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Henigman U, Mozetič P, Francé J, Knific T, Vadnjal S, Dolenc J, Kirbiš A, Biasizzo M. Okadaic acid as a major problem for the seafood safety (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and the dynamics of toxic phytoplankton in the Slovenian coastal sea (Gulf of Trieste, Adriatic Sea). HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 135:102632. [PMID: 38830710 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
This article presents the first results on shellfish toxicity in the Slovenian sea (Gulf of Trieste, Adriatic Sea) since the analytical methods for the detection of biotoxins (PSP, ASP, DSP and other lipophilic toxins) in bivalve molluscs were included in the national monitoring program in 2013. In addition to toxins, the composition and abundance of toxic phytoplankton and general environmental characteristics of the seawater (surface temperature and salinity) were also monitored. During the 2014-2019 study period, only lipophilic toxins were detected (78 positive tests out of 446 runs), of which okadaic acid (OA) predominated in 97 % of cases, while dinophysistoxin-2 and yessotoxins only gave a positive result in one sampling event each. The number of samples that did not comply with the EC Regulation for the OA group was 17 or 3.8 % of all tests performed, all of which took place from September to November, while a few positive OA tests were also recorded in December, April, and May. This toxicity pattern was consistent with the occurrence pattern of the five most common DSP-producing dinoflagellates, which was supported by the development of warm and thermohaline stratified waters: Dinophysis caudata, D. fortii, D. sacculus, D. tripos and Phalacroma rotundatum. The strong correlation (r = 0.611, p < 0.001) between D. fortii, reaching abundances of up to 950 cells L-1, and OA suggests that D. fortii is the main cause of OA production in Slovenian waters. Strong interannual variations in OA and phytoplankton dynamics, exacerbated by the effects of anthropogenic impacts in this coastal ecosystem, reduce the predictability of toxicity events and require continuous and efficient monitoring. Our results also show that the introduction of the LC-MS/MS method for lipophilic toxins has improved the management of aquaculture activities, which was not as accurate based on mouse bioassays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urška Henigman
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, National Veterinary Institute, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Patricija Mozetič
- National Institute of Biology, Marine Biology Station Piran, Fornače 41, 6330 Piran, Slovenia.
| | - Janja Francé
- National Institute of Biology, Marine Biology Station Piran, Fornače 41, 6330 Piran, Slovenia
| | - Tanja Knific
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, National Veterinary Institute, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Stanka Vadnjal
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, National Veterinary Institute, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jožica Dolenc
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, National Veterinary Institute, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andrej Kirbiš
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, National Veterinary Institute, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Majda Biasizzo
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, National Veterinary Institute, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Ibghi M, Rijal Leblad B, L’Bachir El Kbiach M, Aboualaalaa H, Daoudi M, Masseret E, Le Floc’h E, Hervé F, Bilien G, Chomerat N, Amzil Z, Laabir M. Molecular Phylogeny, Morphology, Growth and Toxicity of Three Benthic Dinoflagellates Ostreopsis sp. 9, Prorocentrum lima and Coolia monotis Developing in Strait of Gibraltar, Southwestern Mediterranean. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:49. [PMID: 38251265 PMCID: PMC10819257 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Few works have been carried out on benthic harmful algal blooms (BHAB) species in the southern Mediterranean and no data are available for the highly dynamic Strait of Gibraltar (western Mediterranean waters). For the first time, Ostreopsis sp. 9, Prorocentrum lima and Coolia monotis were isolated in this key region in terms of exchanges between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean and subject to intense maritime traffic. Ribotyping confirmed the morphological identification of these three dinoflagellates species. Monoclonal cultures were established and the maximum growth rate and cell yield were measured at a temperature of 24 °C and an irradiance of 90 µmol photons m-2 s-1, for each species: 0.26 ± 0.02 d-1 (8.75 × 103 cell mL-1 after 28 days) for Ostreopsis sp. 9, 0.21 ± 0.01 d-1 (49 × 103 cell mL-1 after 145 days) for P. lima and 0.21 ± 0.01 d-1 (10.02 × 103 cell mL-1 after 28 days) for C. monotis. Only P. lima was toxic with concentrations of okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1 measured in optimal growth conditions ranging from 6.4 pg cell-1 to 26.97 pg cell-1 and from 5.19 to 25.27 pg cell-1, respectively. The toxin content of this species varied in function of the growth phase. Temperature influenced the growth and toxin content of P. lima. Results suggest that future warming of Mediterranean coastal waters may lead to higher growth rates and to increases in cellular toxin levels in P. lima. Nitrate and ammonia affected the toxin content of P. lima but no clear trend was noted. In further studies, we have to isolate other BHAB species and strains from Strait of Gibraltar waters to obtain more insight into their diversity and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustapha Ibghi
- Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Tangier 90000, Morocco; (M.I.); (H.A.); (M.D.)
- Equipe de Biotechnologie Végétale, Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University Tetouan, Tetouan 93000, Morocco;
- MARBEC, University of Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, 34095 Montpellier, France; (E.M.); (E.L.F.)
| | - Benlahcen Rijal Leblad
- Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Tangier 90000, Morocco; (M.I.); (H.A.); (M.D.)
| | - Mohammed L’Bachir El Kbiach
- Equipe de Biotechnologie Végétale, Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University Tetouan, Tetouan 93000, Morocco;
| | - Hicham Aboualaalaa
- Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Tangier 90000, Morocco; (M.I.); (H.A.); (M.D.)
- Equipe de Biotechnologie Végétale, Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University Tetouan, Tetouan 93000, Morocco;
- MARBEC, University of Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, 34095 Montpellier, France; (E.M.); (E.L.F.)
| | - Mouna Daoudi
- Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Tangier 90000, Morocco; (M.I.); (H.A.); (M.D.)
| | - Estelle Masseret
- MARBEC, University of Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, 34095 Montpellier, France; (E.M.); (E.L.F.)
| | - Emilie Le Floc’h
- MARBEC, University of Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, 34095 Montpellier, France; (E.M.); (E.L.F.)
| | - Fabienne Hervé
- Laboratoire Phycotoxines, IFREMER (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea)/PHYTOX/METALG, 44311 Nantes, France; (F.H.); (Z.A.)
| | - Gwenael Bilien
- IFREMER, Unité Littoral, Station de Biologie Marine, Place de la Croix, 29185 Concarneau, France; (G.B.); (N.C.)
| | - Nicolas Chomerat
- IFREMER, Unité Littoral, Station de Biologie Marine, Place de la Croix, 29185 Concarneau, France; (G.B.); (N.C.)
| | - Zouher Amzil
- Laboratoire Phycotoxines, IFREMER (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea)/PHYTOX/METALG, 44311 Nantes, France; (F.H.); (Z.A.)
| | - Mohamed Laabir
- MARBEC, University of Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, 34095 Montpellier, France; (E.M.); (E.L.F.)
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Hassoun AER, Ujević I, Mahfouz C, Fakhri M, Roje-Busatto R, Jemaa S, Nazlić N. Occurrence of domoic acid and cyclic imines in marine biota from Lebanon-Eastern Mediterranean Sea. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142542. [PMID: 33035983 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Marine biotoxins are naturally existing chemicals produced by toxic algae and can accumulate in marine biota. When consumed with seafood, these phycotoxins can cause human intoxication with symptoms varying from barely-noticed illness to death depending on the type of toxin and its concentration. Recently, the occurrence of marine biotoxins has been given special attention in the Mediterranean as it increased in frequency and severity due to anthropogenic pressures and climate change. Up to our knowledge, no previous study reported the presence of lipophilic toxins (LTs) and cyclic imines (CIs) in marine biota in Lebanon. Hence, this study reports LTs and CIs in marine organisms: one gastropod (Phorcus turbinatus), two bivalves (Spondylus spinosus and Patella rustica complex) and one fish species (Siganus rivulatus), collected from various Lebanese coastal areas. The results show values below the limit of detection (LOD) for okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1 and 2, pectenotoxin-1 and 2, yessotoxins, azaspiracids and saxitoxins. The spiny oyster (S. spinosus) showed the highest levels of domoic acid (DA; 3.88 mg kg-1), gymnodimine (GYM-B) and spirolide (SPX) (102.9 and 15.07 μg kg-1, respectively) in congruence with the occurrence of high abundance of Pseudo-nitzchia spp., Gymnodinium spp., and Alexandrium spp. DA levels were below the European Union (EU) regulatory limit, but higher than the Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level (0.9 μg g-1) for neurotoxicity in humans and lower than the Acute Reference Dose (30 μg kg-1 bw) both set by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2009). Based on these findings, it is unlikely that a health risk exists due to the exposure to these toxins through seafood consumption in Lebanon. Despite this fact, the chronic toxicity of DA, GYMs and SPXs remains unclear and the effect of the repetitive consumption of contaminated seafood needs to be more investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abed El Rahman Hassoun
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon.
| | - Ivana Ujević
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Céline Mahfouz
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Milad Fakhri
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Romana Roje-Busatto
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Sharif Jemaa
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Nikša Nazlić
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
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Leyva-Valencia I, Hernández-Castro JE, Band-Schmidt CJ, Turner AD, O’Neill A, Núñez-Vázquez EJ, López-Cortés DJ, Bustillos-Guzmán JJ, Hernández-Sandoval FE. Lipophilic Toxins in Wild Bivalves from the Southern Gulf of California, Mexico. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19020099. [PMID: 33572171 PMCID: PMC7914588 DOI: 10.3390/md19020099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the shellfish fisheries of Mexico occur in the Gulf of California. In this region, known for its high primary productivity, blooms of diatoms and dinoflagellates are common, occurring mainly during upwelling events. Dinoflagellates that produce lipophilic toxins are present, where some outbreaks related to okadaic acid and dinophisystoxins have been recorded. From January 2015 to November 2017 samples of three species of wild bivalve mollusks were collected monthly in five sites in the southern region of Bahía de La Paz. Pooled tissue extracts were analyzed using LC-MS/MS to detect lipophilic toxins. Eighteen analogs of seven toxin groups, including cyclic imines were identified, fortunately individual toxins did not exceed regulatory levels and also the total toxin concentration for each bivalve species was lower than the maximum permitted level for human consumption. Interspecific differences in toxin number and concentration were observed in three species of bivalves even when the samples were collected at the same site. Okadaic acid was detected in low concentrations, while yessotoxins and gymnodimines had the highest concentrations in bivalve tissues. Although in low quantities, the presence of cyclic imines and other lipophilic toxins in bivalves from the southern Gulf of California was constant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Leyva-Valencia
- CONACYT-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas, La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +52-612-123-4734
| | - Jesús Ernestina Hernández-Castro
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas, La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico; (J.E.H.-C.); (C.J.B.-S.)
| | - Christine J. Band-Schmidt
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas, La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico; (J.E.H.-C.); (C.J.B.-S.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (A.D.T.); (A.O.)
| | - Alison O’Neill
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (A.D.T.); (A.O.)
| | - Erick J. Núñez-Vázquez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico; (E.J.N.-V.); (J.J.B.-G.); (F.E.H.-S.)
| | - David J. López-Cortés
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico; (E.J.N.-V.); (J.J.B.-G.); (F.E.H.-S.)
| | - José J. Bustillos-Guzmán
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico; (E.J.N.-V.); (J.J.B.-G.); (F.E.H.-S.)
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Carazo A, Mladěnka P, Pávek P. Marine Ligands of the Pregnane X Receptor (PXR): An Overview. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17100554. [PMID: 31569349 PMCID: PMC6836225 DOI: 10.3390/md17100554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pregnane X Receptor (PXR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor which binds many structurally different molecules. The receptor is able to regulate the expression of a wide array of genes and is involved in cancer and different key physiological processes such as the metabolism of drugs/xenobiotics and endogenous compounds including lipids and carbohydrates, and inflammation. Algae, sponges, sea squirts, and other marine organisms are some of the species from which structurally new molecules have been isolated that have been subsequently identified in recent decades as ligands for PXR. The therapeutic potential of these natural compounds is promising in different areas and has recently resulted in the registration of trabectedin by the FDA as a novel antineoplastic drug. Apart from being potentially novel drugs, these compounds can also serve as models for the development of new molecules with improved activity. The aim of this review is to succinctly summarize the currently known natural molecules isolated from marine organisms with a proven ability to interact with PXR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Carazo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Heyrovského 1203, Hradec Králové 500 05, Czech Republic.
| | - Přemysl Mladěnka
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Heyrovského 1203, Hradec Králové 500 05, Czech Republic.
| | - Petr Pávek
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Heyrovského 1203, Hradec Králové 500 05, Czech Republic.
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Tamele IJ, Silva M, Vasconcelos V. The Incidence of Marine Toxins and the Associated Seafood Poisoning Episodes in the African Countries of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E58. [PMID: 30669603 PMCID: PMC6357038 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and bacteria can be one of the great threats to public health due to their ability to produce marine toxins (MTs). The most reported MTs include paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), amnesic shellfish toxins (ASTs), diarrheic shellfish toxins (DSTs), cyclic imines (CIs), ciguatoxins (CTXs), azaspiracids (AZTs), palytoxin (PlTXs), tetrodotoxins (TTXs) and their analogs, some of them leading to fatal outcomes. MTs have been reported in several marine organisms causing human poisoning incidents since these organisms constitute the food basis of coastal human populations. In African countries of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, to date, only South Africa has a specific monitoring program for MTs and some other countries count only with respect to centers of seafood poisoning control. Therefore, the aim of this review is to evaluate the occurrence of MTs and associated poisoning episodes as a contribution to public health and monitoring programs as an MT risk assessment tool for this geographic region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isidro José Tamele
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Institute of Biomedical Science Abel Salazar, University of Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. Julius Nyerere, n 3453, Campus Principal, Maputo 257, Mozambique.
| | - Marisa Silva
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
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Uchida H, Watanabe R, Matsushima R, Oikawa H, Nagai S, Kamiyama T, Baba K, Miyazono A, Kosaka Y, Kaga S, Matsuyama Y, Suzuki T. Toxin Profiles of Okadaic Acid Analogues and Other Lipophilic Toxins in Dinophysis from Japanese Coastal Waters. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E457. [PMID: 30404158 PMCID: PMC6266168 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2018] [Revised: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The identification and quantification of okadaic acid (OA)/dinophysistoxin (DTX) analogues and pectenotoxins (PTXs) in Dinophysis samples collected from coastal locations around Japan were evaluated by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. The species identified and analyzed included Dinophysis fortii, D. acuminata, D. mitra (Phalacroma mitra), D. norvegica, D. infundibulus, D. tripos, D. caudata, D. rotundata (Phalacroma rotundatum), and D. rudgei. The dominant toxin found in D. acuminata was PTX2 although some samples contained DTX1 as a minor toxin. D. acuminata specimens isolated from the southwestern regions (Takada and Hiroshima) showed characteristic toxin profiles, with only OA detected in samples collected from Takada. In contrast, both OA and DTX1, in addition to a larger proportion of PTX2, were detected in D. acuminata from Hiroshima. D. fortii showed a toxin profile dominated by PTX2 although this species had higher levels of DTX1 than D. acuminata. OA was detected as a minor toxin in some D. fortii samples collected from Yakumo, Noheji, and Hakata. PTX2 was also the dominant toxin found among other Dinophysis species analyzed, such as D. norvegica, D. tripos, and D. caudata, although some pooled picked cells of these species contained trace levels of OA or DTX1. The results obtained in this study re-confirm that cellular toxin content and profiles are different even among strains of the same species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Uchida
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryuichi Watanabe
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryoji Matsushima
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Nagai
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Takashi Kamiyama
- National Research Institute of Fisheries and Environment of Inland Sea, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-17-5, Maruishi, Hatsukaichi, Hiroshima 739-0452, Japan.
| | - Katsuhisa Baba
- Central Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Department, Hokkaido Research Organization, 238, Hamanakacho, Yoichi-cho, Yoichi-gun, Hokkaido 046-8555, Japan.
| | - Akira Miyazono
- Kushiro Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Department, Hokkaido Research Organization, 4-25, Nakahamacho, Kushiro-city, Hokkaido 085-0027, Japan.
| | - Yuki Kosaka
- Aomori Prefectural Industrial Technology Research Center, Fisheries Research Institute, Hiranai, Higashitsugarugun, Aomori 039-3381, Japan.
| | - Shinnosuke Kaga
- Iwate Fisheries Technology Center, 3-75-3 Hirata, Kamaishi, Iwate 026-0001, Japan.
| | - Yukihiko Matsuyama
- Seikai National Fisheries Research Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 1551-8, Taira-machi, Nagasaki-shi, Nagasaki 851-2213, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
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Accumulation of Dinophysis Toxins in Bivalve Molluscs. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10110453. [PMID: 30400229 PMCID: PMC6266557 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Several species of the dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis produce toxins that accumulate in bivalves when they feed on populations of these organisms. The accumulated toxins can lead to intoxication in consumers of the affected bivalves. The risk of intoxication depends on the amount and toxic power of accumulated toxins. In this review, current knowledge on the main processes involved in toxin accumulation were compiled, including the mechanisms and regulation of toxin acquisition, digestion, biotransformation, compartmentalization, and toxin depuration. Finally, accumulation kinetics, some models to describe it, and some implications were also considered.
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Farabegoli F, Blanco L, Rodríguez LP, Vieites JM, Cabado AG. Phycotoxins in Marine Shellfish: Origin, Occurrence and Effects on Humans. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E188. [PMID: 29844286 PMCID: PMC6025170 DOI: 10.3390/md16060188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Massive phytoplankton proliferation, and the consequent release of toxic metabolites, can be responsible for seafood poisoning outbreaks: filter-feeding mollusks, such as shellfish, mussels, oysters or clams, can accumulate these toxins throughout the food chain and present a threat for consumers' health. Particular environmental and climatic conditions favor this natural phenomenon, called harmful algal blooms (HABs); the phytoplankton species mostly involved in these toxic events are dinoflagellates or diatoms belonging to the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Substantial economic losses ensue after HABs occurrence: the sectors mainly affected include commercial fisheries, tourism, recreational activities, and public health monitoring and management. A wide range of symptoms, from digestive to nervous, are associated to human intoxication by biotoxins, characterizing different and specific syndromes, called paralytic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. This review provides a complete and updated survey of phycotoxins usually found in marine invertebrate organisms and their relevant properties, gathering information about the origin, the species where they were found, as well as their mechanism of action and main effects on humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Farabegoli
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Lucía Blanco
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Laura P Rodríguez
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Juan Manuel Vieites
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Ana García Cabado
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
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Alarcan J, Biré R, Le Hégarat L, Fessard V. Mixtures of Lipophilic Phycotoxins: Exposure Data and Toxicological Assessment. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E46. [PMID: 29385038 PMCID: PMC5852474 DOI: 10.3390/md16020046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipophilic phycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by phytoplanktonic species. They accumulate in filter-feeding shellfish and can cause human intoxication. Regulatory limits have been set for individual toxins, and the toxicological features are well characterized for some of them. However, phycotoxin contamination is often a co-exposure phenomenon, and toxicological data regarding mixtures effects are very scarce. Moreover, the type and occurrence of phycotoxins can greatly vary from one region to another. This review aims at summarizing the knowledge on (i) multi-toxin occurrence by a comprehensive literature review and (ii) the toxicological assessment of mixture effects. A total of 79 publications was selected for co-exposure evaluation, and 44 of them were suitable for toxin ratio calculations. The main toxin mixtures featured okadaic acid in combination with pectenotoxin-2 or yessotoxin. Only a few toxicity studies dealing with co-exposure were published. In vivo studies did not report particular mixture effects, whereas in vitro studies showed synergistic or antagonistic effects. Based on the combinations that are the most reported, further investigations on mixture effects must be carried out.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Alarcan
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, ANSES, 35300 Fougères, France.
| | - Ronel Biré
- Marine Biotoxins Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, ANSES, 94706 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Ludovic Le Hégarat
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, ANSES, 35300 Fougères, France.
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, ANSES, 35300 Fougères, France.
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Metabolism of the Marine Phycotoxin PTX-2 and Its Effects on Hepatic Xenobiotic Metabolism: Activation of Nuclear Receptors and Modulation of the Phase I Cytochrome P450. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9070212. [PMID: 28678150 PMCID: PMC5535159 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
PTX-2 is a marine biotoxin frequently found in shellfish that can lead to food intoxication in humans. Information regarding PTX-2 metabolism is scarce, and little is known of its effect on xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XME) or its molecular pathways. The aim of this study was consequently to examine PTX-2 Phase I metabolism using rat and human liver S9 fractions, and also to assess the capability of PTX-2: (i) to modulate the gene expression of a panel of Phase I (CYP450) and II (UGT, SULT, NAT, and GST) enzymes, as well as the Phase III or 0 (ABC and SLCO) transporters in the human hepatic HepaRG cell line using qPCR; (ii) to induce specific CYP450 in HepaRG cells measured by immunolabeling detection and the measurement of the cells’ activities; and (iii) to activate nuclear receptors and induce CYP promoter activities in HEK-T and HepG2 transfected cell lines using transactivation and reporter gene assay, respectively. Our results indicate that PTX-2 hydroxylation occurred with both rat and human S9 fractions. Whereas PTX-2 mostly upregulated the gene expression of CYP1A1 and 1A2, no induction of these two CYP activities was observed. Lastly, PTX-2 did not act as an agonist of CAR or PXR. Due to its effects on some key XME, more attention should be paid to possible drug–drug interactions with phycotoxins, especially as shellfish can accumulate several phycotoxins as well as other kinds of contaminants.
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Chen Y, Zhang Y. Functional and mechanistic analysis of telomerase: An antitumor drug target. Pharmacol Ther 2016; 163:24-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2016.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Nielsen LT, Hansen PJ, Krock B, Vismann B. Accumulation, transformation and breakdown of DSP toxins from the toxic dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuta in blue mussels, Mytilus edulis. Toxicon 2016; 117:84-93. [PMID: 27045361 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Revised: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxins (DTX) and pectenotoxins (PTX) produced by the dinoflagellates Dinophysis spp. can accumulate in shellfish and cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning upon human consumption. Shellfish toxicity is a result of algal abundance and toxicity as well as accumulation and depuration kinetics in mussels. We mass-cultured Dinophysis acuta containing OA, DTX-1b and PTX-2 and fed it to the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis under controlled laboratory conditions for a week to study toxin accumulation and transformation. Contents of OA and DTX-1b in mussels increased linearly with incubation time, and the net toxin accumulation was 66% and 71% for OA and DTX-1b, respectively. Large proportions (≈50%) of both these toxins were transformed to fatty acid esters. Most PTX-2 was transformed to PTX-2 seco-acid and net accumulation was initially high, but decreased progressively throughout the experiment, likely due to esterification and loss of detectability. We also quantified depuration during the subsequent four days and found half-life times of 5-6 days for OA and DTX-1b. Measurements of dissolved toxins revealed that depuration was achieved through excreting rather than metabolizing toxins. This is the first study to construct a full mass balance of DSP toxins during both accumulation and depuration, and we demonstrate rapid toxin accumulation in mussels at realistic in situ levels of Dinophysis. Applying the observed accumulation and depuration kinetics, we model mussel toxicity, and demonstrate that a concentration of only 75 Dinophysis cells l(-1) is enough to make 60 mm long mussels exceed the regulatory threshold for OA equivalents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lasse Tor Nielsen
- Centre for Ocean Life, National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2920 Charlottenlund, Denmark.
| | - Per Juel Hansen
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, DK-3000 Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Bent Vismann
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, DK-3000 Helsingør, Denmark
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Van Wagoner RM, Satake M, Wright JLC. Polyketide biosynthesis in dinoflagellates: what makes it different? Nat Prod Rep 2014; 31:1101-37. [DOI: 10.1039/c4np00016a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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15
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Arvanitoyannis IS, Kotsanopoulos KV, Papadopoulou A. Rapid Detection of Chemical Hazards (Toxins, Dioxins, and PCBs) in Seafood. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2014; 54:1473-528. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2011.641132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Reguera B, Riobó P, Rodríguez F, Díaz PA, Pizarro G, Paz B, Franco JM, Blanco J. Dinophysis toxins: causative organisms, distribution and fate in shellfish. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:394-461. [PMID: 24447996 PMCID: PMC3917280 DOI: 10.3390/md12010394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Revised: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Several Dinophysis species produce diarrhoetic toxins (okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins) and pectenotoxins, and cause gastointestinal illness, Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP), even at low cell densities (<103 cells·L⁻¹). They are the main threat, in terms of days of harvesting bans, to aquaculture in Northern Japan, Chile, and Europe. Toxicity and toxin profiles are very variable, more between strains than species. The distribution of DSP events mirrors that of shellfish production areas that have implemented toxin regulations, otherwise misinterpreted as bacterial or viral contamination. Field observations and laboratory experiments have shown that most of the toxins produced by Dinophysis are released into the medium, raising questions about the ecological role of extracelular toxins and their potential uptake by shellfish. Shellfish contamination results from a complex balance between food selection, adsorption, species-specific enzymatic transformations, and allometric processes. Highest risk areas are those combining Dinophysis strains with high cell content of okadaates, aquaculture with predominance of mytilids (good accumulators of toxins), and consumers who frequently include mussels in their diet. Regions including pectenotoxins in their regulated phycotoxins will suffer from much longer harvesting bans and from disloyal competition with production areas where these toxins have been deregulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Reguera
- Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Oceanographic Centre of Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, Vigo 36390, Spain.
| | - Pilar Riobó
- Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Oceanographic Centre of Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, Vigo 36390, Spain.
| | - Francisco Rodríguez
- Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Oceanographic Centre of Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, Vigo 36390, Spain.
| | - Patricio A Díaz
- Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Oceanographic Centre of Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, Vigo 36390, Spain.
| | - Gemita Pizarro
- Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Oceanographic Centre of Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, Vigo 36390, Spain.
| | - Beatriz Paz
- Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Oceanographic Centre of Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, Vigo 36390, Spain.
| | - José M Franco
- Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Oceanographic Centre of Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, Vigo 36390, Spain.
| | - Juan Blanco
- Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO), Oceanographic Centre of Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, Vigo 36390, Spain.
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Ciminiello P, Dell'Aversano C, Forino M, Tartaglione L. Marine Toxins in Italy: The More You Look, the More You Find. European J Org Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201300991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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18
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Chen T, Xu X, Wei J, Chen J, Miu R, Huang L, Zhou X, Fu Y, Yan R, Wang Z, Liu B, He F. Food-borne disease outbreak of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning due to toxic mussel consumption: the first recorded outbreak in china. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65049. [PMID: 23724121 PMCID: PMC3660377 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Accepted: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This investigation was undertaken in response to an outbreak of suspected shellfish poisoning in Zhejiang Province, China. The objectives of this project were to confirm the outbreak and to identify the aetiology, source and mode of transmission. METHODS A probable case was defined as an individual with diarrhea (≥3 times/day) plus at least one of the following symptoms: fever (≥37.5°C), vomiting, or abdominal pain after consuming seafood between May 23(rd) and May 28(th), 2011. Using a case-control study design, we compared exposures to suspected seafood items and cooking methods between 61 probable cases and 61 controls. RESULTS Over 220 suspected or probable cases of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) were identified (incidence of 18 cases per 100,000). The case control study revealed that 100% of cases and 18% of controls had eaten mussels during the exposure period (OR = ∞, χ(2) = 84.72,P = 0.000). The number of mussels consumed was related to DSP risk (P = 0.004, χ2 test for trend). Consumption of other seafood items was not associated with disease. The frequency of diarrhea and vomiting were positively correlated with the number of mussels consumed (r = 0.424 and r = 0.562, respectively). The frequency of vomiting and the incubation period were significantly correlated with the total time the mussels were boiled (r = 0.594 and r = -0.336, respectively). Mussels from 3 food markets and one family contained Okadaic acid (OA) and Dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1). CONCLUSIONS This outbreak was attributed to the consumption of mussels contaminated by DSP-toxins (OA and DTX-1) which are produced by different species of dinoflagellates (toxic microalgae) from the genus Dinophysis or Prorocentrum. Suspension of mussel sales and early public announcements were highly effective in controlling the outbreak, although oversight of seafood quality should be a priority to prevent future contamination and outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingrui Chen
- Cangnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Cangnan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuqing Xu
- Zhejiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinjiao Wei
- Wenzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wenzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiang Chen
- Zhejiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Renchao Miu
- Cangnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Cangnan, People's Republic of China
| | - Liming Huang
- Hangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxiao Zhou
- Taizhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Taizhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yun Fu
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Yan
- Zhejiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Zhejiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Biyao Liu
- Zhejiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Fan He
- Zhejiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail:
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Kubo O, Canterbury DP, Micalizio GC. Synthesis of the C1-C26 hexacyclic subunit of pectenotoxin 2. Org Lett 2012; 14:5748-51. [PMID: 23101680 DOI: 10.1021/ol302751b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Synthesis of the C1-C26 hexacyclic subunit of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) is described that features a stereoselective annulation to generate the C-ring by triple asymmetric Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi coupling followed by oxidative cyclization. Preparation of the C1-C14 AB spriroketal-containing subunit employs a recently developed metallacycle-mediated reductive cross-coupling between a TMS-alkyne and a terminal alkene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozora Kubo
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA
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Pistocchi R, Guerrini F, Pezzolesi L, Riccardi M, Vanucci S, Ciminiello P, Dell’Aversano C, Forino M, Fattorusso E, Tartaglione L, Milandri A, Pompei M, Cangini M, Pigozzi S, Riccardi E. Toxin levels and profiles in microalgae from the north-Western Adriatic Sea--15 years of studies on cultured species. Mar Drugs 2012; 10:140-162. [PMID: 22363227 PMCID: PMC3280532 DOI: 10.3390/md10010140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Revised: 12/29/2011] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The Northern Adriatic Sea is the area of the Mediterranean Sea where eutrophication and episodes related to harmful algae have occurred most frequently since the 1970s. In this area, which is highly exploited for mollusk farming, the first occurrence of human intoxication due to shellfish consumption occurred in 1989, nearly 10 years later than other countries in Europe and worldwide that had faced similar problems. Until 1997, Adriatic mollusks had been found to be contaminated mostly by diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins (i.e., okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins) that, along with paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (i.e., saxitoxins), constitute the most common marine biotoxins. Only once, in 1994, a toxic outbreak was related to the occurrence of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in the Adriatic coastal waters. Moreover, in the past 15 years, the Adriatic Sea has been characterized by the presence of toxic or potentially toxic algae, not highly widespread outside Europe, such as species producing yessotoxins (i.e., Protoceratium reticulatum, Gonyaulax spinifera and Lingulodinium polyedrum), recurrent blooms of the potentially ichthyotoxic species Fibrocapsa japonica and, recently, by blooms of palytoxin-like producing species of the Ostreopsis genus. This review is aimed at integrating monitoring data on toxin spectra and levels in mussels farmed along the coast of the Emilia-Romagna region with laboratory studies performed on the species involved in the production of those toxins; toxicity studies on toxic or potentially toxic species that have recently appeared in this area are also reviewed. Overall, reviewed data are related to: (i) the yessotoxins producing species P. reticulatum, G. spinifera and L. polyedrum, highlighting genetic and toxic characteristics; (ii) Adriatic strains of Alexandrium minutum, Alexandrium ostenfeldii and Prorocentrum lima whose toxic profiles are compared with those of strains of different geographic origins; (iii) F. japonica and Ostreopsis cf. ovata toxicity. Moreover, new data concerning domoic acid production by a Pseudo-nitzschia multistriata strain, toxicity investigations on a Prorocentrum cf. levis, and on presumably ichthyotoxic species, Heterosigma akashiwo and Chattonella cf. subsalsa, are also reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Pistocchi
- Interdepartmental Center for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Sant’Alberto 163, Ravenna 48123, Italy; (F.G.); (L.P.); (M.R.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +39-0544-937376; Fax: +39-0544-937411
| | - Franca Guerrini
- Interdepartmental Center for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Sant’Alberto 163, Ravenna 48123, Italy; (F.G.); (L.P.); (M.R.)
| | - Laura Pezzolesi
- Interdepartmental Center for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Sant’Alberto 163, Ravenna 48123, Italy; (F.G.); (L.P.); (M.R.)
| | - Manuela Riccardi
- Interdepartmental Center for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Sant’Alberto 163, Ravenna 48123, Italy; (F.G.); (L.P.); (M.R.)
| | - Silvana Vanucci
- Department of Animal Biology and Marine Ecology, University of Messina, Salita Sperone 31, Agata, Messina 98166, Italy;
| | - Patrizia Ciminiello
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Substances, University of Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy; (P.C.); (C.D.); (M.F.); (E.F.); (L.T.)
| | - Carmela Dell’Aversano
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Substances, University of Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy; (P.C.); (C.D.); (M.F.); (E.F.); (L.T.)
| | - Martino Forino
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Substances, University of Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy; (P.C.); (C.D.); (M.F.); (E.F.); (L.T.)
| | - Ernesto Fattorusso
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Substances, University of Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy; (P.C.); (C.D.); (M.F.); (E.F.); (L.T.)
| | - Luciana Tartaglione
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Substances, University of Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy; (P.C.); (C.D.); (M.F.); (E.F.); (L.T.)
| | - Anna Milandri
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, Viale A. Vespucci 2, Cesenatico (FC) 47042, Italy; (A.M.); (M.P.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (E.R.)
| | - Marinella Pompei
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, Viale A. Vespucci 2, Cesenatico (FC) 47042, Italy; (A.M.); (M.P.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (E.R.)
| | - Monica Cangini
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, Viale A. Vespucci 2, Cesenatico (FC) 47042, Italy; (A.M.); (M.P.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (E.R.)
| | - Silvia Pigozzi
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, Viale A. Vespucci 2, Cesenatico (FC) 47042, Italy; (A.M.); (M.P.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (E.R.)
| | - Elena Riccardi
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, Viale A. Vespucci 2, Cesenatico (FC) 47042, Italy; (A.M.); (M.P.); (M.C.); (S.P.); (E.R.)
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Suzuki T, Quilliam MA. LC-MS/MS analysis of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin analogues, and other lipophilic toxins. ANAL SCI 2011; 27:571-84. [PMID: 21666353 DOI: 10.2116/analsci.27.571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is a severe gastrointestinal illness caused by consumption of shellfish contaminated with DSP toxins that are originally produced by toxic dinoflagellates. Based on their structures, DSP toxins were initially classified into three groups, okadaic acid (OA)/dinophysistoxin (DTX) analogues, pectenotoxins (PTXs), and yessotoxins (YTXs). Because PTXs and YTXs have been subsequently shown to have no diarrhetic activities, PTXs and YTXs have recently been eliminated from the definition of DSP toxins. Mouse bioassay (MBA), which is the official testing method of DSP in Japan and many countries, also detects PTXs and YTXs, and thus alternative testing methods detecting only OA/DTX analogues are required in DSP monitoring. Electrospray ionization (ESI) liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is a very powerful tool for the detection, identification and quantification of DSP and other lipophilic toxins. In the present review, application of ESI LC-MS techniques to the analysis of each toxin group is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Suzuki
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama 236–8648, Japan.
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Aho JE, Piisola A, Syam Krishnan K, Pihko PM. Synthetic Studies towards Pectenotoxin-2: Synthesis of the Nonanomeric 10-epi-ABCDE Ring Segment by Kinetic Spiroketalization. European J Org Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201001411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Gladan ZN, Ujevic I, Milandri A, Marasovic I, Ceredi A, Pigozzi S, Arapov J, Skejic S. Lipophilic toxin profile in Mytilus galloprovincialis during episodes of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in the N.E. Adriatic Sea in 2006. Molecules 2011; 16:888-99. [PMID: 21258296 PMCID: PMC6259147 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16010888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Revised: 12/31/2010] [Accepted: 01/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Dinophysis spp. blooms and related shellfish toxicity events of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) have been the most reported toxicity event through the Croatian National monitoring program. With the aim to characterize the DSP toxin profile in shellfish farmed in Croatia, for the first time a complete analysis of the toxin profile of Croatian mussels has been carried out using the LC-MS/MS technique. The obtained results showed okadaic acid (OA) as the main toxin contaminating Croatian mussels at that time. The maximum concentration of OA in shellfish tissue was recorded 12 days after the Dinophysis fortii bloom, thus suggesting that rapid growth of the toxin level in the shellfish occurred in the first week after the bloom while it was slower in the second week. Furthermore, the presence of only OA at concentrations which could endanger human health suggests D. fortii as the main organism responsible for the toxic event that occurred in Lim Bay. The presence of gymnodimine and spirolides in Croatian mussel has been detected for the first time, while the presence of yessotoxin and pectenotoxin-2 is confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zivana Nincevic Gladan
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails: (I.U.); (I.M.); (J.A.); (S.S.)
- * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +385 21 408015; Fax: +385 21 358650
| | - Ivana Ujevic
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails: (I.U.); (I.M.); (J.A.); (S.S.)
| | - Anna Milandri
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins, 47042 Cesenatico, Italy; E-Mails: (A.M.); (A.C.); (S.P.)
| | - Ivona Marasovic
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails: (I.U.); (I.M.); (J.A.); (S.S.)
| | - Alfiero Ceredi
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins, 47042 Cesenatico, Italy; E-Mails: (A.M.); (A.C.); (S.P.)
| | - Silvia Pigozzi
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins, 47042 Cesenatico, Italy; E-Mails: (A.M.); (A.C.); (S.P.)
| | - Jasna Arapov
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails: (I.U.); (I.M.); (J.A.); (S.S.)
| | - Sanda Skejic
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails: (I.U.); (I.M.); (J.A.); (S.S.)
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Dominguez HJ, Paz B, Daranas AH, Norte M, Franco JM, Fernández JJ. Dinoflagellate polyether within the yessotoxin, pectenotoxin and okadaic acid toxin groups: Characterization, analysis and human health implications. Toxicon 2010; 56:191-217. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Revised: 10/11/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Gerssen A, Pol-Hofstad IE, Poelman M, Mulder PP, van den Top HJ, de Boer J. Marine toxins: chemistry, toxicity, occurrence and detection, with special reference to the Dutch situation. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:878-904. [PMID: 22069615 PMCID: PMC3153220 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2040878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Revised: 04/14/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Various species of algae can produce marine toxins under certain circumstances. These toxins can then accumulate in shellfish such as mussels, oysters and scallops. When these contaminated shellfish species are consumed severe intoxication can occur. The different types of syndromes that can occur after consumption of contaminated shellfish, the corresponding toxins and relevant legislation are discussed in this review. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP), Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) and Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) occur worldwide, Neurologic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) is mainly limited to the USA and New Zealand while the toxins causing DSP and AZP occur most frequently in Europe. The latter two toxin groups are fat-soluble and can therefore also be classified as lipophilic marine toxins. A detailed overview of the official analytical methods used in the EU (mouse or rat bioassay) and the recently developed alternative methods for the lipophilic marine toxins is given. These alternative methods are based on functional assays, biochemical assays and chemical methods. From the literature it is clear that chemical methods offer the best potential to replace the animal tests that are still legislated worldwide. Finally, an overview is given of the situation of marine toxins in The Netherlands. The rat bioassay has been used for monitoring DSP and AZP toxins in The Netherlands since the 1970s. Nowadays, a combination of a chemical method and the rat bioassay is often used. In The Netherlands toxic events are mainly caused by DSP toxins, which have been found in Dutch shellfish for the first time in 1961, and have reoccurred at irregular intervals and in varying concentrations. From this review it is clear that considerable effort is being undertaken by various research groups to phase out the animal tests that are still used for the official routine monitoring programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjen Gerssen
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +0031-317-480433; Fax: 0031-317-417717
| | - Irene E. Pol-Hofstad
- Microbiological Laboratory for Health Protection, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, A. van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands;
| | - Marnix Poelman
- IMARES, Wageningen UR, Korringaweg 5, 4401 NT Yerseke, The Netherlands;
| | - Patrick P.J. Mulder
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
| | - Hester J. van den Top
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University, De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
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Li Z, Mengmeng G, Shouguo Y, Qingyin W, Zhijun T. Investigation of pectenotoxin profiles in the Yellow Sea (China) using a passive sampling technique. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:1263-72. [PMID: 20479977 PMCID: PMC2866485 DOI: 10.3390/md8041263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2010] [Revised: 03/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pectenotoxins (PTXs) are a group of lipophilic algal toxins. These toxins have been found in algae and shellfish from Japan, New Zealand, Ireland, Norway and Portugal. PTX profiles vary with geographic location of collection site. The aim of the present study was to investigate PTX profiles from the Yellow Sea, China. The sampling location was within an aquatic farm (N36°12.428′, E120°17.826′) near the coast of Qingdao, China, in the Yellow Sea from 28 July to 29 August 2006. PTXs in seawater were determined using a solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) method. PTXs were analyzed by HPLC-MSMS. PTX-2, PTX-2 sec acid (PTX-2 SA) and 7-epi-PTX-2 SA were found in seawater samples. The highest levels of PTXs (107 ng/g of resin PTX-2, 50 ng/g of resin PTX-2 SA plus 7-epi-PTX-2 SA) in seawater were found on 1 August, 2006. From 1 August to 29 August, the levels of PTX-2 and PTX-2 SA decreased. In the same area, the marine algae, Dinophysis acuminata was found in the seawater in the summer months of 2006. This indicated that Dinophysis acuumuta might be the original source of PTXs. PTX-11 and PTX-12a/b were not found in seawater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoxin Li
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, No.106 Nanjing Road, 266071 Qingdao, China.
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Gladan ŽN, Ujević I, Milandri A, Marasović I, Ceredi A, Pigozzi S, Arapov J, Skejić S, Orhanović S, Isajlović I. Is yessotoxin the main phycotoxin in Croatian waters? Mar Drugs 2010; 8:460-70. [PMID: 20411109 PMCID: PMC2857365 DOI: 10.3390/md8030460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2010] [Revised: 02/08/2010] [Accepted: 02/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
With the aim of investigating whether yessotoxin (YTX) is responsible for diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) events in Croatian waters, three different methods were combined: a modified mouse bioassay (MBA) that discriminates YTX from other DSP toxins, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method (ELISA) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Among 453 samples of mussels and seawater analyzed in 2007, 10 samples were DSP positive. Results obtained by the modified MBA method revealed that most of the samples were positive for YTX, with the exception of samples from Lim Bay (LB 1) The ELISA method also identified the presence of YTX in these samples. DSP toxin profiles showed the presence of okadaic acid (OA) in three, and YTX in four out of nine samples that were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. The phytoplankton community structure pattern revealed Lingulodinium polyedrum (Stein) Dodge, which was present in the water prior to and/or during toxicity events at low concentrations (80 to 1440 cells L−1), as a potential YTX producing species. It is proposed that L. polyedrum cells accumulated in mussels and the subsequently observed toxicity may be related to metabolism after ingestion, resulting in carboxy YTX as the major analog in the mussel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Živana Ninčević Gladan
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails:
(I.U.);
(I.M.);
(J.A.);
(S.S.);
(I.I.)
- *Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail:
; Tel.: +385 21 408015; Fax: +385 21 358650
| | - Ivana Ujević
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails:
(I.U.);
(I.M.);
(J.A.);
(S.S.);
(I.I.)
| | - Anna Milandri
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins, 47042 Cesenatico, Italy; E-Mails:
(A.M.);
(A.C.);
(S.P.)
| | - Ivona Marasović
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails:
(I.U.);
(I.M.);
(J.A.);
(S.S.);
(I.I.)
| | - Alfiero Ceredi
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins, 47042 Cesenatico, Italy; E-Mails:
(A.M.);
(A.C.);
(S.P.)
| | - Silvia Pigozzi
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins, 47042 Cesenatico, Italy; E-Mails:
(A.M.);
(A.C.);
(S.P.)
| | - Jasna Arapov
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails:
(I.U.);
(I.M.);
(J.A.);
(S.S.);
(I.I.)
| | - Sanda Skejić
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails:
(I.U.);
(I.M.);
(J.A.);
(S.S.);
(I.I.)
| | - Stjepan Orhanović
- Faculty of Science, University of Split, Teslina 12, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mail:
(S.O.)
| | - Igor Isajlović
- Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šet. I. Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia; E-Mails:
(I.U.);
(I.M.);
(J.A.);
(S.S.);
(I.I.)
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Ciminiello P, Dell'Aversano C, Fattorusso E, Forino M, Tartaglione L, Boschetti L, Rubini S, Cangini M, Pigozzi S, Poletti R. Complex toxin profile of Mytilus galloprovincialis from the Adriatic sea revealed by LC–MS. Toxicon 2010; 55:280-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2009] [Revised: 07/28/2009] [Accepted: 07/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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29
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Espiña B, Louzao MC, Ares IR, Fonfría ES, Vilariño N, Vieytes MR, Yasumoto T, Botana LM. Impact of the Pectenotoxin C-43 Oxidation Degree on Its Cytotoxic Effect on Rat Hepatocytes. Chem Res Toxicol 2010; 23:504-15. [DOI: 10.1021/tx9002337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Begoña Espiña
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Departamento de Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, and Japan Food Research Laboratories, Tama, Tokyo 206-0025, Japan
| | - M. Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Departamento de Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, and Japan Food Research Laboratories, Tama, Tokyo 206-0025, Japan
| | - Isabel R. Ares
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Departamento de Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, and Japan Food Research Laboratories, Tama, Tokyo 206-0025, Japan
| | - Eva S. Fonfría
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Departamento de Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, and Japan Food Research Laboratories, Tama, Tokyo 206-0025, Japan
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Departamento de Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, and Japan Food Research Laboratories, Tama, Tokyo 206-0025, Japan
| | - Mercedes R. Vieytes
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Departamento de Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, and Japan Food Research Laboratories, Tama, Tokyo 206-0025, Japan
| | - Takeshi Yasumoto
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Departamento de Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, and Japan Food Research Laboratories, Tama, Tokyo 206-0025, Japan
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Departamento de Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, and Japan Food Research Laboratories, Tama, Tokyo 206-0025, Japan
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Deeds JR, Wiles K, Heideman GB, White KD, Abraham A. First U.S. report of shellfish harvesting closures due to confirmed okadaic acid in Texas Gulf coast oysters. Toxicon 2010; 55:1138-46. [PMID: 20060850 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2009] [Revised: 12/24/2009] [Accepted: 01/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Between March 7 and April 12, 2008, several bay systems on the east (Gulf of Mexico) coast of Texas, USA were closed to the harvesting of oysters (Crassostrea virginica) due to the presence of the DSP (Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning) toxin okadaic acid in excess of the 20 microg/100 g tissue FDA regulatory guidance level. This was the first shellfish harvesting closure due to the confirmed presence of DSP toxins in US history. Light microscopic cell counts were performed on water samples collected from numerous sampling sites along the Texas Gulf coast where shellfish harvesting occurs. Ultra performance liquid chromatography, electrospray ionization, selected reaction monitoring, mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI/SRM/MS) was used to detect DSP toxins in oysters. The closures were associated with an extensive bloom of the dinoflagellate Dinophysis cf. ovum. Only okadaic acid (OA) and OA acyl esters were found in shellfish tissues (max. OA eq. levels 47 microg/100 g tissue). OA was also confirmed in a bloom water sample. No illnesses were reported associated with this event. DSP toxins now add to a growing list of phycotoxins, which include those responsible for PSP (paralytic shellfish poisoning), NSP (neurotoxic shellfish poisoning), and ASP (amnesic shellfish poisoning) which must now be monitored for in US coastal waters where shellfish are harvested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R Deeds
- US Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD, USA.
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31
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32
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Espiña B, Rubiolo JA. Marine toxins and the cytoskeleton: pectenotoxins, unusual macrolides that disrupt actin. FEBS J 2008; 275:6082-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06714.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kim MO, Moon DO, Kang SH, Heo MS, Choi YH, Jung JH, Lee JD, Kim GY. Pectenotoxin-2 represses telomerase activity in human leukemia cells through suppression of hTERT gene expression and Akt-dependent hTERT phosphorylation. FEBS Lett 2008; 582:3263-9. [PMID: 18775701 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2008.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2008] [Revised: 08/11/2008] [Accepted: 08/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we found that pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) decreased cell viability and inhibited telomerase activity with downregulation of hTERT expression in human leukemia cells. PTX-2 treatment also reduced c-Myc and Sp1 gene expression and DNA binding activity. Further chromatin immunoprecipitation assay demonstrated that PTX-2 attenuated the binding of c-Myc and Sp1 to the regulatory regions of hTERT. We also observed that PTX-2 treatment attenuated the phosphorylation of Akt, thereby reducing the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of hTERT. We concluded that PTX-2 suppressed telomerase activity through the transcriptional and post-translational suppression of hTERT and this process precedes cellular differentiation of human leukemia cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mun-Ock Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
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Kim MO, Moon DO, Heo MS, Lee JD, Jung JH, Kim SK, Choi YH, Kim GY. Pectenotoxin-2 abolishes constitutively activated NF-kappaB, leading to suppression of NF-kappaB related gene products and potentiation of apoptosis. Cancer Lett 2008; 271:25-33. [PMID: 18602210 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2008.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2007] [Revised: 12/29/2007] [Accepted: 05/23/2008] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Although pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) is known to modify the actin cytoskeleton, very little is known about its apoptosis mechanism. In this study, we investigated whether PTX-2 induces apoptotic effects through suppression of the NF-kappaB signaling pathway in several leukemia cell types. PTX-2 significantly induced growth inhibition and apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. Treatment with PTX-2 also significantly increased caspase-3 activity and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage, however caspase-3 inhibitor z-DEVD-fmk significantly inhibited PTX-2-induced cell death. These data suggest that the activation of caspase-3 is associated with PTX-2-induced apoptosis. NF-kappaB has also been shown to inhibit apoptosis in response to chemotherapeutic agents. As examined by the DNA-binding of NF-kappaB activation, we found that PTX-2 suppressed constitutive NF-kappaB activation and determined by p65 and p50 nuclear translocation, and IkappaBalpha degradation through dephosphorylation of Akt. Attenuation of constitutive NF-kappaB activity by pretreatment with pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), an NF-kappaB nuclear translocation inhibitor, induced significantly apoptosis in the presence of PTX-2. In addition, treatment of PTX-2 down-regulated NF-kappaB-dependent gene expression, Cox-2, IAP-1, IAP-2 and XIAP, at the transcriptional and translational level. Taken together, these results suggest that anti-cancer activities induced by PTX-2 may be mediated in part through suppression of constitutive NF-kappaB activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mun-Ock Kim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Natural Sciences, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Ito E, Suzuki T, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T. Studies of diarrhetic activity on pectenotoxin-6 in the mouse and rat. Toxicon 2008; 51:707-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2007] [Accepted: 12/11/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Stobo L, Lacaze JP, Scott A, Petrie J, Turrell E. Surveillance of algal toxins in shellfish from Scottish waters. Toxicon 2008; 51:635-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2007] [Revised: 11/23/2007] [Accepted: 11/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Takahashi E, Yu Q, Eaglesham G, Connell DW, McBroom J, Costanzo S, Shaw GR. Occurrence and seasonal variations of algal toxins in water, phytoplankton and shellfish from North Stradbroke Island, Queensland, Australia. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2007; 64:429-42. [PMID: 17512582 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2007.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2005] [Revised: 02/02/2007] [Accepted: 03/11/2007] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
A number of marine microalgae are known to produce toxins that can accumulate in shellfish and when eaten, lead to toxic and potentially fatal reactions in humans. This paper reports on the occurrence and seasonal variations of algal toxins in the waters, phytoplankton and shellfish of Southeast Queensland, Australia. These algal toxins include okadaic acid (OA), domoic acid (DA), gymnodimine (GD), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) and pectenotoxin-2-seco acid (PTX-2-SA), which were detected in the sampled shellfish and phytoplankton, via HPLC-MS/MS. Dissolved OA, PTX-2 and GD were also detected in the samples collected from the water column. This was the first occasion that DA and GD have been reported in shellfish, phytoplankton and the water column in Queensland waters. Phytoplankton tows contained both the toxic Dinophysis and Pseudo-nitzschia algae species, and are suspected of being the most likely producers of the OA, PTX-2s and DA found in shellfish of this area. The number of cells, however, did not correlate with the amount of toxins present in either shellfish or phytoplankton. This indicates that toxin production by algae varies with time and the species present and that number of cells alone cannot be used as an indicator for the presence of toxins. The presence of OA and PTX-2s were more frequently seen in the summer, while DA and GD were detected throughout the year and without any obvious seasonal patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Takahashi
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (EnTox), 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
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O'Connor PD, Knight CK, Friedrich D, Peng X, Paquette LA. Pectenotoxin-2 Synthetic Studies. 3. Assessment of the Capacity for Stereocontrolled Cyclization To Form the Entire C1−C26 Subunit Based upon the Double Bond Geometry Across C15-C16. J Org Chem 2007; 72:1747-54. [PMID: 17269830 DOI: 10.1021/jo062513f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Second-generation synthetic routes to enantiopure sulfone 21 and aldehyde 24 are described. The union of these two intermediates by means of a Julia-Kocienski coupling gave rise to a series of E-configured building blocks that did not prove amenable to transannular cyclization. Alternatively, when the C15-C16 double bond was introduced with Z-geometry by Wittig olefination, spontaneous closure to generate a tetrahydrofuran culminated an ensuing direct dihydroxylation step. The structural assignment to 35, undergirded by detailed 1H and 13C NMR studies, is consistent with proper transannular bonding so as to deliver the entire C1-C26 fragment of PTX2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick D O'Connor
- Evans Chemical Laboratories, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210-1185, USA
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39
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Luisa Fernández M, Reguera B, González-Gil S, Míguez A. Pectenotoxin-2 in single-cell isolates of Dinophysis caudata and Dinophysis acuta from the Galician Rías (NW Spain). Toxicon 2006; 48:477-90. [PMID: 16919305 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2005] [Accepted: 05/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Dinophysis acuta and Dinophysis caudata are seasonal components of the dinoflagellate community in the Galician Rías Bajas (NW Spain). These species can be the main contributors to the occurrence of Lipophilic Shellfish Toxins (LST) in September-October, leading to prohibition of harvesting in an area of intensive mariculture (250 x 10(3)t of cultured mussels, 60 x 10(3)t of other shellfish in natural banks, per year). Previous analyses of okadaic acid (OA) and related toxins in these two species by HPLC revealed significant amounts of OA and DTX2 in D. acuta, but only trace amounts of OA in D. caudata cells, and led to the erroneous conclusion that the contribution of the latter species to autumn LST events was negligible. Recent analyses by LC-MS/MS of individually picked cells of D. acuta and D. caudata have shown that both species may have high levels of PTX2 (up to 30 pg and 130 pg cell(-1), respectively) and that this toxin can be the dominant toxin during toxic outbreaks associated with Dinophysis spp. Although the quick conversion of PTX2 to PTX-2SA in mussels may reduce the risks for human health, these results have important implications for monitoring programmes. The complex toxin profile of shellfish exposed to Dinophysis spp. populations should be taken into account when making decisions on the toxin control methods to be used as the basis of the programme. Conclusive toxicological studies are required to elucidate the public health relevance of the different PTXs derivatives and to provide the scientific basis for regulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Luisa Fernández
- Centro Tecnológico del Mar, Fundación CETMAR, Eduardo Cabello s/n, 36208 Vigo, Spain.
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Wilkins AL, Rehmann N, Torgersen T, Rundberget T, Keogh M, Petersen D, Hess P, Rise F, Miles CO. Identification of fatty acid esters of pectenotoxin-2 seco acid in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) from Ireland. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:5672-8. [PMID: 16848562 DOI: 10.1021/jf060396j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Pectenotoxins from marine dinoflagellates of the genus Dinophysis are rapidly hydrolyzed by many shellfish to give pectenotoxin-2 seco acid, which isomerizes to 7-epi-pectenotoxin-2 seco acid. Three series of fatty acid esters of pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (PTX-2 seco acid) and 7-epi-PTX-2 seco acid were detected by LC-MS analysis of extracts from blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) from Ireland. The locations of the fatty acid ester linkages were identified by a combination of LC-MSn in positive- and negative-ion modes, LC-MS analysis of the products from reaction of the esters with sodium periodate, and NMR analysis of purified samples of the two most abundant ester derivatives. The 37-O-acyl esters of PTX-2 seco acid were the most abundant, followed by the corresponding 11-O-acyl esters, accompanied by low levels of the 33-O-acyl esters. The most abundant fatty acid esters in the fractionated sample were, in order, the 16:0, 22:6, 14:0, 16:1, 18:4, and 20:5 fatty acids, although a wide array of other PTX-2 seco acid fatty acid esters were also present at low levels.
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Kotretsou SI, Koutsodimou A. Overview of the Applications of Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS/MS) in Food Analysis of Nutritionally Harmful Compounds. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/87559120600574543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Miles CO, Wilkins AL, Munday JS, Munday R, Hawkes AD, Jensen DJ, Cooney JM, Beuzenberg V. Production of 7-epi-pectenotoxin-2 seco acid and assessment of its acute toxicity to mice. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:1530-4. [PMID: 16478284 DOI: 10.1021/jf0523871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Pectenotoxins (PTXs) accumulate in shellfish feeding on dinoflagellates of the genus Dinophysis, so that humans can be exposed to these toxins through shellfish consumption. Some PTXs are toxic to experimental animals, whereas others are of much lower toxicity. Pectenotoxin-2, the most abundant PTX from most Dinophysis spp., is rapidly metabolized by most shellfish to a mixture of pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (2) and 7-epi-pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (1). A mixture of 1 and 2 was produced during purification of an extract from in vitro enzymatic hydrolysis of pectenotoxin-2. These were separated by preparative HPLC, and the structure of 1 was confirmed by one- and two-dimensional 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy and LC-MS3 analyses. No toxic changes were recorded in mice injected intraperitoneally with 1 or 2 at a dose of 5000 microg/kg. PTX seco acids are therefore unlikely to be of consequence to human consumers at the concentrations found in contaminated shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher O Miles
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Chae HD, Choi TS, Kim BM, Jung JH, Bang YJ, Shin DY. Oocyte-based screening of cytokinesis inhibitors and identification of pectenotoxin-2 that induces Bim/Bax-mediated apoptosis in p53-deficient tumors. Oncogene 2005; 24:4813-9. [PMID: 15870701 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrate that a loss of p53 sensitizes tumor cells to actin damage. Using a novel oocyte-based screening system, we identified natural compounds that inhibit cytokinesis. Among these, pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2), which was first identified as a cytotoxic entity in marine sponges, which depolymerizes actin filaments, was found to be highly effective and more potent to activate an intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in p53-deficient tumor cells compared to those with functional p53 both in vitro and in vivo. Other agents that depolymerize or knot actin filaments were also found to be toxic to p53-deficient tumors. In p53-deficient cells, PTX-2 triggers apoptosis through mitochondrial dysfunction, and this is followed by the release of proapoptotic factors and caspase activation. Furthermore, we observed Bax activation and Bim induction only in p53-deficient cells after PTX-2 treatment. RNA interference of either Bim or Bax resulted in the inhibition of caspases and apoptosis induced by PTX-2. However, the small interfering RNAs (SiRNA) of Bim blocked a conformational change of Bax, but Bax SiRNA did not affect Bim expression. Therefore, these results suggest that Bim triggers apoptosis by activating Bax in p53-deficient tumors upon actin damage, and that actin inhibitors may be potent chemotherapeutic agents against p53-deficient tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee-Don Chae
- National Research Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Dankook University College of Medicine, Anseo 29, Cheonan 330-714, Korea
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Puente PF, Sáez MJF, Hamilton B, Furey A, James KJ. Studies of polyether toxins in the marine phytoplankton, Dinophysis acuta, in Ireland using multiple tandem mass spectrometry. Toxicon 2004; 44:919-26. [PMID: 15530974 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2004] [Accepted: 09/01/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Diarretic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is a toxic syndrome associated with the consumption of bivalve molluscs. The DSP toxins are polyether compounds, which include okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxins (DTXs), pectenotoxins (PTXs) and pectenotoxin seco acids (PTX2SAs). These toxins originate in marine dinoflagellates, including Dinophysis spp. Phytoplankton samples were collected from the southwest coast of Ireland and D. acuta was the predominant species. Monocultures of D. acuta cells were prepared by hand picking from microscope slides in order to confirm their toxin profiles. There was a remarkable consistency in the toxin profiles in all of the phytoplankton samples collected during the summer months, irrespective of location, depth or mesh size. Analysis using liquid chromatography-multiple tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) revealed that DTX2 and OA were the predominant toxins at a consistent ratio. The average toxin composition was: DTX2 (53+/-5%), OA (26.5+/-2.3%) and total pectenotoxins (20.8+/-4.7%). Toxin profiles in D. acuta from Europe were distinctly different from those found in New Zealand, where PTX2 was the predominant toxin and DTX2 was absent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Fernández Puente
- PROTEOBIO, Mass Spectrometry Centre for Proteomics and Biotoxin Research, Department of Chemistry,Cork Institute of Technology, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
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Peng X, Bondar D, Paquette LA. Alkoxide precoordination to rhodium enables stereodirected catalytic hydrogenation of a dihydrofuranol precursor of the C29-40 F/G sector of pectenotoxin-2. Tetrahedron 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2004.06.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Miles CO, Wilkins AL, Munday R, Dines MH, Hawkes AD, Briggs LR, Sandvik M, Jensen DJ, Cooney JM, Holland PT, Quilliam MA, MacKenzie AL, Beuzenberg V, Towers NR. Isolation of pectenotoxin-2 from Dinophysis acuta and its conversion to pectenotoxin-2 seco acid, and preliminary assessment of their acute toxicities. Toxicon 2004; 43:1-9. [PMID: 15037023 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2003] [Revised: 09/15/2003] [Accepted: 10/06/2003] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a simple and effective method for isolating pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) from Dinophysis cells collected from a natural bloom. A two-step extraction procedure followed by two column chromatography steps produced PTX-2 in high purity suitable for use as an analytical standard and for toxicological studies. Incubation of purified PTX-2 with the supernatant from ultracentrifuged blue (Mytilus edulis) or Greenshell (Perna canaliculus) mussel hepatopancreas homogenate caused rapid conversion to pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (PTX-2 SA). Purification of PTX-2 SA was achieved by solvent extraction followed by column chromatography. PTX-2 and PTX-2 SA were fully characterized by LC-MS and NMR, and full (1)H and (13)C NMR assignments were obtained. Okadaic acid C(8)-diol ester was isolated during the purification of PTX-2, and its identity confirmed by NMR and LC-MS analyses. Pectenotoxin-2 seco acid methyl ester, identified by LC-MS, was also produced during the hydrolytic procedure due to the presence of methanol. PTX-2 was acutely toxic to mice by i.p. injection (LD(50)=219 microg/kg) but no effects were seen with PTX-2 SA at 5000 microg/kg. Neither PTX-2 nor PTX-2 SA was overtly toxic to mice by the oral route at doses up to 5000 microg/kg. No diarrhea was observed in mice dosed with either compound, suggesting that pectenotoxins do not belong in the diarrhetic shellfish poison group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher O Miles
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Suzuki T, Beuzenberg V, Mackenzie L, Quilliam MA. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry of spiroketal stereoisomers of pectenotoxins and the analysis of novel pectenotoxin isomers in the toxic dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuta from New Zealand. J Chromatogr A 2003; 992:141-50. [PMID: 12735470 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(03)00324-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The acid-catalyzed inter-conversion of spiroketal isomers of pectenotoxins PTX1, PTX6 and PTX2 were studied by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Using a C8-silica reversed-phase column and a mobile phase of aqueous acetonitrile containing 2 mM ammonium formate and 50 mM formic acid, the known spiroketal stereoisomers of PTX1 eluted in order of PTX1, PTX4 and PTX8, while those of PTX6 eluted in the order PTX6, PTX7 and PTX9. Acid treatment of PTX2 yielded two novel spiroketal stereoisomers, which have been named PTX2b and PTX2c. LC-MS-MS spectra obtained for the [M+NH4]- ions of PTX2, PTX2b and PTX2c were essentially identical. As an application of the LC-MS-MS methodology, a sample of the toxic dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuta collected from the coast of New Zealand was analyzed for pectenotoxins. PTX2 and a new pectenotoxin, which has been named PTX11, were detected as the most predominant compounds. Novel PTX2 and PTX11 isomers were also found in the D. acuta although the levels of these compounds were low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Tohoku National Fisheries Research Institute, 3-27-5 Shinhama, Shiogama, Miyagi 985-0001, Japan.
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Pavela-Vrancic M, Mestrović V, Marasović I, Gillman M, Furey A, James KJ. DSP toxin profile in the coastal waters of the central Adriatic Sea. Toxicon 2002; 40:1601-7. [PMID: 12419511 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(02)00177-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A monitoring program, carried out in 1996 and 1997, has confirmed that toxic compounds, other than the most frequently detected toxins okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1), are involved in DSP phenomena in the Adriatic Sea. Toxicity was assessed by the mouse bioassay; the content and the nature of the toxic components were established through fluorometric HPLC analysis combined with mass spectrometry. A rare pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) derivative, 7-epi-pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (7-epi-PTX-2SA), was the exclusive contaminant of samples collected from the central Adriatic in 1996. Contrary to its marked oral toxicity, intraperitoneally 7-epi-PTX-2SA displayed no toxic effects, hampering its detection by the mouse bioassay. In 1997, its concentration and frequency of appearance were lower than in 1996, with concomitant occurrence of OA, DTX-2, and a new unidentified component related to the DSP toxic group of compounds. This is the first report on the occurrence of DTX-2 in Adriatic mussels. A survey of the phytoplankton community in the surrounding seawater has established the presence of Prorocentrum micans and several potentially toxic species from the Dinophysis genus. A case of unexplained toxicity, associated with the occurrence of Gonyaulax polyedra, suggested possible shellfish contamination with yessotoxin (YTX).
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Affiliation(s)
- M Pavela-Vrancic
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Mathematics and Education, University of Split, N Tesle 12, 21000 Split, Croatia.
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Toxicology in Foods. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2002. [DOI: 10.1201/9780203908969.pt2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Vale P, de M Sampayo MA. Pectenotoxin-2 seco acid, 7-epi-pectenotoxin-2 seco acid and pectenotoxin-2 in shellfish and plankton from Portugal. Toxicon 2002; 40:979-87. [PMID: 12076652 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(02)00094-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (PTX2sa) and 7-epi-pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (7-epi-PTX2sa) were found in Portuguese shellfish both by fluorescence detection after ADAM derivatisation and, liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry detection. Two time-series both with blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and common cockle (Cerastoderma edule) from Aveiro lagoon illustrate how PTX2sa has a strong association with Dinophysis acuta occurrence in the plankton, as well as Dinophysis fortii. Data so far excludes D. acuminata from contributing to contamination with pectenotoxins. It also shows that mussel may not be the best indicator of contamination with PTX2sa. At Aveiro lagoon also oyster, razor clam and clams were all less toxic than cockle. Pectenotoxin-2 seco acid was not involved in a previously reported incident of human poisoning that took place in February 1998 after consumption of Donax trunculus. In plankton extracts the most abundant pectenotoxin found was PTX2. Concentration of PTX2sa was around 10% of PTX2, and 7-epi-PTX2sa was not detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Vale
- Instituto de Investigação das Pescas e do Mar, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal.
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