) and associated emotional factors (anxiety and emotional regulation) considering parents' and children's perspectives. The results indicate that from the parents' perspective, the criticism-rejection variable was the most important in explaining attention difficulties, anxiety and emotional regulation. From the children's perspective, the strict parenting style was the most important variable in explaining hyperactivity and emotional regulation. In addition, for children, warmth-communication was significant in predicting fewer emotional regulation difficulties. Our results highlight the importance of considering family dynamics when assessing ADHD in order to implement comprehensive interventions that consider parental training in positive parenting styles.

A transactional mediation model of risk for the intergenerational transmission of depression: The role of maternal criticism

In this study, we sought to combine two lines of research to better understand risk for the intergenerational transmission of depression. The first focuses on the role of maternal criticism as a potential mechanism of risk for depression in youth while the second builds from interpersonal and stress generation models regarding the potential impact of youth depression on future escalations in maternal criticism. Specifically, we examined the role of maternal criticism within a transactional mediation model using data from a multi-wave study. Participants were 251 mother-offspring pairs consisting of mothers with (n = 129) and without (n = 122) a history of major depressive disorder (MDD) during their child's lifetime who completed assessments every 6 months for 2 years. We found support for the hypothesized transactional mediational model in which maternal expressed emotion-criticism (EE-Crit) mediated the link between maternal history of MDD and residual change in youth's depressive symptoms over the previous 6 months and, reciprocally, youth depressive symptoms mediated the relation between maternal MDD history and residual change in EE-Crit 6 months later. These results indicate that maternal criticism and offspring depressive symptoms may contribute to a vicious cycle of depression risk, which should be considered for interventions targeted toward youth at risk of developing MDD.

Longitudinal pathways between maternal depression, parenting behaviors, and early childhood development: a mediation analysis

Maternal depression is a global public health concern with far-reaching impacts on child development, yet our understanding of mechanisms remains incomplete. This study examined whether parenting mediates the association between maternal depression and child outcomes. Participants included 841 rural Pakistani mother-child dyads (50% female). Maternal depression was measured at 12 months postpartum, parenting behaviors (warmth, stimulation, and harsh parenting) were measured at 24 months, and child outcomes (mental health, socioemotional development, and cognitive skills) were measured at 36 months. Maternal depression predicted increased harsh parenting, child mental health difficulties, and child socioemotional concerns; however, there was little evidence for parenting as a mediator between maternal depression and child outcomes. Sex-stratified results are discussed, and findings are situated in context.

Family Functioning, Maternal Depression, and Adolescent Cognitive Flexibility and Its Associations with Adolescent Depression: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

This study explores family functioning and its associations with adolescent major depressive disorder (MDD), comparing its dynamics with healthy counterparts. Family functioning (cohesion, flexibility, communication, and satisfaction), maternal depressive symptoms, postpartum depression history, parental divorce, parental alcohol abuse, and the adolescents' cognitive flexibility, are examined. The research incorporates the perspectives of both adolescents and mothers.

METHODS

The sample includes 63 mother-teenager dyads in the clinical group and 43 in the control group. Instruments encompass the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES IV), Children's Depression Inventory (CDI-2), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), The Brixton Spatial Anticipation Test, and structured interviews.

RESULTS

Families of adolescents with MDD exhibit lower flexibility, cohesion, communication, and overall satisfaction. Depressed adolescents display reduced cognitive flexibility. Discrepancies were observed between adolescents' and mothers' perspectives as associated with adolescents' MDD. Teenagers emphasized the severity of maternal depressive symptoms, while mothers highlighted the importance of family cohesion and flexibility.

CONCLUSIONS

This study emphasizes a holistic strategy in addressing adolescent depression, including family-based assessment and therapy. Screening for maternal depressive symptoms is identified as valuable. Cognitive flexibility also needs to be addressed during therapy for depression in adolescence.

Current maternal depression associated with worsened children's social outcomes during middle childhood: Exploring the role of positive affect socialization

BACKGROUND

Maternal depression negatively predicts aspects of the mother-child relationship and social functioning in offspring. This study evaluated interrelations between mothers' depression history and current severity with dynamic indices of positive affect socialization and indices of offspring' social outcomes.

METHODS

N = 66 mother-child dyads in which approximately 50 % of mothers had a history of maternal depression were recruited. Children were 6-8 years old and 47.7 % male. Dyads completed a positive interaction task, which was coded for mother and child positive affect. Mothers and children reported on peer functioning and social problems and children reported on the quality of their best friendships at 1-year follow-up.

RESULTS

Current level of maternal depression, but not depression history, was related to more social problems and lower best friend relationship quality. Indices of positive affect socialization were not related to history or current levels of maternal depression, or social outcomes, with the exception of maternal depression history predicting greater likelihood of mothers joining their children in expressing positive affect. Exploratory, supplementary analysis revealed that this may be due to treatment history among these mothers.

LIMITATIONS

Conclusions should be tempered by the small sample size, which limited the types of analyses that were conducted.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that the effect of maternal depression on aspects of child social outcomes could be specific to current levels. Our data also did not support previously found associations between maternal depression and positive affect socialization. Results suggest positive implications for the effect of treatment for maternal depression for mother-child dynamics.

Associations Between Parenting Behavior and Neural Processing of Adolescent Faces in Mothers With and Without Depression

BACKGROUND

This study first examined how mothers with and without depression differ in neural activation in response to adolescents' affective faces. Second, it examined the extent to which these neural activation patterns are related to observed positive and aggressive parenting behavior.

METHODS

Mothers with and without depression (based on self-reported symptoms and treatment history; n = 77 and n = 64, respectively; meanage = 40 years) from low-income families completed an interaction task with their adolescents (meanage = 12.8 years), which was coded for parents' aggressive and positive affective behavior. During functional magnetic resonance imaging, mothers viewed blurry, happy, sad, and angry faces of unfamiliar adolescents, with an instruction to either label the emotion or determine the clarity of the image.

RESULTS

The depression group showed less activation in the posterior midcingulate than the control subject group while labeling happy faces. Higher activation in the insula and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (PFC) was related to less positive parenting behavior. Ventrolateral PFC activation was most pronounced when labeling negative emotions, but stronger ventrolateral PFC response to happy faces was associated with more aggressive parenting behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

This demonstrates the association between parents' neural responses to adolescent faces and their behavior during interactions with their own adolescents, with relatively low insula and dorsomedial PFC activation supporting positive parenting and affect-dependent response in the ventrolateral PFC as being important to limit aggressive behavior.

Context dependent cognitive development in Bhutanese children

We assessed risk/protective factors for cognitive development of Bhutanese children (504 3-5 year-olds, 49% girls, major ethnicities Ngalop 26%, Tshangla 30%, Lhotsampa 34%) using a non-verbal test of cognitive capacity (SON-R) and primary caregiver interviews. Cognitive capacity was related to the family's SES and whether the family belonged to the primary Buddhist majority ethnic groups (Ngalop or Tshangla) or primarily Hindu minorities (Lhotsampa). In majority families more engagement in Buddhist practices was associated with higher cognitive capacity in children. Minority children were more impacted by parents autonomous-relatedness values. Results demonstrate that cognitive development is dependent on the financial and educational context of the family, societal events, and culture specific risk/protective factors that differ across sub-groups (majority/minority, culture/religion).

SHAP-based Prediction of Mother's History of Depression to Understand the Influence on Child Behavior

Depression strongly impacts parents' behavior. Does parents' depression strongly afect the behavior of their children as well? To investigate this question, we compared dyadic interactions between 73 depressed and 75 non-depressed mothers and their adolescent child. Families were of low income and 84% were white. Child behavior was measured from audio-video recordings using manual annotation of verbal and nonverbal behavior by expert coders and by multimodal computational measures of facial expression, face and head dynamics, prosody, speech behavior, and linguistics. For both sets of measures, we used Support Vector Machines. For computational measures, we investigated the relative contribution of single versus multiple modalities using a novel approach to SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP). Computational measures outperformed manual ratings by human experts. Among individual computational measures, prosody was the most informative. SHAP reduction resulted in a four-fold decrease in the number of features and highest performance (77% accuracy; positive and negative agreements at 75% and 76%, respectively). These fndings suggest that maternal depression strongly impacts the behavior of adolescent children; diferences are most revealed in prosody; multimodal features together with SHAP reduction are most powerful.

Intergenerational transmission of cognitive control capacity among children at risk for depression

A maternal history of major depressive disorder (MDD) is a well-known risk factor for depression in offspring. However, the mechanism through which familial risk is transmitted remains unclear. Cognitive control alterations are common in MDD, and thus, the current study investigated whether altered control capacity is transmitted intergenerationally, and whether it then contributes to the developmental pathways through which depression is passed from mothers to children. We recruited children (N = 65) ages 4-10-years-old, of which 47.7 % (n = 31) reported a maternal history of MDD, and their biological mother (N = 65). Children performed a child-friendly Go/NoGo task while electroencephalography (EEG) data were recorded, and mothers performed a Flanker task. Children exhibited heightened sensitivity to error versus correct responses, which was characterized by an error-related negativity (ERN), error positivity (Pe) as well as prominent delta and frontal midline theta (FMT) oscillations. Interestingly, worse maternal performance on the Flanker task associated with an increased Go/NoGo error rate and a smaller ERN and Pe in children. However, there was no association between maternal or child control indices with child depression symptoms. Our results suggest a familial influence of cognitive control capacity in mother-child dyads, but it remains unclear whether this confers risk for depressive symptoms in children. Further research is necessary to determine whether alterations in cognitive control over time may influence symptom development in at-risk children.

Early life stress, prenatal secondhand smoke exposure, and the development of internalizing symptoms across childhood

BACKGROUND

Prior findings relating secondhand tobacco smoke (SHS) exposure and internalizing problems, characterized by heightened anxiety and depression symptoms, have been equivocal; effects of SHS on neurodevelopment may depend on the presence of other neurotoxicants. Early life stress (ELS) is a known risk factor for internalizing symptoms and is also often concurrent with SHS exposure. To date the interactive effects of ELS and SHS on children's internalizing symptoms are unknown. We hypothesize that children with higher exposure to both prenatal SHS and ELS will have the most internalizing symptoms during the preschool period and the slowest reductions in symptoms over time.

METHODS

The present study leveraged a prospective, longitudinal birth cohort of 564 Black and Latinx mothers and their children, recruited between 1998 and 2006. Cotinine extracted from cord and maternal blood at birth served as a biomarker of prenatal SHS exposure. Parent-reported Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) scores were examined at four timepoints between preschool and eleven years-old. ELS exposure was measured as a composite of six domains of maternal stress reported at child age five. Latent growth models examined associations between SHS, ELS, and their interaction term with trajectories of children's internalizing symptoms. In follow-up analyses, weighted quintile sum regression examined contributions of components of the ELS mixture to children's internalizing symptoms at each time point.

RESULTS

ELS interacted with SHS exposure such that higher levels of ELS and SHS exposure were associated with more internalizing symptoms during the preschool period (β = 0.14, p = 0.03). The interaction between ELS and SHS was also associated with a less negative rate of change in internalizing symptoms over time (β=-0.02, p = 0.01). Weighted quintile sum regression revealed significant contributions of maternal demoralization and other components of the stress mixture to children's internalizing problems at each age point (e.g., age 11 WQS β = 0.26, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that prior inconsistencies in studies of SHS on behavior may derive from unmeasured factors that also influence behavior and co-occur with exposure, specifically maternal stress during children's early life. Findings point to modifiable targets for personalized prevention.

Unique Characteristics of Women and Infants Moderate the Association between Depression and Mother-Infant Interaction

Research has shown mixed results regarding the association between women's postpartum depression and mother-infant interactions, suggesting that a woman's unique experience and context may moderate how depression shapes these interactions. We examined the extent to which a woman's comorbid anxiety, her exposure to adversity, and infant characteristics moderate the relationship between depressive symptoms of women and interactions with their infants at 6 (n = 647) and 12 months (n = 346) postpartum. The methods included standardized coding of mother-infant interactions and structural regression modeling. The results at 6 months of infant age indicated that infant male sex and infant negative affectivity were risk factors for mothers' depression being associated with less optimal interactions. At 12 months of infant age, two moderators appeared to buffer the influence of depression: a woman's history of trauma and infant preterm birth (≤37 weeks gestation). The results reinforce the salience of infant characteristics in the relationship between maternal depression and mother-infant interactions. The findings also suggest that experiences of trauma may offer opportunities for psychological growth that foster constructive management of depression's potential effect on mother-infant interactions. Further research is needed to clarify the underlying processes and mechanisms that explain the influence of these moderators. The ultimate goals are to reduce the risk of suboptimal interactions and reinforce healthy dyadic relations.

Is parental depression related to parental mentalizing? A systematic review and three-level meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis is aimed to summarize the state of research on the relation between parental depression and parental mentalizing. To account for the multifaceted nature of parental mentalizing, several conceptualizations and measures were included and compared. The last database search was conducted on March 13, 2023. Using three-level meta-analytic modelling, we analyzed a total of 12,665 participants from 63 studies with 233 effect sizes. Taken together, higher depression was only weakly associated with lower mentalizing (r = -0.06). Specifically, parents with higher depression scored lower on questionnaire measures of parental reflective functioning (r = -0.11). No significant correlations were found for interview measures of parental reflective functioning, the observational and interview measure of mind-mindedness, or insightfulness. The data showed substantial heterogeneity. The mean effect size for self-reported pre-mentalizing (r =  -0.23 for reverse-coded subscale scores) was significantly stronger compared to other self-report subscales. In studies including parents with diagnosis and controls, there was limited evidence suggesting a larger negative correlation between depression, mind-mindedness, and insightfulness. Therefore, more research is needed in clinical samples. Due to their correlational nature, our results do not allow causal inferences. Future studies should target moderators that explain variability (e.g., comorbid psychological problems, coparenting, child behavior).

A Dynamic Systems Analysis of Dyadic Flexibility and Shared Affect in Preschoolers with and Without Major Depressive Disorder

Preschool onset Major Depressive Disorder (PO-MDD) is a severe disorder often leading to chronic impairment and poor outcomes across development. Recent work suggests that the caregiver-child relationship may contribute to PO-MDD symptoms partially through disrupted caregiver-child interactions. The current study uses a dynamic systems approach to investigate whether co-regulation patterns in a dyad with a child experiencing PO-MDD differ from dyads with a child without the disorder. Preschoolers between the ages of 3-7 years-old (N = 215; M(SD) = 5.22(1.06); 35% girls; 77% white) were recruited for a randomized controlled trial of an adapted version of parent-child interaction therapy. An additional sample (N = 50; M(SD) = 5.17(.84)' 34% girls; 76% white) was recruited as a control group. Dyads completed two interactive tasks and affect was coded throughout the interaction. State Space Grids (SSG) were used to derive measures of dyadic affective flexibility (i.e., affective variability in dyadic interactions) and shared affect. PO-MDD dyads did not differ from controls in dyadic affective flexibility. However, there were significant differences in shared positive and neutral affect. PO-MDD dyads spent less time and had fewer instances of shared positive affect and spent more time and had more instances of shared neutral affect than the community control group. These comparisons survived multiple comparisons correction. There were no differences for shared negative affect. Findings suggest that children experiencing PO-MDD have differing dyadic affective experiences with their caregivers than healthy developing children, which may be a mechanism through which depressive states are reinforced and could be targeted for treatment.

Functional role of frontal electroencephalogram alpha asymmetry in the resting state in patients with depression: A review

Depression is a psychological disorder that affects the general public worldwide. It is particularly important to make an objective and accurate diagnosis of depression, and the measurement methods of brain activity have gradually received increasing attention. Resting electroencephalogram (EEG) alpha asymmetry in patients with depression shows changes in activation of the alpha frequency band of the left and right frontal cortices. In this paper, we review the findings of the relationship between frontal EEG alpha asymmetry in the resting state and depression. Based on worldwide studies, we found the following: (1) Compared with individuals without depression, those with depression showed greater right frontal EEG alpha asymmetry in the resting state. However, the pattern of frontal EEG alpha asymmetry in the resting state in depressive individuals seemed to disappear with age; (2) Compared with individuals without maternal depression, those with maternal depression showed greater right frontal EEG alpha asymmetry in the resting state, which indicated that genetic or experience-based influences have an impact on frontal EEG alpha asymmetry at rest; and (3) Frontal EEG alpha asymmetry in the resting state was stable, and little or no change occurred after antidepressant treatment. Finally, we concluded that the contrasting results may be due to differences in methodology, clinical characteristics, and participant characteristics.

Perinatal Depression and Anxiety Symptoms, Parental Bonding and Dyadic Sensitivity in Mother-Baby Interactions at Three Months Post-Partum

The quality of the early parent-infant relationship is crucial for the child's optimal development, and parental sensitivity plays a key role in early interactions. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the influence of maternal perinatal depression and anxiety symptoms on dyadic sensitivity at three months post-partum, also considering a large set of maternal and infant variables. At the third trimester of pregnancy (T1) and at three months postpartum (T2), 43 primiparous women filled in a set of questionnaires evaluating symptoms of depression (CES-D) or anxiety (STAI), the woman's parental bonding experiences (PBI), alexithymia (TAS-20), maternal attachment to the baby (PAI, MPAS) and the perceived social support (MSPSS). At T2 mothers also completed a questionnaire on infant temperament and took part in the CARE-Index videotaped procedure. Dyadic sensitivity was predicted by higher maternal trait anxiety scores in pregnancy. In addition, the mother's experience of being cared for by her father in childhood was predictive of her infant's lower compulsivity, while paternal overprotection predicted higher unresponsiveness. The results highlight the influence of perinatal maternal psychological well-being and maternal childhood experiences on the quality of the dyadic relationship. The results may be useful to foster mother-child adjustment during the perinatal period.