Chitosan and chitosan nanoparticles as adjuvant in local Rift Valley Fever inactivated vaccine

Recent advances in treatment and detection of Rift Valley fever virus: a comprehensive overview

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a newly discovered arboviral pathogen that infects humans and livestock. Numerous outbreaks have occurred in Africa and the Arab Peninsula. Epizootics of RVFV are sporadic and frequently associated with ongoing floods and excessive rainfall. This leads to the development of infected Aedes mosquitoes, which then amplify transmission by other mosquito species (like Anopheles and Culex genera). In animals, it typically results in high rates of death and abortion. In humans, Rift Valley fever (RVF) manifests as clinical symptoms that may vary in intensity from minor to severe. Common symptoms include retinitis, hepatitis, delayed onset encephalitis, and hemorrhagic illness. The possibilities for containing RVFV outbreaks are limited due to the lack of authorized human vaccinations and treatments. Although molecular detection techniques are available, they can only recognize viral nucleic acids during the short viremic phase. There are currently no specific treatments for RVFV infection. Ribavirin is one of the few therapies for viral hemorrhagic fevers, but severe adverse effects restrict its use. Significant studies have been done in recent years on using Nanotechnology to diagnose and treat viruses. This review summarizes the common and recent diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for RVFV, including nanoparticles, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), stem cells, vaccines, and antibody-based therapies.

Revolutionizing Nanovaccines: A New Era of Immunization

Infectious diseases continue to pose a significant global health threat. To combat these challenges, innovative vaccine technologies are urgently needed. Nanoparticles (NPs) have unique properties and have emerged as a promising platform for developing next-generation vaccines. Nanoparticles are revolutionizing the field of vaccine development, offering a new era of immunization. They allow the creation of more effective, stable, and easily deliverable vaccines. Various types of NPs, including lipid, polymeric, metal, and virus-like particles, can be employed to encapsulate and deliver vaccine components, such as mRNA or protein antigens. These NPs protect antigens from degradation, target them to specific immune cells, and enhance antigen presentation, leading to robust and durable immune responses. Additionally, NPs can simultaneously deliver multiple vaccine components, including antigens, and adjuvants, in a single formulation, simplifying vaccine production and administration. Nanovaccines offer a promising approach to combat food- and water-borne bacterial diseases, surpassing traditional formulations. Further research is needed to address the global burden of these infections. This review highlights the potential of NPs to revolutionize vaccine platforms. We explore their mechanisms of action, current applications, and emerging trends. The review discusses the limitations of nanovaccines, innovative solutions and the potential role of artificial intelligence in developing more effective and accessible nanovaccines to combat infectious diseases.

Comparing the effectiveness of curcumin and papain in wound dresses based on chitosan nanoparticle

In this study, chitosan/curcumin (CS/Cur) and chitosan/papain (CS/Pa) nanoparticles were prepared and then characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and differential light scattering (DLS). Subsequently, release rate, porosity, swelling, degradability, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and cell viability tests were conducted to investigate and compare the healing potential of the nanoparticles for various types of wounds. The results of FTIR, XRD, and DLS indicated that the nanoparticles were manufactured correctly with a hydrodynamic diameter of 429 nm (CS/Cur) and 460 nm (CS/Pa), and zeta potential of 4.32 mV (CS/Cur) and 7.57 mV (CS/Pa). The release rate results indicated a higher release rate in a basic environment (pH 8.4) for curcumin, a higher release rate for papain in an acidic environment (pH 6.4), and the Korsmeyer-Peppas model for the release of curcumin and papain. The results indicated that CS/Cur with 41.6% antioxidant activity, high antibacterial effect, and cell growth up to 616% during 7 days, was more effective than CS/Pa. In comparison, CS/Pa (with a porosity of 70.5% and a swelling rate of 1392%) was more advantageous than CS/Cur in terms of porosity and swelling. In addition, CS/Cur was as effective as CS/Pa in terms of degradation and anti-inflammatory properties. In conclusion, the outcomes represented that the CS/Cur and CS/Pa nanoparticles improved wound healing, and each was suitable for specific wounds and wound healing stages.

Advancements in nanoparticle-based vaccine development against Japanese encephalitis virus: a systematic review

Vaccination remains the sole effective strategy for combating Japanese encephalitis (JE). Both inactivated and live attenuated vaccines exhibit robust immunogenicity. However, the production of these conventional vaccine modalities necessitates extensive cultivation of the pathogen, incurring substantial costs and presenting significant biosafety risks. Moreover, the administration of live pathogens poses potential hazards for individuals or animals with compromised immune systems or other health vulnerabilities. Subsequently, ongoing research endeavors are focused on the development of next-generation JE vaccines utilizing nanoparticle (NP) platforms. This systematic review seeks to aggregate the research findings pertaining to NP-based vaccine development against JE. A thorough literature search was conducted across established English-language databases for research articles on JE NP vaccine development published between 2000 and 2023. A total of twenty-eight published studies were selected for detailed analysis in this review. Of these, 16 studies (57.14%) concentrated on virus-like particles (VLPs) employing various structural proteins. Other approaches, including sub-viral particles (SVPs), biopolymers, and both synthetic and inorganic NP platforms, were utilized to a lesser extent. The results of these investigations indicated that, despite variations in the usage of adjuvants, dosages, NP types, antigenic proteins, and animal models employed across different studies, the candidate NP vaccines developed were capable of eliciting enhanced humoral and cellular adaptive immune responses, providing effective protection (70-100%) for immunized mice against lethal challenges posed by virulent Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). In conclusion, prospective next-generation JE vaccines for humans and animals may emerge from these candidate formulations following further evaluation in subsequent vaccine development phases.

Applications of Chitosan in Prevention and Treatment Strategies of Infectious Diseases

Chitosan is the most commonly investigated functional cationic biopolymer in a wide range of medical applications due to its promising properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and bioadhesivity, as well as its numerous bioactive properties. Within the last three decades, chitosan and its derivatives have been investigated as biomaterials for drug and vaccine delivery systems, besides for their bioactive properties. Due to the functional groups in its structure, it is possible to tailor the delivery systems with desired properties. There has been a great interest in the application of chitosan-based systems also for the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases, specifically due to their antimicrobial, antiviral, and immunostimulatory effects. In this review, recent applications of chitosan in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases are reviewed, and possibilities and limitations with regards to technical and regulatory aspects are discussed. Finally, the future perspectives on utilization of chitosan as a biomaterial are discussed.

Biodegradable nanoplatforms for antigen delivery: part I - state of the art review of polymeric nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy

INTRODUCTION

Polymeric nanoparticles used for antigen delivery against infections and for cancer immunotherapy are an emerging therapeutic strategy in promoting the development of innovative vaccines. Beyond their capability to create targeted delivery systems with controlled release of payloads, biodegradable polymers are utilized for their ability to enhance the immunogenicity and stability of antigens.

AREAS COVERED

This review extensively discusses the physicochemical parameters that affect the behavior of nanoparticles as antigen-delivery systems. Additionally, various types of natural and synthetic polymers and recent advancements in nanoparticle-based targeted vaccine production are reviewed.

EXPERT OPINION

Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles have gained major interest in the vaccination filed and have been extensively used to encapsulate antigens against a wide variety of tumors. Moreover, their versatility in terms of tunning their physicochemical characteristics, and their surface, facilitates the targeting to antigen presenting cells and enhances immune response.

Green Synthesized Chitosan Nanoparticles for Controlling Multidrug-Resistant mecA- and blaZ-Positive Staphylococcus aureus and aadA1-Positive Escherichia coli

Antimicrobial resistance has recently been considered an emerging catastrophe globally. The public health and environmental threats were aggravated by the injudicious use of antibiotics in animal farming, aquaculture, and croup fields, etc. Consequently, failure of antibiotic therapies is common because of the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria in the environment. Thus, the reduction in antibiotic spillage in the environment could be an important step for overcoming this situation. Bear in mind, this research was focused on the green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles (ChiNPs) using Citrus lemon (Assam lemon) extract as a cross-linker and application in controlling MDR bacteria to reduce the antibiotic spillage in that sector. For evaluating antibacterial activity, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were isolated from environmental specimens, and their multidrug-resistant pattern were identified both phenotypically by disk diffusion and genotypically by detecting methicillin- (mecA), penicillin- (blaZ), and streptomycin (aadA1)-resistance encoding genes. The inhibitory zone's diameter was employed as a parameter for determining the antibacterial effect against MDR bacteria revealing 30 ± 0.4 mm, 34 ± 0.2 mm, and 36 ± 0.8 mm zones of inhibition against methicillin- (mecA) and penicillin (blaZ)-resistant S. aureus, and streptomycin (aadA1)-resistant E. coli, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration at 0.31 mg/mL and minimum bactericidal concentration at 0.62 mg/mL of yielded ChiNPs were used as the broad-spectrum application against MDR bacteria. Finally, the biocompatibility of ChiNPs was confirmed by showing a negligible decrease in BHK-21 cell viability at doses less than 2 MIC, suggesting their potential for future application in antibiotic-free farming practices.

Nasal Immunization Using Chitosan Nanoparticles with Glycoprotein B of Murine Cytomegalovirus

The use of nanoparticles as a delivery system for a specific antigen could solve many limitations of mucosal vaccine applications, such as low immunogenicity, or antigen protection and stabilization. In this study, we tested the ability of nasally administered chitosan nanoparticles loaded with glycoprotein B of murine cytomegalovirus to induce an immune response in an animal model. The choice of chitosan nanoparticle type was made by in vitro evaluation of sorption efficiency and antigen release. Three types of chitosan nanoparticles were prepared: crosslinked with tripolyphosphate, coated with hyaluronic acid, and in complex with polycaprolactone. The hydrodynamic size of the nanoparticles by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, stability, loading efficiency, and release kinetics with ovalbumin were evaluated. Balb/c mice were immunized intranasally using the three-dose protocol with nanoparticles, gB, and adjuvants Poly(I:C) and CpG ODN. Subsequently, the humoral and cell-mediated antigen-specific immune response was determined. On the basis of the properties of the tested nanoparticles, the cross-linked nanoparticles were considered optimal for further investigation. The results show that nanoparticles with Poly(I:C) and with gB alone raised IgG antibody levels above the negative control. In the case of mucosal IgA, only gB alone weakly induced the production of IgA antibodies compared to saline-immunized mice. The number of activated cells increased slightly in mice immunized with nanoparticles and gB compared to those immunized with gB alone or to negative control. The results demonstrated that chitosan nanoparticles could have potential in the development of mucosal vaccines.

Exploring modified chitosan-based gene delivery technologies for therapeutic advancements

One of the critical steps in gene therapy is the successful delivery of the genes. Immunogenicity and toxicity are major issues for viral gene delivery systems. Thus, non-viral vectors are explored. A cationic polysaccharide like chitosan could be used as a nonviral gene delivery vector owing to its significant interaction with negatively charged nucleic acid and biomembrane, providing effective cellular uptake. However, the native chitosan has issues of targetability, unpacking ability, and solubility along with poor buffer capability, hence requiring modifications for effective use in gene delivery. Modified chitosan has shown that the "proton sponge effect" involved in buffering the endosomal pH results in osmotic swelling owing to the accumulation of a greater amount of proton and chloride along with water. The major challenges include limited exploration of chitosan as a gene carrier, the availability of high-purity chitosan for toxicity reduction, and its immunogenicity. The genetic drugs are in their infancy phase and require further exploration for effective delivery of nucleic acid molecules as FDA-approved marketed formulations soon.

Nanotechnology's frontier in combatting infectious and inflammatory diseases: prevention and treatment

Inflammation-associated diseases encompass a range of infectious diseases and non-infectious inflammatory diseases, which continuously pose one of the most serious threats to human health, attributed to factors such as the emergence of new pathogens, increasing drug resistance, changes in living environments and lifestyles, and the aging population. Despite rapid advancements in mechanistic research and drug development for these diseases, current treatments often have limited efficacy and notable side effects, necessitating the development of more effective and targeted anti-inflammatory therapies. In recent years, the rapid development of nanotechnology has provided crucial technological support for the prevention, treatment, and detection of inflammation-associated diseases. Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) play significant roles, serving as vaccine vehicles to enhance immunogenicity and as drug carriers to improve targeting and bioavailability. NPs can also directly combat pathogens and inflammation. In addition, nanotechnology has facilitated the development of biosensors for pathogen detection and imaging techniques for inflammatory diseases. This review categorizes and characterizes different types of NPs, summarizes their applications in the prevention, treatment, and detection of infectious and inflammatory diseases. It also discusses the challenges associated with clinical translation in this field and explores the latest developments and prospects. In conclusion, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities for the comprehensive management of infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Advances and perspectives in the development of vaccines against highly pathogenic bunyaviruses

Increased human activities around the globe and the rapid development of once rural regions have increased the probability of contact between humans and wild animals. A majority of bunyaviruses are of zoonotic origin, and outbreaks may result in the substantial loss of lives, economy contraction, and social instability. Many bunyaviruses require manipulation in the highest levels of biocontainment, such as Biosafety Level 4 (BSL-4) laboratories, and the scarcity of this resource has limited the development speed of vaccines for these pathogens. Meanwhile, new technologies have been created, and used to innovate vaccines, like the mRNA vaccine platform and bioinformatics-based antigen design. Here, we summarize current vaccine developments for three different bunyaviruses requiring work in the highest levels of biocontainment: Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus (CCHFV), Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV), and Hantaan virus (HTNV), and provide perspectives and potential future directions that can be further explored to advance specific vaccines for humans and livestock.

Biopharmaceutical applications of microbial polysaccharides as materials: A review

Biological characteristics of natural polymers make microbial polysaccharides an excellent choice for biopharmaceuticals. Due to its easy purifying procedure and high production efficiency, it is capable of resolving the existing application issues associated with some plant and animal polysaccharides. Furthermore, microbial polysaccharides are recognized as prospective substitutes for these polysaccharides based on the search for eco-friendly chemicals. In this review, the microstructure and properties of microbial polysaccharides are utilized to highlight their characteristics and potential medical applications. From the standpoint of pathogenic processes, in-depth explanations are provided on the effects of microbial polysaccharides as active ingredients in the treatment of human diseases, anti-aging, and drug delivery. In addition, the scholarly developments and commercial applications of microbial polysaccharides as medical raw materials are also discussed. The conclusion is that understanding the use of microbial polysaccharides in biopharmaceuticals is essential for the future development of pharmacology and therapeutic medicine.

Pseudotyped Viruses for Phlebovirus

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a member of the Phlebovirus genus, one of the 20 genera in the Phenuiviridae family. RVFV causes disease in animals and humans and is transmitted by sandflies or ticks. However, research into RVFV is limited by the requirement for biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) containment. Pseudotyped virus overcomes this limitation as it can be handled in a BSL-2 environment. Pseudotyped RVFV possesses an identical envelope protein structure to that of the authentic virus, simulating the same process of receptor binding and membrane fusion to host cells. Pseudotyped phleboviruses are therefore useful tools to study the infection mechanism of these viruses and for the screening of inhibitory drugs and the development of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies.

Biopolymers and Osmolytes - A Focus towards the Prospects of Stability and Adjuvanticity of Vaccines

‘New-Gen Vaccines’ are grabbing the attention of scientists as they are much suitable for an immune-compromised group of individuals as well as infants. The major drawbacks of these vaccines are lower immunogenicity and instability. The need for a convenient and safe adjuvant is still under exploration. On the other hand, thermal instability leads to the inactivation of the vaccine and becomes detrimental in many cases. Thus, there is a need to incorporate new kinds of excipients into vaccine formulation to enhance the potency/immunogenicity of vaccine antigens and also act as stabilizers. A limited or single excipient in providing the required dual-activity is vital to break the stereotypical usage of the well-entrenched adverse ingredients. In the proposed review, the efficiency of naturally occurring biocompatible carbohydrate polymers and osmolytes and their ‘dual-role’ is briefed. In addition, the information on the possible mechanisms of action of carbohydrate polymers in vaccines as adjuvants and stabilizers are also discussed.

Effects of four different adjuvants separately combined with Aeromonas veronii inactivated vaccine on haematoimmunological state, enzymatic activity, inflammatory response and disease resistance in crucian carp

The purpose of the current study was to explore the immunomodulatory effects of different adjuvants combined with inactivated vaccines under Aeromonas veronii TH0426 infection in crucian carp. This study explored the best conditions for A. veronii as an inactivated vaccine, and included an animal safety test. Furthermore, we expressed the flagellin FlaA of the A. veronii TH0426 strain for use as an adjuvant supplemented in the diet. Crucian carp were fed 12 different experimental diets for 35 days, including the administration of 10 different adjuvants and inactivated vaccine combinations (50% aluminum hydroxide gel and inactivated vaccine combination, and inactivated vaccine with 20%, 30%, or 50% glucan, astragalus polysaccharide or flagellin), inactivated vaccine alone, and PBS control without adjuvant and inactivated vaccine. After the 42 day feeding trials, the fish were challenged with A. veronii TH0426, and the survival rate over 14 days was recorded. In addition, flagellin FlaA can be expressed normally in large amounts. All experimental groups produced higher levels of IgM serum titres than the control group in the different feeding cycles. Moreover, the activity of serum ACP, AKP, SOD, and LZM, and the expression of inflammatory factors were significantly increased in the experimental groups compared with the control group. The results of qRT-PCR analysis showed that the transcription levels of the IL-10, IL-1β, IFN-γ and TNF-α genes in heart, liver, spleen and kidney tissues were significantly enhanced by adjuvant treatment, indicating that the addition of adjuvants can significantly promote the body's inflammatory response. In addition, the phagocytic activity of leukocytes in each adjuvant treated group was significantly enhanced compared to that in the groups without adjuvant. After the A. veronii challenge, the survival rate of all adjuvant-treated groups was significantly higher than that of the control group, and the 50% flagellin adjuvant group had the highest rate of 78.37%. Overall, our findings strongly indicate that adjuvants not only significantly improve the body's immunity, but also exhibit a strong anti-infection ability. Importantly, this work provides a new perspective for the prevention and control of aquaculture diseases.

Development and Optimization of Chitosan Nanoparticle-Based Intranasal Vaccine Carrier

Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide, mainly derived from the shell of marine organisms. At present, chitosan has been widely used in the field of biomedicine due to its special characteristics of low toxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradation and low immunogenicity. Chitosan nanoparticles can be easily prepared. Chitosan nanoparticles with positive charge can enhance the adhesion of antigens in nasal mucosa and promote its absorption, which is expected to be used for intranasal vaccine delivery. In this study, we prepared chitosan nanoparticles by a gelation method, and modified the chitosan nanoparticles with mannose by hybridization. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was used as the model antigen for development of an intranasal vaccine. The preparation technology of the chitosan nanoparticle-based intranasal vaccine delivery system was optimized by design of experiment (DoE). The DoE results showed that mannose-modified chitosan nanoparticles (Man-BSA-CS-NPs) had high modification tolerance and the mean particle size and the surface charge with optimized Man-BSA-CS-NPs were 156 nm and +33.5 mV. FTIR and DSC results confirmed the presence of Man in Man-BSA-CS-NPs. The BSA released from Man-BSA-CS-NPs had no irreversible aggregation or degradation. In addition, the analysis of fluorescence spectroscopy of BSA confirmed an appropriate binding constant between CS and BSA in this study, which could improve the stability of BSA. The cell study in vitro demonstrated the low toxicity and biocompatibility of Man-BSA-CS-NPs. Confocal results showed that the Man-modified BSA-FITC-CS-NPs promote the endocytosis and internalization of BSA-FITC in DC2.4 cells. In vivo studies of mice, Man-BSA-CS-NPs intranasally immunized showed a significantly improvement of BSA-specific serum IgG response and the highest level of BSA-specific IgA expression in nasal lavage fluid. Overall, our study provides a promising method to modify BSA-loaded CS-NPs with mannose, which is worthy of further study.

Nanovaccine Delivery Approaches and Advanced Delivery Systems for the Prevention of Viral Infections: From Development to Clinical Application

Viral infections causing pandemics and chronic diseases are the main culprits implicated in devastating global clinical and socioeconomic impacts, as clearly manifested during the current COVID-19 pandemic. Immunoprophylaxis via mass immunisation with vaccines has been shown to be an efficient strategy to control such viral infections, with the successful and recently accelerated development of different types of vaccines, thanks to the advanced biotechnological techniques involved in the upstream and downstream processing of these products. However, there is still much work to be done for the improvement of efficacy and safety when it comes to the choice of delivery systems, formulations, dosage form and route of administration, which are not only crucial for immunisation effectiveness, but also for vaccine stability, dose frequency, patient convenience and logistics for mass immunisation. In this review, we discuss the main vaccine delivery systems and associated challenges, as well as the recent success in developing nanomaterials-based and advanced delivery systems to tackle these challenges. Manufacturing and regulatory requirements for the development of these systems for successful clinical and marketing authorisation were also considered. Here, we comprehensively review nanovaccines from development to clinical application, which will be relevant to vaccine developers, regulators, and clinicians.

Impact of Nano-Bromocriptine on Egg Production Performance and Prolactin Expression in Layers

Simple Summary

Egg production is one of the most vital axes in the poultry industry. During the late laying period, the egg production continuously decreases, and pauses among the sequence of egg laying increases; however, the feed costs remain constant. Several attempts were carried out to improve the reproductive performance of laying hens by decreasing the prolactin level in the blood; an increase in this hormone initiates the onset of incubation behavior in chickens. In this study, we investigated the potential use of nano-bromocriptine to the improve egg production performance in laying hens. The use of alginate-bromocriptine leads to a significant reduction in the prolactin expression in the pituitary gland, which in turn allows the elongation in sequences and reduction in pauses, as well as the feed per dozen egg in laying hens. Further studies are needed to assess the impacts of nano-bromocriptine on other performance parameters. Thus, the improvement of egg production persistency must also go hand in hand with sustainable egg quality and the maintenance of the birds’ health.

Abstract

The current study aimed to investigate the potential use of nano-bromocriptine in improving the laying performance of late laying hens by modulating the prolactin gene expression. A total of 150 NOVOgen brown laying hens aged 70 weeks were randomly allocated into three groups of 50 birds each. The first group was kept as a control, while the second and the third groups were treated with bromocriptine and nano-bromocriptine, respectively, at a dose of 100 µg/kg body weight per week. The pause days, egg production, feed per dozen egg, and Haugh unit were determined on a monthly basis. Also, the relative prolactin gene expression in the pituitary gland was quantified using qPCR and the number of the ovarian follicles was determined after slaughtering at the 84th week of age. It was found that nano-bromocriptine and bromocriptine improved egg laying performance with minimal pause days, reduced feed per dozen egg, and depressed the relative prolactin gene expression; however, nano-bromocriptine treatment was significantly effective compared to bromocriptine. In conclusion, nano-bromocriptine might be beneficial for elongating sequences and reducing pauses.

Role of plasmonics in detection of deadliest viruses: a review

Viruses have threatened animal and human lives since a long time ago all over the world. Some of these tiny particles have caused disastrous pandemics that killed a large number of people with subsequent economic downturns. In addition, the quarantine situation itself encounters the challenges like the deficiency in the online educational system, psychiatric problems and poor international relations. Although viruses have a rather simple protein structure, they have structural heterogeneity with a high tendency to mutation that impedes their study. On top of the breadth of such worldwide worrying issues, there are profound scientific gaps, and several unanswered questions, like lack of vaccines or antivirals to combat these pathogens. Various detection techniques like the nucleic acid test, immunoassay, and microscopy have been developed; however, there is a tradeoff between their advantages and disadvantages like safety in sample collecting, invasiveness, sensitivity, response time, etc. One of the highly resolved techniques that can provide early-stage detection with fast experiment duration is plasmonics. This optical technique has the capability to detect viral proteins and genomes at the early stage via highly sensitive interaction between the biological target and the plasmonic chip. The efficiency of this technique could be proved using commercialized techniques like reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) techniques. In this study, we aim to review the role of plasmonic technique in the detection of 11 deadliest viruses besides 2 common genital viruses for the human being. This is a rapidly moving topic of research, and a review article that encompasses the current findings may be useful for guiding strategies to deal with the pandemics. By investigating the potential aspects of this technique, we hope that this study could open new avenues toward the application of point-of-care techniques for virus detection at early stage that may inhibit the progressively hygienic threats.

Chitosan and alginate salt as biomaterials are potential natural adjuvants for killed cholera vaccine

Chitosan and alginate salts are natural biopolymers that have gained recent attention in the biomedical sectors. Their properties allow them to become potential candidates as safe, cheap, and effective vaccine adjuvants. The present study aimed to enhance the immunogenic response of a current injectable killed cholera vaccine (KCV) using chitosan and alginate salt as natural adjuvants against alum. We tested KCV adjuvanted with alum, chitosan, and sodium alginate in mice. Mice were immunized intraperitoneally with KCV adjuvanted with alum, chitosan, or alginate salt and compared with a control unadjuvanted immunized group. Humoral, cellular, and functional immune responses were evaluated in all groups. The addition of adjuvants, particularly natural adjuvants, to KCV significantly improved the immune response as demonstrated by specific antibody increase, strong proliferation effects, and high protection rate against different challenge doses of cholera strains. Our findings demonstrate that chitosan and alginate salt are superior adjuvants for boosting the KCV immune response and highlights the requirement for further vaccine development.

An Overview of Nanocarrier-Based Adjuvants for Vaccine Delivery

The development of vaccines is one of the most significant medical accomplishments which has helped to eradicate a large number of diseases. It has undergone an evolutionary process from live attenuated pathogen vaccine to killed whole organisms or inactivated toxins (toxoids), each of them having its own advantages and disadvantages. The crucial parameters in vaccination are the generation of memory response and protection against infection, while an important aspect is the effective delivery of antigen in an intelligent manner to evoke a robust immune response. In this regard, nanotechnology is greatly contributing to developing efficient vaccine adjuvants and delivery systems. These can protect the encapsulated antigen from the host’s in-vivo environment and releasing it in a sustained manner to induce a long-lasting immunostimulatory effect. In view of this, the present review article summarizes nanoscale-based adjuvants and delivery vehicles such as viral vectors, virus-like particles and virosomes; non-viral vectors namely nanoemulsions, lipid nanocarriers, biodegradable and non-degradable nanoparticles, calcium phosphate nanoparticles, colloidally stable nanoparticles, proteosomes; and pattern recognition receptors covering c-type lectin receptors and toll-like receptors.

Fate of Biodegradable Engineered Nanoparticles Used in Veterinary Medicine as Delivery Systems from a One Health Perspective

The field of veterinary medicine needs new solutions to address the current challenges of antibiotic resistance and the need for increased animal production. In response, a multitude of delivery systems have been developed in the last 20 years in the form of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs), a subclass of which are polymeric, biodegradable ENPs, that are biocompatible and biodegradable (pbENPs). These platforms have been developed to deliver cargo, such as antibiotics, vaccines, and hormones, and in general, have been shown to be beneficial in many regards, particularly when comparing the efficacy of the delivered drugs to that of the conventional drug applications. However, the fate of pbENPs developed for veterinary applications is poorly understood. pbENPs undergo biotransformation as they are transferred from one ecosystem to another, and these transformations greatly affect their impact on health and the environment. This review addresses nanoparticle fate and impact on animals, the environment, and humans from a One Health perspective.

Polymeric Nanoparticle-Based Vaccine Adjuvants and Delivery Vehicles

As vaccine formulations have progressed from including live or attenuated strains of pathogenic components for enhanced safety, developing new adjuvants to more effectively generate adaptive immune responses has become necessary. In this context, polymeric nanoparticles have emerged as a promising platform with multiple advantages, including the dual capability of adjuvant and delivery vehicle, administration via multiple routes, induction of rapid and long-lived immunity, greater shelf-life at elevated temperatures, and enhanced patient compliance. This comprehensive review describes advances in nanoparticle-based vaccines (i.e., nanovaccines) with a particular focus on polymeric particles as adjuvants and delivery vehicles. Examples of the nanovaccine approach in respiratory infections, biodefense, and cancer are discussed.

Topical review on nano-vaccinology: Biochemical promises and key challenges

Nanomaterials have wide-ranging biomedical applications in prevention, treatment and control of diseases. Nanoparticle based vaccines have proven prodigious prophylaxis of various infectious and non-infectious diseases of human and animal concern. Nano-vaccines outnumber the conventional vaccines by virtue of plasticity in physio-chemical properties and ease of administration. The efficacy of nano-based vaccines may be attributed to the improved antigen stability, minimum immuno-toxicity, sustained release, enhanced immunogenicity and the flexibility of physical features of nanoparticles. Based on these, the nano-based vaccines have potential to evoke both cellular and humoral immune responses. Targeted and highly specific immunological pathways required for solid and long lasting immunity may be achieved with specially engineered nano-vaccines. This review presents an insight into the prevention of infectious diseases (of bacterial, viral and parasitic origin) and non-infectious diseases (cancer, auto-immune diseases) using nano-vaccinology. Additionally, key challenges to the effective utilization of nano-vaccines from bench to clinical settings have been highlighted as research domains for future.