Serological investigation and genomic characterization of PCV2 isolates from different geographic regions of Zhejiang province in China

Immunological characteristics of the recombinant pseudorabies virus with chimeric PCV Cap protein in pigs

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is one of the main pathogens causing porcine circovirus-associated diseases (PCVAD). We recently reported the immunogenicity of the recombinant PRV with an envelope-embedded Cap protein of PCV2 (PRV-Cap) in mice. Here, we further evaluated the immunoprotective efficacy of PRV-Cap virus in pigs. Following vaccination, the PRV-Cap stimulated the production of neutralizing antibodies against PRV and PCV2, along with protected piglets from the challenge of the lethal PRV, the virulent PCV2b and PCV2d. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells analysis revealed that PRV-Cap virus effectively induced proliferation and activation of CD4 and CD8 T cells, as well as an increase in T follicular helper cells, although γδ T and B cells did not show significant differences. Compared to DMEM control piglets, the expanded CD4 and CD8 T cells exhibited an effector memory T cell phenotype, and in vitro stimulation led to PRV- and PCV2-specific IFN-γ and TNF-α secretion, peaking at 21 days post-immunization. In summary, PRV-Cap virus effectively prevents PRV, PCV2b and PCV2d challenges in piglets by simultaneously inducing both PRV- and PCV2-specific humoral and cellular immunity, indicating that PRV-Cap virus is a promising and safe candidate vaccine for combined PRV and PCV2 immunization.

Immunological characteristics of a recombinant alphaherpesvirus with an envelope-embedded Cap protein of circovirus

Introduction

Variant pseudorabies virus (PRV) is a newly emerged zoonotic pathogen that can cause human blindness. PRV can take advantage of its large genome and multiple non-essential genes to construct recombinant attenuated vaccines carrying foreign genes. However, a major problem is that the foreign genes in recombinant PRV are only integrated into the genome for independent expression, rather than assembled on the surface of virion.

Methods

We reported a recombinant PRV with deleted gE/TK genes and an inserted porcine circovirus virus 2 (PCV2) Cap gene into the extracellular domain of the PRV gE gene using the Cre-loxP recombinant system combined with the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system. This recombinant PRV (PRV-Cap), with the envelope-embedded Cap protein, exhibits a similar replication ability to its parental virus.

Results

An immunogenicity assay revealed that PRV-Cap immunized mice have 100% resistance to lethal PRV and PCV2 attacks. Neutralization antibody and ELISPOT detections indicated that PRV-Cap can enhance neutralizing antibodies to PRV and produce IFN-γ secreting T cells specific for both PRV and PCV2. Immunological mechanistic investigation revealed that initial immunization with PRV-Cap stimulates significantly early activation and expansion of CD69+ T cells, promoting the activation of CD4 Tfh cell dependent germinal B cells and producing effectively specific effector memory T and B cells. Booster immunization with PRV-Cap recalled the activation of PRV-specific IFN-γ+IL-2+CD4+ T cells and IFN-γ+TNF-α+CD8+ T cells, as well as PCV2-specific IFN-γ+TNF-α+CD8+ T cells.

Conclusion

Collectively, our data suggested an immunological mechanism in that the recombinant PRV with envelope-assembled PCV2 Cap protein can serve as an excellent vaccine candidate for combined immunity against PRV and PCV2, and provided a cost-effective method for the production of PRV- PCV2 vaccine.

Porcine Circovirus Type 2 Hijacks Host IPO5 to Sustain the Intracytoplasmic Stability of Its Capsid Protein

Nuclear entrance and stability of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), the smallest virus in mammals, are crucial for its infection and replication. However, the mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we found that the PCV2 virion maintains self-stability via the host importin 5 (IPO5) during infection. Coimmunoprecipitation combined with mass spectrometry and glutathione S-transferase pulldown assays showed that the capsid protein (Cap) of PCV2 binds directly to IPO5. Fine identification demonstrated that the N-terminal residue arginine²⁴ of Cap is the most critical to efficient binding to the proline⁷⁰⁹ residue of IPO5. Detection of replication ability further showed that IPO5 supports PCV2 replication by promoting the nuclear import of incoming PCV2 virions. Knockdown of IPO5 delayed the nuclear transport of incoming PCV2 virions and significantly decreased the intracellular levels of overexpressed PCV2 Cap, which was reversed by treatment with a proteasome inhibitor or by rescuing IPO5 expression. Cycloheximide treatment showed that IPO5 increases the stability of the PCV2 Cap protein. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that during infection, IPO5 facilitates PCV2 replication by directly binding to the nuclear localization signal of Cap to block proteasome degradation. IMPORTANCE Circovirus is the smallest virus to cause immune suppression in pigs. The capsid protein (Cap) is the only viral structural protein that is closely related to viral infection. The nuclear entry and stability of Cap are necessary for PCV2 replication. However, the molecular mechanism maintaining the stability of Cap during nuclear trafficking of PCV2 is unknown. Here, we report that IPO5 aggregates within the nuclear periphery and combines with incoming PCV2 capsids to promote their nuclear entry. Concurrently, IPO5 inhibits the degradation of newly synthesized Cap protein, which facilitates the synthesis of virus proteins and virus replication. These findings highlight a mechanism whereby IPO5 plays a dual role in PCV2 infection, which not only enriches our understanding of the virus replication cycle but also lays the foundation for the subsequent development of antiviral drugs.

Prevalence of Porcine Circoviruses in Slaughterhouses in Central Shanxi Province, China

Background

Porcine circovirus disease is currently the greatest threat to pig farming. Four main porcine circovirus genotypes are circulating worldwide.

Objective

The study aimed to assess the prevalence of porcine circovirus genotypes in the central part of Shanxi province.

Methods

We investigated the prevalence of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), porcine circovirus type 3 (PCV3), and porcine circovirus type 4 (PCV4). Porcine circoviruses were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in the lung tissues of 180 pigs from 7 slaughterhouses in central Shanxi, China.

Results

The prevalence of PCV2, PCV3, and PCV4 were 56.8, 80, and 9.4%, respectively, and the negative rate was 10% for all three pathogens. The co-infection with PCV2 + PCV3, PCV2 + PCV4, PCV3 + PCV4, and PCV2 + PCV3 + PCV4 were 47.2, 7.4, 7.4, and 5.6%, respectively. Among PCV4-positive samples, the positive rate of PCV4 + PCV2 was 52.9% (9/17), whereas that of PCV4 + PCV3 was 100% (17/17). On the other hand, PCV2 and PCV3 were detected in 57.1% (93/163) and in 78.5% (128/163) of PCV4-negative samples, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that PCV2, PCV3, and PCV4 were not in the same clade and were distant from each other.

Conclusion

The high positive rates of PCV3, PCV2 + PCV3, and PCV3 + PCV4 suggest that PCV3 may play a decisive role in PCV2 and PCV4 infections. Therefore, further control of PCV3 is needed to reduce the spread of the virus.

Interaction Network of Porcine Circovirus Type 3 and 4 Capsids with Host Proteins

An extensive understanding of the interactions between host cellular and viral proteins provides clues for studying novel antiviral strategies. Porcine circovirus type 3 (PCV3) and type 4 (PCV4) have recently been identified as viruses that can potentially damage the swine industry. Herein, 401 putative PCV3 Cap-binding and 484 putative PCV4 Cap-binding proteins were characterized using co-immunoprecipitation and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Both PCV3 and PCV4 Caps shared 278 identical interacting proteins, but some putative interacting proteins (123 for PCV3 Cap and 206 for PCV4 Cap) differed. A protein-protein interaction network was constructed, and according to gene ontology (GO) annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database analyses, both PCV3 Cap- and PCV4 Cap-binding proteins participated mainly in ribosome biogenesis, nucleic acid binding, and ATP-dependent RNA helicase activities. Verification assays of eight putative interacting proteins indicated that nucleophosmin-1, nucleolin, DEAD-box RNA helicase 21, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A2/B1, YTH N6-methyladenosine RNA binding protein 1, and Y-box binding protein 1 bound directly to both PCV3 and PCV4 Caps, but ring finger protein 2 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 did not. Therefore, the interaction network provided helpful information to support further research into the underlying mechanisms of PCV3 and PCV4 infection.

A Previously Undiscovered Circular RNA, circTNFAIP3, and Its Role in Coronavirus Replication

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a newly discovered class of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) present in various tissues and cells. However, the functions of most circRNAs have not been verified experimentally. Here, using deltacoronavirus as a model, differentially expressed circRNAs in cells with or without deltacoronavirus infection were analyzed by RNA sequencing to characterize the cellular responses to RNA virus infection. More than 57,000 circRNA candidates were detected, and seven significantly dysregulated circRNAs were quantitated by real-time reverse transcription-PCR. We discovered a previously unidentified circRNA derived from the TNFAIP3 gene, named circTNFAIP3, which is distributed and expressed widely in various tissues. RNA viruses, including deltacoronaviruses, rather than DNA viruses tend to activate the expression of endogenous circTNFAIP3. Overexpression of circTNFAIP3 promoted deltacoronavirus replication by reducing the apoptosis, while silencing of circTNFAIP3 inhibited deltacoronavirus replication by enhancing the apoptosis. In summary, our work provides useful circRNA-related information to facilitate investigation of the underlying mechanism of deltacoronavirus infection and identifies a novel circTNFAIP3 that promotes deltacoronavirus replication via regulating apoptosis.

Nucleolar protein NPM1 is essential for circovirus replication by binding to viral capsid

Entry of circovirus into the host cell nucleus is essential for viral replication during the early stage of infection. However, the mechanisms by which nucleolar shuttle proteins are used during viral replication is still not well understood. Here, we report a previously unidentified nucleolar localization signal in circovirus capsid protein (Cap), and that circovirus hijacks the nucleolar phosphoprotein nucleophosmin-1 (NPM1) to facilitate its replication. Colocalization analysis showed that NPM1 translocates from the nucleolus to the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm during viral infection. Coimmunoprecipitation and glutathione S-transferase pull-down assays showed that Cap interacts directly with NPM1. Binding domain mapping showed that the arginine-rich N-terminal motif ¹MTYPRRRYRRRRHRPRSHLG²⁰ of Cap, and residue serine-48 of the N-terminal oligomerization domain of NPM1, are essential for the interaction. Virus rescue experiments showed that all arginine to alanine substitution in the N-terminal arginine-rich motif of Cap resulted in diminished viral replication. Knockdown of NPM1 and substitution of serine-48 in NPM1 to glutamic acid also decreased viral replication. In addition, binding assays showed that the arginine-rich motif of Cap is a nucleolar localization signal. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that circovirus protein Cap is a nucleolus-located, and regulates viral replication by directly binding to NPM1.

Molecular detection of porcine circovirus type 3 in Shanxi Province, China

Porcine circovirus type 3 (PCV3), which was first detected in the United States of America in 2015, is a potential threat to the swine industry. However, the prevalence of PCV3 in Shanxi Province, China, is unclear. In this research, the prevalence and genetic diversity of PCV3 were investigated in above area. Lung tissue samples (n = 491) from 19 pig slaughterhouses across 11 cities throughout Shanxi Province were analyzed for PCV3 infection by PCR in 2019. The results showed that PCV3 positive rates in slaughterhouses and individuals were 100% (19/19) and 86.76% (426/491), respectively. PCV2 and PCV3 double-positive rates in slaughterhouses and individuals were 100% (19/19) and 59.27% (291/491), respectively. PCR positive samples were further sequenced and 8 PCV3 isolates were identified. The nucleotide homology of these isolates with other PCV3 isolates in NCBI database was 97.45–99.90%. A phylogenetic analysis, based on the complete genomic sequence and ORF2, divided these PCV3 strains into 2 major groups. Based on A24/V and R27/K amino acid mutations of capsid protein, the 8 identified PCV3 strains were separated to 2 clades. This was the first detailed investigation into the epidemiology of PCV3 in Shanxi Province. Our findings enabled us to assess the possibility of widespread transmission from this region. Thus, current findings establish a basis for further studies of genetic variations in PCV3 strains circulating in China.

Prevalence of porcine respiratory pathogens in slaughterhouses in Shanxi Province, China

Background

Porcine respiratory diseases remain the biggest challenge in pig‐based food production and are a public health concern. Despite control measures, persistent outbreaks have been reported worldwide.

Objective

To establish an early detection mechanism for pig farm disease outbreaks based on slaughterhouse risk and environmental assessment.

Methods

We investigated the prevalence and risk factors of porcine respiratory disease‐causing pathogens including Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (MHP), porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and Haemophilus parasuis (HPS). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to analyse the lungs of 491 pigs from 19 slaughterhouses across 11 cities in Shanxi Province, China.

Results

PCR detected MHP, PCV2, PPRSV and HPS in 76.99%, 67.00%, 11.82% and 19.55% of the samples, respectively; 10.12% were negative for all four pathogens. Co‐positivity rates for two and three pathogens were identified. The results confirmed significant correlations between PCV2 and MHP (p = .001, p < .05), HPS and PCV2 (p = .01, p < .05) and MHP and PRRSV (p = .01, p < .05). No significant correlation was observed between HPS and MHP (p = .067, p > .05). Positive MHP and PCV2 rates were low in areas with high vegetation coverage. The overall pathogen positivity rate was higher in both lower and higher temperature environments.

Conclusions

Interactions among pathogens may increase disease severity. Furthermore, environmental assessment and pathogen surveillance within pig slaughterhouses can be an effective approach for early detection and mitigation of new disease threats before broad dissemination occurs among a herd.

Protein Interactions Network of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 Capsid With Host Proteins

Virus-host interaction is a tug of war between pathogenesis and immunity, followed by either activating the host immune defense system to eliminate virus or manipulating host immune control mechanisms to survive and facilitate virus propagation. Comprehensive knowledge of interactions between host and viral proteins might provide hints for developing novel antiviral strategies. To gain a more detailed knowledge of the interactions with porcine circovirus type 2 capsid protein, we employed a coimmunoprecipitation combined with liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) approach and 222 putative PCV2 Cap-interacting host proteins were identified in the infected porcine kidney (PK-15) cells. Further, a protein-protein interactions (PPIs) network was plotted, and the PCV2 Cap-interacting host proteins were potentially involved in protein binding, DNA transcription, metabolism and innate immune response based on the gene ontology annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database enrichment. Verification in vitro assay demonstrated that eight cellular proteins, namely heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein C, nucleophosmin-1, DEAD-box RNA helicase 21, importin β3, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A2, snail family transcriptional repressor 2, MX dynamin like GTPase 2, and intermediate chain 1 interacted with PCV2 Cap. Thus, this work effectively provides useful protein-related information to facilitate further investigation of the underlying mechanism of PCV2 infection and pathogenesis.

NAP1L4 inhibits porcine circovirus type 2 replication via IFN-β signaling pathway

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) capsid protein (Cap) was previously reported to interact with nucleosome assembly protein 1-like 4 (NAP1L4). The biological function of Cap-NAP1L4 interaction is unknown. Here, we demonstrated that PCV2 Cap could directly interact with NAP1L4, which the amino acid residues 124-279 of NAP1L4 were responsible for the interaction. Furthermore, over-expression of NAP1L4 down-regulated the expression of PCV2 Cap and Rep. DNA copies and virus titers were also decreased in NAP1L4 over-expressed PK15 cells. While, knockout of NAP1L4 through CRISPR/Cas9 technology in PK15 cells could up-regulate the mRNA and protein levels of PCV2 Cap and Rep. PCV2 genomic DNA copies and virus titers were also increased in NAP1L4-knockdown/-knockout PK15 cells compared with wild type PK15 cells. In addition, NAP1L4 depletion was demonstrated to facilitate cytosolic carboxypeptidase-like protein 5 (CCP5) and cytosolic carboxypeptidase 6 (CCP6) expression, which could activate cGAS to promote IFN-β production. Indeed, knockout of NAP1L4 was also confirmed to increase IFN-β expression. And IFN-β stimulation could promote PCV2 replication in PK15 cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that NAP1L4 interacts with PCV2 Cap and inhibits PCV2 replication through regulating IFN-β production. Our study provides theoretical basis for further study of PCV2.

Isolation of PCV3 from Perinatal and Reproductive Cases of PCV3-Associated Disease and In Vivo Characterization of PCV3 Replication in CD/CD Growing Pigs

Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV3) has been identified as a putative swine pathogen with a subset of infections resulting in stillborn and mummified fetuses, encephalitis and myocarditis in perinatal, and periarteritis in growing pigs. Three PCV3 isolates were isolated from weak-born piglets or elevated stillborn and mummified fetuses. Full-length genome sequences from different passages and isolates (PCV3a1 ISU27734, PCV3a2 ISU58312, PCV3c ISU44806) were determined using metagenomics sequencing. Virus production in cell culture was confirmed by qPCR, IFA, and in situ hybridization. In vivo replication of PCV3 was also demonstrated in CD/CD pigs (n = 8) under experimental conditions. Viremia, first detected at 7 dpi, was detected in all pigs by 28 dpi. IgM antibody response was detected between 7–14 dpi in 5/8 PCV3-inoculated pigs but no IgG seroconversion was detected throughout the study. Pigs presented histological lesion consistent with multi systemic inflammation characterized by myocarditis and systemic perivasculitis. Viral replication was confirmed in all tissues by in situ hybridization. Clinically, all animals were unremarkable throughout the study. Although the clinical relevance of PCV3 remains under debate, this is the first isolation of PCV3 from perinatal and reproductive cases of PCV3-associated disease and in vivo characterization of PCV3 infection in a CD/CD pig model.

Antiviral Effect of Epigallocatechin Gallate via Impairing Porcine Circovirus Type 2 Attachment to Host Cell Receptor

The green tea catechin epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) exhibits antiviral activity against various viruses. Whether EGCG also inhibits the infectivity of circovirus remains unclear. In this study, we demonstrated the antiviral effect of EGCG on porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). EGCG targets PCV2 virions directly and blocks the attachment of virions to host cells. The microscale thermophoresis assay showed EGCG could interact with PCV2 capsid protein in vitro with considerable affinity (Kd = 98.03 ± 4.76 μM), thereby interfering with the binding of the capsid to the cell surface receptor heparan sulfate. The molecular docking analysis of capsid–EGCG interaction identified the key amino acids which formed the binding pocket accommodating EGCG. Amino acids ARG51, ASP70, ARG73 and ASP78 of capsid were found to be critical for maintaining the binding, and the arginine residues were also essential for the electrostatic interaction with heparan sulfate. The rescued mutant viruses also confirm the importance of the key amino acids of the capsid to the antiviral effect of EGCG. Our findings suggest that catechins could act as anti-infective agents against circovirus invasion, as well as provide the basic information for the development and synthesis of structure-based anti-circovirus drugs.

Porcine Circovirus Type 2 Rep Enhances IL-10 Production in Macrophages via Activation of p38-MAPK Pathway

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is one of the major threats to pig farms worldwide. Although PCV2 has been identified to promote IL-10 production, the detailed regulatory roles of PCV2 Rep for IL-10 production remain unclear. Herein, we first found that PCV2 Rep, rather than PCV1 Rep, enhanced IL-10 expression at the later phase of PCV2 infection in porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs). Furthermore, we found that PCV2 Rep directly activated the p38-MAPK pathway to promote transcription factors NF-κB p50 and Sp1 binding to the il10 promoter, but PCV1 Rep did not. During PCV2 infection, however, PCV2 Rep promoted the binding activities of NF-κB p50 and Sp1 with the il10 promoter only at the later phase of PCV2 infection, since Rep proteins only expressed at the later phase of the infection. Moreover, silence of the thymine DNA glycosylase (TDG), a Rep-binding protein, significantly reduced the binding activities of NF-κB p50 and Sp1 with il10 promoter, resulting in the reduction of IL-10 production in PCV2-inoculated PAMs at the later phase of infection. Taken together, our results demonstrate that Rep proteins enhance IL-10 production during PCV2 infection of PAMs via activation of p38-MAPK pathways, in which host TDG is a critical mediator.

Conformational Changes and Nuclear Entry of Porcine Circovirus without Disassembly

A relatively stable and flexible capsid is critical to the viral life cycle. However, the capsid dynamics and cytosol trafficking of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) during its infectious cycle are poorly understood. Here, we report the structural stability and conformation flexibility of PCV2 virions by genome labeling and the use of three monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against the native capsid of PCV2. Genome labeling showed that the infectivity of the PCV2 virion was not affected by conjugation with deoxy-5-ethynylcytidine (EdC). Heat stability experiments indicated that PCV2 capsids started to disassemble at 65°C, causing binding incompetence for all antibodies, and the viral genome was released without capsid disassembly upon heating at 60°C. Antibody binding experiments with PCV2 showed that residues 186 to 192 were concealed in the early endosomes of epithelial PK-15 and monocytic 3D4/31 cells with or without chloroquine treatment and then exposed in PK-15 cytosol and the 3D4/31 nucleus. Viral propagation and localization experiments showed that PCV2 replication and cytosol trafficking were not significantly affected by microtubule depolymerization in monocytic 3D4/31 cells treated with nocodazole. These findings demonstrated that nuclear targeting of viral capsids involved conformational changes, the PCV2 genome was released from the assembled capsid, and the transit of PCV2 particles was independent of microtubules in 3D4/31 cells.IMPORTANCE Circovirus is the smallest virus known to replicate autonomously. Knowledge of viral genome release may provide understanding of viral replication and a method to artificially inactivate viral particles. Currently, little is known about the release model of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). Here, we report the release of the PCV2 genome from assembled capsid and the intracellular trafficking of infectious PCV2 by alterations in the capsid conformation. Knowledge of PCV2 capsid stability and dynamics is essential to understanding its infectious cycle and lays the foundation for discovering powerful targets for therapeutic and prophylactic intervention.

Synaptogyrin-2 influences replication of Porcine circovirus 2

Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2) is a circular single-stranded DNA virus responsible for a group of diseases collectively known as PCV2 Associated Diseases (PCVAD). Variation in the incidence and severity of PCVAD exists between pigs suggesting a host genetic component involved in pathogenesis. A large-scale genome-wide association study of experimentally infected pigs (n = 974), provided evidence of a host genetic role in PCV2 viremia, immune response and growth during challenge. Host genotype explained 64% of the phenotypic variation for overall viral load, with two major Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) identified on chromosome 7 (SSC7) near the swine leukocyte antigen complex class II locus and on the proximal end of chromosome 12 (SSC12). The SNP having the strongest association, ALGA0110477 (SSC12), explained 9.3% of the genetic and 6.2% of the phenotypic variance for viral load. Dissection of the SSC12 QTL based on gene annotation, genomic and RNA-sequencing, suggested that a missense mutation in the SYNGR2 (SYNGR2 p.Arg63Cys) gene is potentially responsible for the variation in viremia. This polymorphism, located within a protein domain conserved across mammals, results in an amino acid variant SYNGR2 p.63Cys only observed in swine. PCV2 titer in PK15 cells decreased when the expression of SYNGR2 was silenced by specific-siRNA, indicating a role of SYNGR2 in viral replication. Additionally, a PK15 edited clone generated by CRISPR-Cas9, carrying a partial deletion of the second exon that harbors a key domain and the SYNGR2 p.Arg63Cys, was associated with a lower viral titer compared to wildtype PK15 cells (>24 hpi) and supernatant (>48hpi)(P < 0.05). Identification of a non-conservative substitution in this key domain of SYNGR2 suggests that the SYNGR2 p.Arg63Cys variant may underlie the observed genetic effect on viral load.

Caspase-Dependent Apoptosis Induction via Viral Protein ORF4 of Porcine Circovirus 2 Binding to Mitochondrial Adenine Nucleotide Translocase 3

Apoptosis is an essential strategy of host defense responses and is used by viruses to maintain their life cycles. However, the apoptotic signals involved in virus replication are poorly known. In the present study, we report the molecular mechanism of apoptotic induction by the viral protein ORF4, a newly identified viral protein of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). Apoptosis detection revealed not only that the activity of caspase-3 and -9 is increased in PCV2-infected and ORF4-transfected cells but also that cytochrome c release from the mitochondria to the cytosol is upregulated. Subsequently, ORF4 protein colocalization with adenine nucleotide translocase 3 (ANT3) was observed using structured illumination microscopy. Moreover, coimmunoprecipitation and pulldown analyses confirmed that the ORF4 protein interacts directly with mitochondrial ANT3 (mtANT3). Binding domain analysis further confirmed that N-terminal residues 1 to 30 of the ORF4 protein, comprising a mitochondrial targeting signal, are essential for the interaction with ANT3. Knockdown of ANT3 markedly inhibited the apoptotic induction of both ORF4 protein and PCV2, indicating that ANT3 plays an important role in ORF4 protein-induced apoptosis during PCV2 infection. Taken together, these data indicate that the ORF4 protein is a mitochondrial targeting protein that induces apoptosis by interacting with ANT3 through the mitochondrial pathway.IMPORTANCE The porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) protein ORF4 is a newly identified viral protein; however, little is known about its functions. Apoptosis is an essential strategy of the host defense response and is used by viruses to maintain their life cycles. In the present study, we report the molecular mechanism of the apoptosis induced by the ORF4 protein. The ORF4 protein contains a mitochondrial targeting signal and is an unstable protein that is degraded by the proteasome-dependent pathway. Viral protein ORF4 triggers caspase-3- and -9-dependent cellular apoptosis in mitochondria by directly binding to ANT3. We conclude that the ORF4 protein is a mitochondrial targeting protein and reveal a mechanism whereby circovirus recruits ANT3 to induce apoptosis.

Survey of porcine respiratory disease complex-associated pathogens among commercial pig farms in Korea via oral fluid method

Oral fluid analysis for herd monitoring is of interest to the commercial pig production in Korea. The aim of this study was to investigate pathogen-positive rates and correlations among eight pathogens associated with porcine respiratory disease complex by analyzing oral fluid samples from 214 pig groups from 56 commercial farms. Samples collected by a rope-chewing method underwent reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or standard polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis, depending on the microorganism. Pathogens were divided into virus and bacteria groups. The former consisted of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), and the latter Pasteurella multocida, Haemophilus parasuis, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (MHP), Mycoplasma hyorhinis, and Streptococcus suis (SS). All pathogens were detected more than once by PCR. Age-based analysis showed the PCR-positive rate increased with increasing age for PCV2 and MHP, whereas SS showed the opposite. Correlations between pathogens were assessed among 36 different pair combinations; only seven pairs showed statistically significant correlations. In conclusion, the oral fluid method could be a feasible way to detect various swine respiratory disease pathogens and, therefore, could complement current monitoring systems for respiratory diseases in the swine industry.

Cellular proteomic analysis of porcine circovirus type 2 and classical swine fever virus coinfection in porcine kidney-15 cells using isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation-coupled LC-MS/MS

Viral coinfection or superinfection in host has caused public health concern and huge economic losses of farming industry. The influence of viral coinfection on cellular protein abundance is essential for viral pathogenesis. Based on a coinfection model for porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV) developed previously by our laboratory, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-coupled LC-MS/MS proteomic profiling was performed to explore the host cell responses to PCV2-CSFV coinfection. Totally, 3932 proteins were identified in three independent mass spectrometry analyses. Compared with uninfected cells, 304 proteins increased (fold change >1.2) and 198 decreased (fold change <0.833) their abundance in PCV2-infected cells (p < 0.05), 60 and 61 were more and less abundant in CSFV-infected cells, and 196 and 158 were more and less abundant, respectively in cells coinfected with PCV2 and CSFV. Representative differentially abundant proteins were validated by quantitative real-time PCR, Western blotting and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Bioinformatic analyses confirmed the dominant role of PCV2, and indicated that mitochondrial dysfunction, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated oxidative stress response and apoptosis signaling pathways might be the specifical targets during PCV2-CSFV coinfection.

Characterization of specific antigenic epitopes and the nuclear export signal of the Porcine circovirus 2 ORF3 protein

Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2) is the etiological agent of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome. PCV2 ORF3 protein is a nonstructural protein known to induce apoptosis, but little is known about the biological function of ORF3 protein. Therefore, we undertook this study to map ORF3 protein epitopes recognized by a panel of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and to characterize putative nuclear localization (NLS) and nuclear export (NES) sequences in ORF3. The linear epitopes targeted by two previously published mAbs 3B1 and 1H3 and a novel mouse mAb 3C3 were defined using overlapping pools of peptides. Here, we find that ORF3 in PCV2 infected cells contains a conformational epitope targeted by the antibody 3C3, which is distinct from linear epitopes recognized by the antibodies 3B1 and 1H3 in recombinant ORF3 protein. These results suggest that the linear epitope recognized by 3B1 and 1H3 is masked in PCV2 infected cells, and that the conformational epitope is unique to PCV2 infection. Furthermore, we find that ORF3 protein expressed in cytoplasm in early stages of PCV2 infection and then accumulated in nucleus over time. Moreover, we localize a NES at the N-terminus (residues 1-35aa) of ORF3 which plays critical role in nuclear export activity. These findings provide a novel insight that deepens our understanding of the biological function of PCV2 ORF3.

In Vitro Coinfection and Replication of Classical Swine Fever Virus and Porcine Circovirus Type 2 in PK15 Cells

Increasing clinical lines of evidence have shown the coinfection/superinfection of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV). Here, we investigated whether PCV2 and CSFV could infect the same cell productively by constructing an in vitro coinfection model. Our results indicated that PCV2-free PK15 cells but not ST cells were more sensitive to PCV2, and the PK15 cell line could stably harbor replicating CSFV (PK15-CSFV cells) with a high infection rate. Confocal and super-resolution microscopic analysis showed that PCV2 and CSFV colocalized in the same PK15-CSFV cell, and the CSFV E2 protein translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in PK15-CSFV cells infected with PCV2. Moreover, PCV2-CSFV dual-positive cells increased gradually in PK15-CSFV cells in a PCV2 dose-dependent manner. In PK15-CSFV cells, PCV2 replicated well, and the production of PCV2 progeny was not influenced by CSFV infection. However, CSFV reproduction decreased in a PCV2 dose-dependent manner. In addition, cellular apoptosis was not strengthened in PK15-CSFV cells infected with PCV2 in comparison with PCV2-infected PK15 cells. Moreover, using this coinfection model we further demonstrated PCV2-induced apoptosis might contribute to the impairment of CSFV HCLV strain replication in coinfected cells. Taken together, our results demonstrate for the first time the coinfection/superinfection of PCV2 and CSFV within the same cell, providing an in vitro model to facilitate further investigation of the underlying mechanism of CSFV and PCV2 coinfection.

Identification of Putative ORF5 Protein of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 and Functional Analysis of GFP-Fused ORF5 Protein

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the essential infectious agent responsible for causing porcine circovirus-associated diseases in pigs. To date, eleven RNAs and five viral proteins of PCV2 have been detected. Here, we identified a novel viral gene within the PCV2 genome, termed ORF5, that exists at both the transcriptional and translational level during productive infection of PCV2 in porcine alveolar macrophages 3D4/2 (PAMs). Northern blot analysis was used to demonstrate that the ORF5 gene measures 180 bp in length and overlaps completely with ORF1 when read in the same direction. Site-directed mutagenesis was used to show that the ORF5 protein is not essential for PCV2 replication. To investigate the biological functions of the novel protein, we constructed a recombinant eukaryotic expression plasmid capable of expressing PCV2 ORF5. The results show that the GFP-tagged PCV2 ORF5 protein localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is degraded via the proteasome, inhibits PAM growth and prolongs the S-phase of the cell cycle. Further studies show that the GFP-tagged PCV2 ORF5 protein induces ER stress and activates NF-κB, which was further confirmed by a significant upregulation in IL-6, IL-8 and COX-2 expression. In addition, five cellular proteins (GPNMB, CYP1A1, YWHAB, ZNF511 and SRSF3) were found to interact with ORF5 via yeast two-hybrid assay. These findings provide novel information on the identification and functional analysis of the PCV2 ORF5 protein and are likely to be of benefit in elucidating the molecular mechanisms of PCV2 pathogenicity. However, additional experiments are needed to validate the expression and function of the ORF5 protein during PCV2 infection in vitro before any definitive conclusion can be drawn.

Circovirus transport proceeds via direct interaction of the cytoplasmic dynein IC1 subunit with the viral capsid protein

Microtubule transport of circovirus from the periphery of the cell to the nucleus is essential for viral replication in early infection. How the microtubule is recruited to the viral cargo remains unclear. In this study, we observed that circovirus trafficking is dependent on microtubule polymerization and that incoming circovirus particles colocalize with cytoplasmic dynein and endosomes. However, circovirus binding to dynein was independent of the presence of microtubular α-tubulin and translocation of cytoplasmic dynein into the nucleus. The circovirus capsid (Cap) subunit enhanced microtubular acetylation and directly interacted with intermediate chain 1 (IC1) of dynein. N-terminal residues 42 to 100 of the Cap viral protein were required for efficient binding to the dynein IC1 subunit and for retrograde transport. Knockdown of IC1 decreased virus transport and replication. These results demonstrate that Cap is a direct ligand of the cytoplasmic dynein IC1 subunit and an inducer of microtubule α-tubulin acetylation. Furthermore, Cap recruits the host dynein/microtubule machinery to facilitate transport toward the nucleus by an endosomal mechanism distinct from that used for physiological dynein cargo.

IMPORTANCE

Incoming viral particles hijack the intracellular trafficking machinery of the host in order to migrate from the cell surface to the replication sites. Better knowledge of the interaction between viruses and virus proteins and the intracellular trafficking machinery may provide new targets for antiviral therapies. Currently, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of circovirus transport. Here, we report that circovirus particles enter early endosomes and utilize the microtubule-associated molecular motor dynein to travel along microtubules. The circovirus capsid subunit enhances microtubular acetylation, and N-terminal residues 42 to 100 directly interact with the dynein IC1 subunit during retrograde transport. These findings highlight a mechanism whereby circoviruses recruit dynein for transport to the nucleus via the dynein/microtubule machinery.

Variation in time and magnitude of immune response and viremia in experimental challenges with Porcine circovirus 2b

Background

Porcine circovirus 2 is the primary agent responsible for inducing a group of associated diseases known as Porcine Circovirus Associated Diseases (PCVAD), which can have detrimental effects on production efficiency as well as causing significant mortality. The objective of this study was to evaluate variation in viral replication, immune response and growth across pigs (n = 974) from different crossbred lines. The approach used in this study was experimental infection with a PCV2b strain of pigs at an average of 43 days of age.

Results

The sequence of the PCV2b isolate used in the challenge was similar with a cluster of PCV2b isolates known to induce PCVAD and increased mortality rates. The swine leukocyte antigen class II (SLAII) profile of the population was diverse, with nine DQB1 haplotypes being present. Individual viremia and antibody profiles during challenge demonstrate variation in magnitude and time of viral surge and immune response. The correlations between PCV2 specific antibodies and average daily gain (ADG) were relatively low and varied between - 0.14 to 0.08 for IgM and −0.02 and 0.11 for IgG. In contrast, PCV2 viremia was an important driver of ADG decline following infection; a moderate negative correlation was observed between viral load and overall ADG (r = − 0.35, P < 0.001). The pigs with the lowest 10% level of viral load maintained a steady increase in weekly ADG (P < 0.0001) compared to the pigs that had the 10% greatest viral load (P < 0.55). In addition, the highly viremic group expressed higher IgM and IgG starting with d 14 and d 21 respectively, and higher tumor necrosis factor – alpha (TNF-α) at d 21 (P < 0.005), compared to low viremic group.

Conclusions

Molecular sources of the observed differences in viremia and immune response could provide a better understanding of the host factors that influence the development of PCVAD and lead to improved knowledge of swine immunity.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-014-0286-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Transmission of porcine circovirus type 2b (PCV2b) in Kunming mice

To investigate porcine circovirus type 2b (PCV2b) transmission by contact and vertical infection in Kunming mice (an outbred mouse stock deriving from Swiss albino mice with a high ratio of gene heterozygosis), four mice in cage 6 were inoculated with PCV2b and 25 mice without any treatment were placed into cages 1 to 5 (five mice in each cage). Seven days after being infected, the PCV2-binoculated mice were co-mingled with non-inoculated mice from cages 1 to 5 successively at 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 days post infection (dpi), respectively, for 3 days. In addition, eleven pregnant mice were injected with PCV2b. Samples were collected from non-inoculated mice and three newborn mice from each litter for PCV2b detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC). The PCR results showed that PCV2b transmission rate among mice in cages 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 was 0/5, 2/5, 5/5, 5/5 and 1/5, respectively. PCV2b antigen signals generally appeared in most organs of the non-inoculated mice in which viruses were detected by PCR. PCV2b DNA was also detected in newborn mice of PCV2b-infected litters, and viral antigen signals were observed in their organs as well. PCV2b was transmitted in Kunming mice by contact, and it also caused vertical infection through the placenta.

Neutralizing antibodies against porcine circovirus type 2 in liquid pooled plasma contribute to the biosafety of commercially manufactured spray-dried porcine plasma

Neutralizing antibodies (NA) inherently present in pooled plasma collected at commercial abattoirs may provide some protection against potential porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infectivity of plasma. Moreover, these NA may also contribute to the biosafety of spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP). The objective of the study was to characterize and quantify the PCV2 antibody neutralizing capacity in pooled liquid porcine plasma and SDPP samples collected from industrial spray-drying facilities located in the Southeast and Midwest regions of the United States and the Northeast region of Spain. In the United States, PCV2 NA was determined in 1 sample of pooled liquid plasma from commercial spray-drying plants in the Southeast and 1 from the Midwest region. Obtained results were compared with those of a plasma sample from a PCV2 vaccinated sow and 1 from a PCV2 antibody negative sow. In Spain, 15 pooled liquid porcine plasma samples and 10 SDPP samples were collected at a commercial spray-drying plant total and NA against PCV2 were determined. Results with pooled liquid porcine plasma from commercial spray-drying facilities in the United States indicated that NA titers against PCV2 in these samples (log2 8.33 ± 0.41 and 9.0 ± 0.0) were similar or greater than the plasma from the PCV2-vaccinated sow (log2 6.33 ± 0.41). The analysis of U.S. samples indicated that liquid plasma diluted to 1:256 (10(-2.41)) was able to neutralize between 100 to 200 PCV2 virus particles or about 4 logs10 median tissue culture infective dose (TCID50) per milliliter. Similarly, samples from the Spanish pooled liquid plasma and the SDPP samples indicated an increased amount of NA activity against PCV2. Specifically, a dilution of 10(-2.47 ± 0.33) of plasma was able to inactivate 100 PCV2 virus particles; therefore, the inactivation capacity of commercial liquid plasma was greater than 10(4) TCID50/mL. The calculated 90% reduction in infected cells because of NA in pooled plasma samples (log2 8.2 ± 0.38) was less (P < 0.05) than in its concentrate form of SDPP (mean, log2 10.2 ± 0.85). In conclusion, PCV2 NA contained in liquid pooled plasma from market pigs was detected at greater concentrations than that from a vaccinated sow and that after spray-drying biological neutralizing activity was conserved, which implies that the inherent NA in liquid plasma may have an important role in the biosafety of commercially produced SDPP.

Identification and functional analysis of the novel ORF4 protein encoded by porcine circovirus type 2

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the primary causative agent of porcine circovirus-associated diseases in pigs. To date, viral proteins Cap, Rep, Rep', and ORF3, encoded by the PCV2 genome, have been described. Here, transcription and translation of a novel viral gene within the PCV2 genome (designated ORF4) was determined and functionally analyzed in vitro and in vivo. Northern blot analysis indicated that the RNA transcribed from the ORF4 gene is about 180 bp in length and overlaps ORF3 in the same direction. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed that the viral ORF4 protein is not essential for virus replication in PK-15 cells and in mice infected with an ORF4-deficient PCV2 (PCV2Δ). PCV2Δ triggered higher activity levels of caspase-3 and -8 than wild-type PCV2 (wPCV2) in PK-15 cells. The antigenic epitopes of two mouse monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) raised against the viral ORF4 protein were mapped to the same 19KSSASPR25 peptide. Expression of ORF4 was confirmed using the specific MAbs in wPCV2-infected PK-15 cells and mice. Mice infected with PCV2Δ had a higher serum viral load (genomic copies) and more severe lymphoid tissue damage in the spleen than those infected with wPCV2. Meanwhile, flow-cytometric analysis indicated that the PCV2Δ infection caused a significant decrease of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Our results demonstrate that ORF4 is a newly discovered viral protein that is not essential for PCV2 replication but plays a role in suppressing caspase activity and regulating CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes during PCV2 infection.

Analysis of putative ORF3 gene within porcine circovirus type 2

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is associated with postweaning multisystemic syndrome in pigs, whereas the ubiquitous related porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1) is nonpathogenic. Corroborating an earlier observation in PCV2, Rep and Rep' proteins encoded by ORF1 are essential for the initiation of PCV2 replication. Cap protein encoded by ORF2 has a potential causative role in the initiation of PCV2 replication and contains a type-specific epitope. The putative ORF3 of PCV2 oriented in the opposite direction within ORF1 is unknown. In this study, ORF3-encoding protein of PCV2 was expressed in vitro as a fusion protein (GST-ORF3 protein), and monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to the PCV2-ORF3-encoding protein were generated and biologically characterized. The mRNA transcript of ORF3 was characterized during a productive infection in PK-15 cells, and the PCV2 infectious DNA clone lacking ORF3 was constructed. GST-ORF3 protein, with an approximate molecular weight of 37.7 kDa, was obtained from the Escherichia coli transformed with the recombinant vector pGEX-4T-1-F3 after codon optimization of ORF3 DNA sequence. Four MAbs reacted strongly to the ORF3-encoding protein expressed in PK-15 cells in immunohistochemical staining. The mRNA transcript of ORF3 was confirmed in RT-PCR, Northern blot, and sequencing analyses. The progeny PCV2 virions were not revealed in the PK-15 cells transfected by the PCV2 infectious DNA clone without ORF3. These results demonstrate that the ORF3 of PCV2 can be transcribed and expressed and that ORF3-encoding protein plays a pivotal role in viral replication.

Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of the current porcine circovirus 2 genotypes after implementation of widespread vaccination programmes in the USA

To determine the prevalence of porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2) genotypes in the USA during 2010–2011, 5 years after widespread PCV2 vaccination, serum samples from clinically normal pigs that were PCV2 vaccinated (n = 1177), non-vaccinated (n = 378) or of unknown vaccination status (n = 120), and 100 lung samples from pigs diagnosed with PCV-associated disease (PCVAD) were tested. The presence of PCV2, PCV1, PCV1-2a and porcine parvovirus (PPV) DNA was determined by PCR. Determination of the PCV2 genotype was done by differential PCR and sequencing. The prevalence of PCV2a and PCV2b in serum samples was 7.7 % (129/1675) and 8.4 % (141/1675), respectively. PCV2a DNA was only detected in non-vaccinated pigs. For the 100 PCVAD pigs, the prevalence of PCV2a and PCV2b in lung tissues was 13.0 and 65.0 %, respectively. Partial PCV2 ORF2 sequences (9–563 nt) were obtained from 85 PCV2 DNA-positive samples (24 normal pigs and 61 PCVAD cases). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that 12.9 % (11/85) of the sequences belonged to the 2E clade and the PCV2a genotype and 87.1 % (74/85) belonged to the 1B clade and the PCV2b genotype. The alignment of putative PCV2 capsid amino acid sequences revealed possible recombination or mutation between PCV2a and PCV2b genotypes. Chimeric PCV1-2a was not detected in any of the samples and the prevalence rates of PCV1 and PPV were low. Our results suggest PCV2b is more prevalent than PCV2a in PCVAD cases and in vaccinated herds PCV2b circulation is common. The data generated in this study provide novel information on the distribution of PCV2 genotypes in vaccinated pig populations.

Effect of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infection on reproduction: disease, vertical transmission, diagnostics and vaccination

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) causes great economic losses in growing pigs and there are several reviews on disease manifestations and lesions associated with PCV2 in growing pigs. Reproductive failure in breeding herds, predominately associated with increased numbers of mummies and non-viable piglets at parturition, is one of the disease manifestations of PCV2 infection. Boars shed low amounts of infectious PCV2 in semen for extended time periods, and vertical transmission of PCV2 to fetuses during PCV2 viremia of the dam has been experimentally confirmed. However, intrauterine-infected piglets often are clinically normal. Nevertheless, pigs infected with PCV2 by the intrauterine route can be born viremic, possibly contributing to horizontal spread of PCV2 within the breeding herd and into the nursery. Shedding of PCV2 in semen and prevalence of intrauterine-infected piglets can both be greatly reduced by PCV2 vaccination well ahead of expected PCV2 exposure. This review is a discussion on current knowledge on the effects of PCV2 infection in the dam and inin uterofetuses, including clinical signs, lesions, diagnosis and prevention through vaccination. Infection of boars with PCV2, the potential for PCV2 transmission via semen and prevention of PCV2 shedding are also discussed.

Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for porcine circovirus type 2

In this study, the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method was used to develop a rapid and simple detection system for porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). According to the PCV2 sequences published in GenBank, multiple LAMP primers were designed targeting conserved sequences of PCV2. Using the DNA extracted from PCV2 isolates HUN-09 and SD-09 as the template, LAMP reactions in a PCV2 LAMP system was performed, the amplification products were detected by adding SYBR Green I and could be observed directly by the naked eye. The results showed highly-efficient and specific amplification in 30 min at 63°C with a LAMP real-time turbidimeter. Furthermore, PCV2 DNA templates, with a detection limit of 5.5×10(-5) ng of nucleic acid, indicated that this assay was highly sensitive. The results obtained with the naked eye after SYBR Green I staining were consistent with those detected by the real-time turbidimeter, showing the potential simplicity of interpretation of the assay results. The LAMP assay appeared to have greater accuracy than PCR and virus isolation for the analysis of 18 clinical samples. In addition it offers higher specificity and sensitivity, shorter reaction times and simpler procedures than the currently available methods of PCV2 detection. It is therefore a promising tool for the effective and efficient detection of PCV2.

Commercially produced spray-dried porcine plasma contains increased concentrations of porcine circovirus type 2 DNA but does not transmit porcine circovirus type 2 when fed to naive pigs

The porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) antibody and DNA status of porcine plasma products collected during the commercial spray-drying process were evaluated. Samples evaluated included 52 pooled liquid plasma (fresh) samples collected at 14 regional abattoirs before transport to 1 of 2 spray-drying facilities, 32 pooled liquid plasma (concentrated) samples collected after arrival at the spray-drying facilities at different stages before the spray-drying process, and 32 samples in powdered form (spray-dried) collected after spray drying. All 116 samples were positive for PCV2 antibody, with PCV2 ELISA sample-to-positive ratios ranging from 9.2 to 13.6 on a DM basis. Porcine circovirus type 2 DNA (4.5 to 7.9 log(10) PCV2 copies/mL, DM basis) was present in 82.7% (43/52) of the fresh plasma samples, 71.9% (23/32) of the concentrated plasma samples and 78.1% (25/32) of the spray-dried plasma samples, with a greater prevalence of PCV2b than PCV2a. To determine the infectivity of PCV2 DNA-positive commercial spray-dried plasma, nine 10-wk-old 68-kg PCV2-naïve pigs were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatment groups and rooms: 1) a negative control (no plasma in the feed, not inoculated with PCV2); 2) a positive control (no plasma in the feed, inoculated with PCV2); and 3) plasma-fed pigs (4% porcine plasma in the feed for 42 d, not inoculated with PCV2). All positive control pigs became viremic by 7 d postinoculation and seroconverted by 42 d postinoculation, whereas pigs in the negative control group and in the spray-dried plasma group were PCV2 PCR negative and did not seroconvert to PCV2 for the duration of the study. The results indicate that PCV2 DNA and antibodies are commonly found in commercial spray-dried plasma. However, no evidence of infectivity of the PCV2 DNA was found in naïve pigs when commercial spray-dried plasma was included in the diet under the conditions of this study.

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2): genetic variation and newly emerging genotypes in China

Background

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), the causative agent of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), is a serious economic problem for the swine industry in China. In this study, we investigated the genetic variation of PCV2 in China using strains isolated from 2004-2008. Viruses were isolated from samples collected from pigs with multi-systemic lesions and clinical signs of PMWS from different regions of China, and the genomes of these viruses were sequenced. The assembled sequences were used to define the genotypes of these strains; PCR-RFLP methodology was used to distinguish isolates and capture ELISA was used to demonstrate the antigenic changes resulted from ORF2 gene mutation of the isolates.

Results

We identified 19 PCV2 isolates, including four newly emerging PCV2 mutant strains. The 19 isolates were designated into three genotypes (PCV2a, PCV2b and PCV2d). PCV2d represented a novel genotype and a shift from PCV2a to PCV2b as the predominant genotype in China was identified. This is the first report of 1766 nt PCV2 harboring a base deletion at other new different positions. Amino acid sequence analysis identified two novel ORF2 mutations (resulting in ORF2 sequences 705 and 708 nt in length) in three deletion strains (1766 nt) and one strain with a genome 1767 nt in length. Finding of two amino acids elongation of the ORF2-encoded Cap protein is firstly observed among PCV2 strains all over the world. The isolates were distinguished into different genotypes by PCR-RFLP methodology and antigenic changes were present in Cap protein of mutation isolates by capture ELISA.

Conclusions

The results of this study provide evidence that PCV2 is undergoing constant genetic variation and that the predominant strain in China as well as the antigenic situation has changed in recent years. Furthermore, the PCR-RFLP method presented here may be useful for the differential identification of PCV2 strains in future studies.

Characterization of monoclonal antibody against replication-associated protein of porcine circovirus

The replication-associated (Rep) protein of porcine circovirus (PCV) was suggested to play an essential role in the replication and translation of viral DNA. In this study, one monoclonal antibody (mAb) specific for Rep protein of porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1), two mAbs against Rep protein of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), and five mAbs to both Rep protein of PCV1 and PCV2 were generated using, respectively, Rep protein of PCV1 and PCV2 expressed in Escherichia coli as an immunogen. Western blot analysis showed that native Rep protein of PCV2 virions appeared in two forms with different molecular weight in PCV2-infected cells. Laser confocal analyses further exhibited that Rep protein distributed mainly in the cellular nucleoplasm at the early stage of PCV2 infection, and moved to the nuclear periphery and the cytoplasm at the last stage of PCV2 infection. The results from this study confirmed that Rep protein of PCV2 distributed in both nucleus and cytoplasm, and provided an mAb tool to further analyze replications of PCV1 and PCV2 in vitro and in vivo.

Differential proteome analysis of host cells infected with porcine circovirus type 2

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the primary causative agent of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome, which is an emerging swine immunosuppressive disease. To uncover cellular protein responses in PCV2-infected PK-15 cells, the comprehensive proteome profiles were analyzed utilizing two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) coupled with MALDI-TOF/TOF identification. Multiple comparisons of 2-DE revealed that the majority of changes in protein expression occurred at 48-96 h after PCV2 infection. A total of 34 host-encoded proteins, including 15 up-regulated and 19 down-regulated proteins, were identified by MALDI-TOF/TOF analysis. According to cellular function, the differential expression proteins could be sorted into several groups: cytoskeleton proteins, stress response, macromolecular biosynthesis, energy metabolism, ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, signal transduction, gene regulation. Western blot analysis demonstrated the changes of alpha tubulin, beta actin, and cytokeratin 8 during infection. Colocalization and coimmunoprecipitation analyses confirmed that the cellular alpha tubulin interacts with the Cap protein of PCV2 in the infected PK-15 cells. These identified cellular constituents have important implications for understanding the host interactions with PCV2 and brings us a step closer to defining the cellular requirements for the underlying mechanism of PCV2 replication and pathogenesis.

Insights into the evolutionary history of an emerging livestock pathogen: porcine circovirus 2

Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2) is the primary etiological agent of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), one of the most economically important emerging swine diseases worldwide. Virulent PCV2 was first identified following nearly simultaneous outbreaks of PMWS in North America and Europe in the 1990s and has since achieved global distribution. However, the processes responsible for the emergence and spread of PCV2 remain poorly understood. Here, phylogenetic and cophylogenetic inferences were utilized to address key questions on the time scale, processes, and geographic diffusion of emerging PCV2. The results of these analyses suggest that the two genotypes of PCV2 (PCV2a and PCV2b) are likely to have emerged from a common ancestor approximately 100 years ago and have been on independent evolutionary trajectories since that time, despite cocirculating in the same host species and geographic regions. The patterns of geographic movement of PCV2 that we recovered appear to mimic those of the global pig trade and suggest that the movement of asymptomatic animals is likely to have facilitated the rapid spread of virulent PCV2 around the globe. We further estimated the rate of nucleotide substitution for PCV2 to be on the order of 1.2 x 10(-3) substitutions/site/year, the highest yet recorded for a single-stranded DNA virus. This high rate of evolution may allow PCV2 to maintain evolutionary dynamics closer to those of single-stranded RNA viruses than to those of double-stranded DNA viruses, further facilitating the rapid emergence of PCV2 worldwide.

Interference of porcine circovirus type 2 ORF2 immunogenicity by ORF1 and ORF3 mixed DNA immunizations in mice

Little is known about the influences of other porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) proteins on the immunogenicity of Cap protein. Here we constructed plasmids expressing the ORF1 (pORF1) and ORF3 (pORF3) of PCV2, and mixed either of them with the plasmid expressing ORF2 (pORF2) as combined DNA vaccines, to compare their immunogenicity and protective efficacy. Our data revealed that pORF1 reduced the Cap-specific CD8(+)cell frequency, and both pORF1 and pORF3 attenuated the Cap-specific Th1 and post-challenge-recall VN antibody responses induced by the pORF2 plasmid, despite successful induction of Rep and ORF3 antibodies by pORF1 and pORF3, respectively. Subsequently, protocols with pORF1 or pORF3 showed significantly decreased protective efficacy compared to pORF2 alone. Overall, our data suggested that the ORF1- and ORF3-encoded Rep and ORF3 proteins may interfere with the cellular, humoral and protective immunity of the ORF2-encoded Cap protein in vivo.

Difference in severity of porcine circovirus type two-induced pathological lesions between Landrace and Pietrain pigs

Anecdotal information from the field suggests that there are host genetic differences in susceptibility to porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) associated disease among Landrace and Pietrain breeds. The objective of this study was to determine if a difference exists in PCV2 susceptibility between Landrace and Pietrain pigs under experimental conditions. Thirty-nine Landrace pigs and 39 Pietrain pigs were blocked by breed, sire, dam, and litter and randomly divided into the following 4 groups: Landrace noninoculated negative control (Landrace-NEG; n = 13), Pietrain noninoculated negative control (Pietrain-NEG; n = 13), Landrace-PCV2 (n = 26; Landrace), and Pietrain-PCV2 (n = 26; Pietrain). After waning of passively acquired anti-PCV2 antibodies, Landrace-PCV2 and Pietrain-PCV2 groups were inoculated with PCV2 isolate ISU-40895. The Landrace-NEG and Pietrain-NEG groups were housed in a separate room, remained noninoculated, and served as negative controls. All pigs in all groups were necropsied at 21 d post PCV2-inoculation. Onset of seroconversion and concentrations of anti-PCV2-IgM, anti-PCV2-IgG, and anti-PCV2 neutralizing antibodies were similar in Landrace-PCV2 and Pietrain-PCV2 groups. Furthermore, the amount of PCV2 DNA and cytokine concentrations in serum and plasma samples were not different between the 2 PCV2-inoculated groups. The severity of PCV2-associated microscopic lesions was different between Landrace and Pietrain pigs; Landrace-PCV2 pigs had significantly (P < 0.05) more severe lymphoid lesions than the Pietrain-PCV2 pigs. Although the pigs originated from the same farm where their dams were commingled, passively acquired anti-PCV2-antibodies waned in Pietrain pigs by approximately 12 wk of age, whereas the majority of the Landrace pigs remained PCV2 seropositive until 18 wk of age and beyond. The results from this study indicate that a genetic difference exists between these 2 breeds of pigs in susceptibility to PCV2-associated lesions.

Porcine circoviruses: a minuscule yet mammoth paradox

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the primary causative agent for porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD). PCVAD has been the cause of considerable economic losses to the pork industry worldwide. The disease is primarily characterized by wasting, enlarged lymph nodes, jaundice and weight loss in affected weanling pigs. Several other complex syndromes involving reproductive failure, enteritis, pneumonia and necrotizing dermatitis have also been associated with PCV2 infection. Lymphoid depletion, which is the hallmark lesion of PCVAD, predisposes the host to immunosuppression. Disease progression is further complicated by co-infections with other bacterial and viral pathogens. Despite the availability of effective vaccines for the last 2 years, newly emerging strains of the virus have been reported to cause more severe outbreaks in parts of the USA and Canada. While knowledge of the biology and pathogenesis of PCV2 has progressed considerably over the last 12 years since the disease was recognized, many questions still remain to be answered.

Protective immunity against porcine circovirus 2 by vaccination with ORF2-based DNA and subunit vaccines in mice

The protective immune response against porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2) infection in mice was characterized using flow cytometric analysis (FCM), assays of antibody (of different IgG isotypes) and viraemia, and histopathological examination. An open reading frame 2 plasmid (pORF2) and the capsid protein (Cap) of PCV2 were used as DNA and subunit vaccines, respectively. In FCM analysis, although pORF2 and Cap alone showed comparable efficacy in eliciting lymphoproliferative responses and Cap-specific CD4+ T cells, pORF2 was superior to the Cap protein in triggering CD8+ T cells. A virus neutralization assay showed that pORF2 evoked stronger recall virus-neutralizing (VN) antibody responses than the Cap protein on PCV2 challenge. Correspondingly, VN antibody kinetics coincided with those of Cap-specific IgG2a, but not with the kinetics of IgG and IgG1. Following virus challenge, real-time PCR and histopathological analysis confirmed that only low viral DNA loads and mild microscopic lesions appeared in pORF2-immunized mice. These findings indicate that CD8+ T cells and VN antibody responses correlating mainly with Cap-specific IgG2a play crucial roles in protecting against PCV2 infection, and that the protective immunity induced by the pORF2 plasmid is superior to that induced by the PCV2 Cap protein.

A meta-analysis on experimental infections with porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2)

A meta-analysis was performed with the aim to identify factors with a relevant influence on the expression of clinical postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) under experimental conditions. Data from 44 studies were included in the analysis. Several variables were studied: number of pigs in the experiment, intake of colostrum, serological status against porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), strain of PCV2 used for inoculation, the route and dose of inoculation, and use of potential triggering factors (such as co-infections, vaccinations, or immunomodulator products). Multiple correspondence analysis and log-linear regression methods were used to establish the relationships between the studied variables and the number of PCV2 infected pigs that developed PMWS. Based on the results of the meta-analysis, the most successful animal experiment aimed to develop PMWS should include: (1) colostrum-deprived pigs, (2) age of inoculation below 3 weeks, (3) high doses of PCV2 inoculum, (4) PCV2 strain from genotype 1, and (5) co-infection with another swine pathogen as a triggering factor.

Development and validation of a recombinant capsid protein-based ELISA for detection of antibody to porcine circovirus type 2

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) has been recently associated with a number of disease syndromes, especially postweaning multisystemic wasting disease (PMWS). Herein, an alternative indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of PCV2 antibody was developed using nuclear localization signal-truncated capsid protein of PCV2 produced in Escherichia coli (CAP ELISA). This assay was validated by comparison with an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IIF) and a PCV2-based ELISA. The diagnostic sensitivity (DSN), specificity (DSP) and accuracy of the CAP ELISA were 95.3%, 93.9% and 95.1%, compared with IIF on 1080 field serum samples, and 93.3%, 84.2% and 91.1%, compared with the PCV2-based ELISA on 79 field sera, respectively. Cross-reactivity assay showed that this assay was PCV2-specific. Repeatability tests revealed that the coefficients of variation of positive sera within and between runs were less than 15%. This ELISA is simpler to produce and perform, time-saving and suitable for large scale surveys of PCV2 infection at low cost and the evaluation of the efficiency of various vaccines against PCV2.