The role of apolipoprotein E in the elimination of liposomes from blood by hepatocytes in the mouse

Intelligent Design of Lipid Nanoparticles for Enhanced Gene Therapeutics

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are an effective delivery system for gene therapeutics. By optimizing their formulation, the physiochemical properties of LNPs can be tailored to improve tissue penetration, cellular uptake, and precise targeting. The application of these targeted delivery strategies within the LNP framework ensures efficient delivery of therapeutic agents to specific organs or cell types, thereby maximizing therapeutic efficacy. In the realm of genome editing, LNPs have emerged as a potent vehicle for delivering CRISPR/Cas components, offering significant advantages such as high in vivo efficacy. The incorporation of machine learning into the optimization of LNP platforms for gene therapeutics represents a significant advancement, harnessing its predictive capabilities to substantially accelerate the research and development process. This review highlights the dynamic evolution of LNP technology, which is expected to drive transformative progress in the field of gene therapy.

Impact of administration routes and dose frequency on the toxicology of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines in mice model

The increasing use of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines has raised concerns about their potential toxicological effects, necessitating further investigation to ensure their safety. To address this issue, we aimed to evaluate the toxicological effects of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine candidates formulated with four different types of lipid nanoparticles in ICR mice, focusing on repeated doses and administration routes. We conducted an extensive analysis in which mice received the mRNA vaccine candidates intramuscularly (50 μg/head) twice at 2-week intervals, followed by necropsy at 2 and 14 dpsi (days post-secondary injection). In addition, we performed a repeated dose toxicity test involving three, four, or five doses and compared the toxicological outcomes between intravenous and intramuscular routes. Our findings revealed that all vaccine candidates significantly induced SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-specific IgG and T cell responses. However, at 2 dpsi, there was a notable temporary decrease in lymphocyte and reticulocyte counts, anemia-related parameters, and significant increases in cardiac damage markers, troponin-I and NT-proBNP. Histopathological analysis revealed severe inflammation and necrosis at the injection site, decreased erythroid cells in bone marrow, cortical atrophy of the thymus, and increased spleen cellularity. While most toxicological changes observed at 2 dpsi had resolved by 14 dpsi, spleen enlargement and injection site damage persisted. Furthermore, repeated doses led to the accumulation of toxicity, and different administration routes resulted in distinct toxicological phenotypes. These findings highlight the potential toxicological risks associated with mRNA vaccines, emphasizing the necessity to carefully consider administration routes and dosage regimens in vaccine safety evaluations, particularly given the presence of bone marrow and immune organ toxicity, which, though eventually reversible, remains a serious concern.

The role of patient-specific variables in protein corona formation and therapeutic efficacy in nanomedicine

Despite their potential, the adoption of nanotechnology in therapeutics remains limited, with only around eighty nanomedicines approved in the past 30 years. This disparity is partly due to the "one-size-fits-all" approach in medical design, which often overlooks patient-specific variables such as biological sex, genetic ancestry, disease state, environment, and age that influence nanoparticle behavior. Nanoparticles (NPs) must be transported through systemic, microenvironmental, and cellular barriers that vary across heterogeneous patient populations. Key patient-dependent properties impacting NP delivery include blood flow rates, body fat distribution, reproductive organ vascularization, hormone and protein levels, immune responses, and chromosomal differences. Understanding these variables is crucial for developing effective, patient-specific nanotechnologies. The formation of a protein corona around NPs upon exposure to biological fluids significantly alters NP properties, affecting biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, cytotoxicity, and organ targeting. The dynamics of the protein corona, such as time-dependent composition and formation of soft and hard coronas, depend on NP characteristics and patient-specific serum components. This review highlights the importance of understanding protein corona formation across different patient backgrounds and its implications for NP design, including sex, ancestry, age, environment, and disease state. By exploring these variables, we aim to advance the development of personalized nanomedicine, improving therapeutic efficacy and patient outcomes.

Evaluating the breadth of nucleic acid-based payloads delivered in lipid nanoparticles to establish fundamental differences in development

INTRODUCTION

Nucleic acid (NA)-based therapeutics have shown great potential for downregulating or augmenting gene expression, and for promising applications, e.g., protein-replacement therapy and vaccination, a comprehensive understanding of the requirements for their targeted delivery to specific tissues or cells is needed.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we discuss clinical applications of four representative types of NA-based therapeutics, i.e. antisense oligonucleotides, small interfering RNA, messenger RNA, and circular RNA, with a focus on the lipid nanoparticle (LNP) technology used for intracellular delivery. The in vivo fate of LNPs is discussed to improve the understanding of trafficking of nanomedicines at the systemic and cellular levels. In addition, NA-based vaccines are discussed, focusing on targeting antigen-presenting cells and immune activation.

EXPERT OPINION

Optimization of delivery systems for NA-based therapeutics is mainly focused on the standard requirements of prolonged systemic circulation and enhancing endosomal escape. Depending on the final destination in specific target tissues or cells, strategies should be adjusted to achieve the desired biodistribution of NA-based payloads. More studies relating to the pharmacokinetics of both cargo and carrier are encouraged, because their in vivo fates may differ, considering the possibility of premature cargo release before reaching the target.

Effects of phospholipid type and particle size on lipid nanoparticle distribution in vivo and in pancreatic islets

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have recently been used as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems for nucleic acid drugs. Their practical applications are currently primarily limited to the liver and specific organs. However, altering the type and composition ratio of phospholipids improves their distribution in organs other than the liver, such as the spleen and lungs. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of LNP components and particle size on in vivo distribution through systemic circulation to pancreatic islets to achieve better targeting of islets, which are a fundamental therapeutic target for diabetes. Fluorescence-labeled LNPs were prepared using three phospholipids: 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC), 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE), with particle sizes of 30-160 nm (diameter) using a microfluidic device. Baffled-structured iLiNP devices with adjusted flow-rate ratios and total flow rates were used. After the intravenous administration of LNPs to C57BL/6 J mice, the distribution of each LNP type to the major organs, including the pancreas and pancreatic islets, was compared using ex vivo fluorescence imaging and observation of pancreatic tissue sections. DSPC-LNPs- and DOPE-LNPs showed the highest distribution in the spleen and liver, respectively. In contrast, the DOPC-LNPs showed the highest distribution in the pancreas and the lowest distribution in the liver and spleen. In addition, smaller particles showed better distribution throughout the pancreas. The most significant LNP distribution in the islets was observed for DOPC-LNPs with a particle size of 160 nm. Furthermore, larger LNPs tended to be distributed in the islets, whereas smaller LNPs tended to be distributed in the exocrine glands. DOPC-LNPs were distributed in the islets at all cholesterol concentrations, with a high distribution observed at >40% cholesterol and > 3% PEG and the distribution was higher at 24 h than at 4 h. Thus, LNP composition and particle size significantly affected islet distribution characteristics, indicating that DOPC-LNPs may be a drug delivery system for effectively targeting the pancreas and islets.

The in vitro gastrointestinal digestion-associated protein corona of polystyrene nano- and microplastics increases their uptake by human THP-1-derived macrophages

BACKGROUND

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) represent one of the most widespread environmental pollutants of the twenty-first century to which all humans are orally exposed. Upon ingestion, MNPs pass harsh biochemical conditions within the gastrointestinal tract, causing a unique protein corona on the MNP surface. Little is known about the digestion-associated protein corona and its impact on the cellular uptake of MNPs. Here, we systematically studied the influence of gastrointestinal digestion on the cellular uptake of neutral and charged polystyrene MNPs using THP-1-derived macrophages.

RESULTS

The protein corona composition was quantified using LC‒MS-MS-based proteomics, and the cellular uptake of MNPs was determined using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Gastrointestinal digestion resulted in a distinct protein corona on MNPs that was retained in serum-containing cell culture medium. Digestion increased the uptake of uncharged MNPs below 500 nm by 4.0-6.1-fold but did not affect the uptake of larger sized or charged MNPs. Forty proteins showed a good correlation between protein abundance and MNP uptake, including coagulation factors, apolipoproteins and vitronectin.

CONCLUSION

This study provides quantitative data on the presence of gastrointestinal proteins on MNPs and relates this to cellular uptake, underpinning the need to include the protein corona in hazard assessment of MNPs.

Advances in functional lipid nanoparticles: from drug delivery platforms to clinical applications

Since Doxil's first clinical approval in 1995, lipid nanoparticles have garnered great interest and shown exceptional therapeutic efficacy. It is clear from the licensure of two RNA treatments and the mRNA-COVID-19 vaccination that lipid nanoparticles have immense potential for delivering nucleic acids. The review begins with a list of lipid nanoparticle types, such as liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles. Then it moves on to the earliest lipid nanoparticle forms, outlining how lipid is used in a variety of industries and how it is used as a versatile nanocarrier platform. Lipid nanoparticles must then be functionally modified. Various approaches have been proposed for the synthesis of lipid nanoparticles, such as High-Pressure Homogenization (HPH), microemulsion methods, solvent-based emulsification techniques, solvent injection, phase reversal, and membrane contractors. High-pressure homogenization is the most commonly used method. All of the methods listed above follow four basic steps, as depicted in the flowchart below. Out of these four steps, the process of dispersing lipids in an aqueous medium to produce liposomes is the most unpredictable step. A short outline of the characterization of lipid nanoparticles follows discussions of applications for the trapping and transporting of various small molecules. It highlights the use of rapamycin-coated lipid nanoparticles in glioblastoma and how lipid nanoparticles function as a conjugator in the delivery of anticancer-targeting nucleic acids. High biocompatibility, ease of production, scalability, non-toxicity, and tailored distribution are just a meager of the enticing allowances of using lipid nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. Due to the present constraints in drug delivery, more research is required to utterly realize the potential of lipid nanoparticles for possible clinical and therapeutic purposes.

Lipoamino bundle LNPs for efficient mRNA transfection of dendritic cells and macrophages show high spleen selectivity

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a powerful tool for nucleic acid-based therapies and vaccination, but efficient and specific delivery to target tissues remains a significant challenge. In this study, we demonstrate lipoamino xenopeptide carriers as components of highly efficient mRNA LNPs. These lipo-xenopeptides are defined as 2D sequences in different 3D topologies (bundles or different U-shapes). The polar artificial amino acid tetraethylene pentamino succinic acid (Stp) and various lipophilic tertiary lipoamino fatty acids (LAFs) act as ionizable amphiphilic units, connected in different ratios via bisamidated lysines as branching units. A series of more lipophilic LAF4-Stp1 carriers with bundle topology is especially well suited for efficient encapsulation of mRNA into LNPs, facilitated cellular uptake and strongly enhanced endosomal escape. These LNPs display improved, faster transfection kinetics compared to standard LNP formulations, with high potency in a variety of tumor cell lines (including N2a neuroblastoma, HepG2 and Huh7 hepatocellular, and HeLa cervical carcinoma cells), J774A.1 macrophages, and DC2.4 dendritic cells. High transfection levels were obtained even in the presence of serum at very low sub-microgram mRNA doses. Upon intravenous application of only 3 µg mRNA per mouse, in vivo mRNA expression is found with a high selectivity for dendritic cells and macrophages, resulting in a particularly high overall preferred expression in the spleen.

RNA-Based Vaccines and Therapeutics Against Intracellular Pathogens

RNA-based vaccines have sparked a paradigm shift in the treatment and prevention of diseases by nucleic acid medicines. There has been a notable surge in the development of nucleic acid therapeutics and vaccines following the global approval of the two messenger RNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. This growth is fueled by the exploration of numerous RNA products in preclinical stages, offering several advantages over conventional methods, i.e., safety, efficacy, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. In this chapter, we provide an overview of various types of RNA and their mechanisms of action for stimulating immune responses and inducing therapeutic effects. Furthermore, this chapter delves into the varying delivery systems, particularly emphasizing the use of nanoparticles to deliver RNA. The choice of delivery system is an intricate process involved in developing nucleic acid medicines that significantly enhances their stability, biocompatibility, and site-specificity. Additionally, this chapter sheds light on the current landscape of clinical trials of RNA therapeutics and vaccines against intracellular pathogens.

Biodistribution of RNA Vaccines and of Their Products: Evidence from Human and Animal Studies

Explosive developments in mRNA vaccine technology in the last decade have made it possible to achieve great success in clinical trials of mRNA vaccines to prevent infectious diseases and develop cancer treatments and mRNA-based gene therapy products. The approval of the mRNA-1273 and BNT162b2 mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has led to mass vaccination (with mRNA vaccines) of several hundred million people around the world, including children. Despite its effectiveness in the fight against COVID-19, rare adverse effects of the vaccination have been shown in some studies, including vascular microcirculation disorders and autoimmune and allergic reactions. The biodistribution of mRNA vaccines remains one of the most poorly investigated topics. This mini-review discussed the results of recent experimental studies on humans and rodents regarding the biodistribution of mRNA vaccines, their constituents (mRNA and lipid nanoparticles), and their encoded antigens. We focused on the dynamics of the biodistribution of mRNA vaccine products and on the possibility of crossing the blood-brain and blood-placental barriers as well as transmission to infants through breast milk. In addition, we critically assessed the strengths and weaknesses of the detection methods that have been applied in these articles, whose results' reliability is becoming a subject of debate.

Lipid nanoparticles for targeted delivery of anticancer therapeutics: Recent advances in development of siRNA and lipoprotein-mimicking nanocarriers

The limitations inherent in conventional cancer treatment methods have stimulated recent efforts towards the design of safe nanomedicines with high efficacy for combating cancer through various promising approaches. A plethora of nanoparticles has been introduced in the development of cancer nanomedicines. Among them, different lipid nanoparticles are attractive for use due to numerous advantages and unique opportunities, including biocompatibility and targeted drug delivery. However, a comprehensive understanding of nano-bio interactions is imperative to facilitate the translation of recent advancements in the development of cancer nanomedicines into clinical practice. In this contribution, we focus on lipoprotein-mimicking nanoparticles, which possess unique features and compositions facilitating drug transport through receptor binding mechanisms. Additionally, we describe potential applications of siRNA lipid nanoparticles in the future design of anticancer nanomedicines. Thus, this review highlights recent progress, challenges, and opportunities of lipid-based lipoprotein-mimicking nanoparticles and siRNA nanocarriers designed for the targeted delivery of anticancer therapeutic agents.

RNA interference therapy in acute hepatic porphyrias

The acute hepatic porphyrias (AHPs) are inherited disorders of heme biosynthesis characterized by life-threatening acute neurovisceral attacks precipitated by factors that upregulate hepatic 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase 1 (ALAS1) activity. Induction of hepatic ALAS1 leads to the accumulation of porphyrin precursors, in particular 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), which is thought to be the neurotoxic mediator leading to acute attack symptoms such as severe abdominal pain and autonomic dysfunction. Patients may also develop debilitating chronic symptoms and long-term medical complications, including kidney disease and an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Exogenous heme is the historical treatment for attacks and exerts its therapeutic effect by inhibiting hepatic ALAS1 activity. The pathophysiology of acute attacks provided the rationale to develop an RNA interference therapeutic that suppresses hepatic ALAS1 expression. Givosiran is a subcutaneously administered N-acetylgalactosamine-conjugated small interfering RNA against ALAS1 that is taken up nearly exclusively by hepatocytes via the asialoglycoprotein receptor. Clinical trials established that the continuous suppression of hepatic ALAS1 mRNA via monthly givosiran administration effectively reduced urinary ALA and porphobilinogen levels and acute attack rates and improved quality of life. Common side effects include injection site reactions and increases in liver enzymes and creatinine. Givosiran was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and European Medicines Agency in 2019 and 2020, respectively, for the treatment of patients with AHP. Although givosiran has the potential to decrease the risk of chronic complications, long-term data on the safety and effects of sustained ALAS1 suppression in patients with AHP are lacking.

The Expression Kinetics and Immunogenicity of Lipid Nanoparticles Delivering Plasmid DNA and mRNA in Mice

In recent years, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as a revolutionary technology for vaccine delivery. LNPs serve as an integral component of mRNA vaccines by protecting and transporting the mRNA payload into host cells. Despite their prominence in mRNA vaccines, there remains a notable gap in our understanding of the potential application of LNPs for the delivery of DNA vaccines. In this study, we sought to investigate the suitability of leading LNP formulations for the delivery of plasmid DNA (pDNA). In addition, we aimed to explore key differences in the properties of popular LNP formulations when delivering either mRNA or DNA. To address these questions, we compared three leading LNP formulations encapsulating mRNA- or pDNA-encoding firefly luciferase based on potency, expression kinetics, biodistribution, and immunogenicity. Following intramuscular injection in mice, we determined that RNA-LNPs formulated with either SM-102 or ALC-0315 lipids were the most potent (all p-values < 0.01) and immunogenic (all p-values < 0.05), while DNA-LNPs formulated with SM-102 or ALC-0315 demonstrated the longest duration of signal. Additionally, all LNP formulations were found to induce expression in the liver that was proportional to the signal at the injection site (SM102: r = 0.8787, p < 0.0001; ALC0315: r = 0.9012, p < 0.0001; KC2: r = 0.9343, p < 0.0001). Overall, this study provides important insights into the differences between leading LNP formulations and their applicability to DNA- and RNA-based vaccinations.

mRNA: A promising platform for cancer immunotherapy

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is now in the limelight as a powerful tool for treating various human diseases, especially malignant tumors, thanks to the remarkable clinical outcomes of mRNA vaccines using lipid nanoparticle technology during the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent promising preclinical and clinical results that epitomize the advancement in mRNA and nanoformulation-based delivery technologies have highlighted the tremendous potential of mRNA in cancer immunotherapy. mRNAs can be harnessed for cancer immunotherapy in forms of various therapeutic modalities, including cancer vaccines, adoptive T-cell therapies, therapeutic antibodies, and immunomodulatory proteins. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state and prospects of mRNA-based therapeutics, including numerous delivery and therapeutic strategies.

Development and Characterization of an In Vitro Cell-Based Assay to Predict Potency of mRNA-LNP-Based Vaccines

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines have emerged as a flexible platform for vaccine development. The evolution of lipid nanoparticles as effective delivery vehicles for modified mRNA encoding vaccine antigens was demonstrated by the response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The ability to rapidly develop effective SARS-CoV-2 vaccines from the spike protein genome, and to then manufacture multibillions of doses per year was an extraordinary achievement and a vaccine milestone. Further development and application of this platform for additional pathogens is clearly of interest. This comes with the associated need for new analytical tools that can accurately predict the performance of these mRNA vaccine candidates and tie them to an immune response expected in humans. Described here is the development and characterization of an imaging based in vitro assay able to quantitate transgene protein expression efficiency, with utility to measure lipid nanoparticles (LNP)-encapsulated mRNA vaccine potency, efficacy, and stability. Multiple biologically relevant adherent cell lines were screened to identify a suitable cell substrate capable of providing a wide dose-response curve and dynamic range. Biologically relevant assay attributes were examined and optimized, including cell monolayer morphology, antigen expression kinetics, and assay sensitivity to LNP properties, such as polyethylene glycol-lipid (or PEG-lipid) composition, mRNA mass, and LNP size. Collectively, this study presents a strategy to quickly optimize and develop a robust cell-based potency assay for the development of future mRNA-based vaccines.

Intracellular Drug Delivery Process of Am80-Encapsulated Lipid Nanoparticles Aiming for Alveolar Regeneration

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) results in obstructive ventilatory impairment caused by emphysema, and current treatment is limited to symptomatic therapy or lung transplantation. Therefore, the development of new treatments to repair alveolar destruction is especially urgent. Our previous study revealed that 1.0 mg/kg of synthetic retinoid Am80 had a repair effect on collapsed alveoli in a mouse model of elastase-induced emphysema. From these results, however, the clinical dose calculated in accordance with FDA guidance is estimated to be 5.0 mg/60 kg, and it is desirable to further reduce the dose to allow the formulation of a powder inhaler for clinical application. To efficiently deliver Am80 to the retinoic acid receptor in the cell nucleus, which is the site of action, we focused on SS-cleavable proton-activated lipid-like material O-Phentyl-P4C2COATSOME^®SS-OP, hereinafter referred to as "SS-OP"). In this study, we investigated the cellular uptake and intracellular drug delivery process of Am80-encapsulated SS-OP nanoparticles to elucidate the mechanism of Am80 by nanoparticulation. Am80-encapsulated SS-OP nanoparticles were taken up into the cells via ApoE, and then Am80 was efficiently delivered into the nucleus via RARα. These results indicated the usefulness of SS-OP nanoparticles as drug delivery system carriers of Am80 for COPD treatment.

Increased Bone Marrow Uptake and Accumulation of Very-Late Antigen-4 Targeted Lipid Nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have evolved rapidly as promising delivery systems for oligonucleotides, including siRNAs. However, current clinical LNP formulations show high liver accumulation after systemic administration, which is unfavorable for the treatment of extrahepatic diseases, such as hematological disorders. Here we describe the specific targeting of LNPs to hematopoietic progenitor cells in the bone marrow. Functionalization of the LNPs with a modified Leu-Asp-Val tripeptide, a specific ligand for the very-late antigen 4 resulted in an improved uptake and functional siRNA delivery in patient-derived leukemia cells when compared to their non-targeted counterparts. Moreover, surface-modified LNPs displayed significantly improved bone-marrow accumulation and retention. These were associated with increased LNP uptake by immature hematopoietic progenitor cells, also suggesting similarly improved uptake by leukemic stem cells. In summary, we describe an LNP formulation that successfully targets the bone marrow including leukemic stem cells. Our results thereby support the further development of LNPs for targeted therapeutic interventions for leukemia and other hematological disorders.

Atherogenesis in Apoe-/- and Ldlr-/- Mice with a Genetically Resistant Background

Apoe-deficient (Apoe-/-) and Ldlr-deficient (Ldlr-/-) mice are two common animal models of hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis. The two models differ in lipid and glucose metabolism and other mechanisms involved in atherogenesis. Here we examined atherosclerotic lesion formation in the two models with an atherosclerosis-resistant C3H/HeJ (C3H) background. 3-month-old C3H-Ldlr-/- and C3H-Apoe-/- mice developed minimal atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic root when fed a chow diet. After 12 weeks on a Western diet, C3H-Ldlr-/- mice developed 3-fold larger lesions than C3H-Apoe-/- mice in the aortic root (127,386 ± 13,439 vs. 41,542 ± 5075 μm2/section; p = 0.00028), but neither knockout formed any lesion in the carotid artery. After being ligated near its bifurcation, the common carotid artery developed intimal lesions in both knockouts 4 weeks after ligation, significantly larger in C3H-Ldlr-/- than C3H-Apoe-/- mice (68,721 ± 2706 vs. 47,472 ± 8146 μm2/section; p = 0.028). Compared to C3H-Apoe-/- mice, C3H-Ldlr-/- mice showed a 50% reduction in plasma MCP-1 levels, similar levels of malondialdehyde, an oxidative stress biomarker, on both chow and Western diets, but higher small dense LDL levels on the Western diet. These results suggest a more significant role for small dense LDL than inflammation and oxidative stress in the different susceptibility of the mouse models to atherosclerosis.

Optimal delivery strategies for nanoparticle-mediated mRNA delivery

Messenger RNA (mRNA) has emerged as a new and efficient agent for the treatment of various diseases. The success of lipid nanoparticle-mRNA against the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) pneumonia epidemic has proved the clinical potential of nanoparticle-mRNA formulations. However, the deficiency in the effective biological distribution, high transfection efficiency and good biosafety are still the major challenges in clinical translation of nanomedicine for mRNA delivery. To date, a variety of promising nanoparticles have been constructed and then gradually optimized to facilitate the effective biodistribution of carriers and efficient mRNA delivery. In this review, we describe the design of nanoparticles with an emphasis on lipid nanoparticles, and discuss the manipulation strategies for nanoparticle-biology (nano-bio) interactions for mRNA delivery to overcome the biological barriers and improve the delivery efficiency, because the specific nano-bio interaction of nanoparticles usually remoulds the biomedical and physiological properties of the nanoparticles especially the biodistribution, mechanism of cellular internalization and immune response. Finally, we give a perspective for the future applications of this promising technology. We believe that the regulation of nano-bio interactions would be a significant breakthrough to improve the mRNA delivery efficiency and cross biological barriers. This review may provide a new direction for the design of nanoparticle-mediated mRNA delivery systems.

Lipid-based nucleic acid therapeutics with in vivo efficacy

Synthetic vectors for therapeutic nucleic acid delivery are currently competing significantly with their viral counter parts due to their reduced immunogenicity, large payload capacity, and ease of manufacture under GMP-compliant norms. The approval of Onpattro, a lipid-based siRNA therapeutic, and the proven clinical success of two lipid-based COVID-19 vaccines from Pfizer-BioNTech, and Moderna heralded the specific advantages of lipid-based systems among all other synthetic nucleic acid carriers. Lipid-based systems with diverse payloads-plasmid DNA (pDNA), antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA), small activating RNA (saRNA), and messenger RNA (mRNA)-are now becoming a mature technology, with growing impact in the clinic. Research over four decades identified the key factors determining the therapeutic success of these multi-component systems. Here, we discuss the main nucleic acid-based technologies, presenting their mechanism of action, delivery barriers facing them, the structural properties of the payload as well as the component lipids that regulate physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, efficacy, and toxicity of the resultant nanoparticles. We further detail on the formulation parameters, evolution of the manufacturing techniques that generate reproducible and scalable outputs, and key manufacturing aspects that enable control over physicochemical properties of the resultant particles. Preclinical applications of some of these formulations that were successfully translated from in vitro studies to animal models are subsequently discussed. Finally, clinical success and failure of these systems starting from 1993 to present are highlighted, in a holistic literature review focused on lipid-based nucleic acid delivery systems. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials.

Interactions of Apolipoproteins with Lipid-Based Nanoparticles

Serum proteins bind and form a dynamic protein corona around nanoparticles (NPs) that have been injected into the mammalian vasculature. Several fundamental studies have shown that apolipoproteins are prominent components of the NP corona. Since apolipoproteins control the distribution of lipoproteins, they may also control the distribution of NPs. Indeed, apolipoprotein affinity for NPs has been recently taken advantage of to deliver CRISPR reagents encapsulated in NPs to cells that express particular lipoprotein receptors. In this scenario, an apolipoprotein binds an NP and the resulting apolipoprotein-NP complex binds a cell that expresses the (apo)lipoprotein receptor. But the NP will be diverted from the target cell if it does not express the (apo)lipoprotein receptor. This may hamper NP treatment of diseases. Therefore, we must understand the kinetics of apolipoprotein-NP affinity and how apolipoprotein-NP interactions affect NP biodistribution. In this Perspective, we discuss the evolving topic of apolipoprotein-NP interactions, which is of great interest for all NP-based disease treatments. Many properties of apolipoprotein-NP complexes are yet to be determined and will have a significant impact on NP efficacy for many NP-based treatments in animal models and in the clinic.

Directing the Way-Receptor and Chemical Targeting Strategies for Nucleic Acid Delivery

Nucleic acid therapeutics have shown great potential for the treatment of numerous diseases, such as genetic disorders, cancer and infections. Moreover, they have been successfully used as vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to unfold full therapeutical potential, these nano agents have to overcome several barriers. Therefore, directed transport to specific tissues and cell types remains a central challenge to receive carrier systems with enhanced efficiency and desired biodistribution profiles. Active targeting strategies include receptor-targeting, mediating cellular uptake based on ligand-receptor interactions, and chemical targeting, enabling cell-specific delivery as a consequence of chemically and structurally modified carriers. With a focus on synthetic delivery systems including polyplexes, lipid-based systems such as lipoplexes and lipid nanoparticles, and direct conjugates optimized for various types of nucleic acids (DNA, mRNA, siRNA, miRNA, oligonucleotides), we highlight recent achievements, exemplified by several nucleic acid drugs on the market, and discuss challenges for targeted delivery to different organs such as brain, eye, liver, lung, spleen and muscle in vivo.

Lipid Nanoparticle (LNP) Chemistry Can Endow Unique In Vivo RNA Delivery Fates within the Liver That Alter Therapeutic Outcomes in a Cancer Model

Within the field of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for RNA delivery, the focus has been mainly placed on organ level delivery, which can mask cellular level effects consequential to therapeutic applications. Here, we studied a pair of LNPs with similar physical properties and discovered how the chemistry of the ionizable amino lipid can control the endogenous LNP identity, affecting cellular uptake in the liver and altering therapeutic outcomes in a model of liver cancer. Although most LNPs accumulate in the liver after intravenous administration (suggesting that liver delivery is straightforward), we observed an unexpected behavior when comparing two similar LNP formulations (5A2-SC8 and 3A5-SC14 LNPs) that resulted in distinct RNA delivery within the organ. Despite both LNPs possessing similar physical properties, ability to silence gene expression in vitro, strong accumulation within the liver, and a shared pKa of 6.5, only 5A2-SC8 LNPs were able to functionally deliver RNA to hepatocytes. Factor VII (FVII) activity was reduced by 87%, with 5A2-SC8 LNPs carrying FVII siRNA (siFVII), while 3A5-SC14 LNPs carrying siFVII produced baseline FVII activity levels comparable to the nontreatment control at a dosage of 0.5 mg/kg. Protein corona analysis indicated that 5A2-SC8 LNPs bind apolipoprotein E (ApoE), which can drive LDL-R receptor-mediated endocytosis in hepatocytes. In contrast, the surface of 3A5-SC14 LNPs was enriched in albumin but depleted in ApoE, which likely led to Kupffer cell delivery and detargeting of hepatocytes. In an aggressive MYC-driven liver cancer model relevant to hepatocytes, 5A2-SC8 LNPs carrying let-7g miRNA were able to significantly extend survival up to 121 days. Since disease targets exist in an organ- and cell-specific manner, the clinical development of RNA LNP therapeutics will require an improved understanding of LNP cellular tropism within organs. The results from our work illustrate the importance of understanding the cellular localization of RNA delivery and incorporating further checkpoints when choosing nanoparticles beyond biochemical and physical characterization, as small changes in the chemical composition of LNPs can have an impact on both the biofate of LNPs and therapeutic outcomes.

mRNA lipid nanoparticle phase transition

Crucial for mRNA-based vaccines are the composition, structure, and properties of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) as their delivery vehicle. Using all-atom molecular dynamics simulations as a computational microscope, we provide an atomistic view of the structure of the Comirnaty vaccine LNP, its molecular organization, physicochemical properties, and insight in its pH-driven phase transition enabling mRNA release at atomistic resolution. At physiological pH, our simulations suggest an oil-like LNP core that is composed of the aminolipid ALC-0315 and cholesterol (ratio 72:28). It is surrounded by a lipid monolayer formed by distearoylphosphatidylcholine, ALC-0315, PEGylated lipids, and cholesterol at a ratio of 22:9:6:63. Protonated aminolipids enveloping mRNA formed inverted micellar structures that provide a shielding and likely protection from environmental factors. In contrast, at low pH, the Comirnaty lipid composition instead spontaneously formed lipid bilayers that display a high degree of elasticity. These pH-dependent lipid phases suggest that a change in pH of the environment upon LNP transfer to the endosome likely acts as trigger for cargo release from the LNP core by turning aminolipids inside out, thereby destabilizing both the LNP shell and the endosomal membrane.

The role of lipid components in lipid nanoparticles for vaccines and gene therapy

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) play an important role in mRNA vaccines against COVID-19. In addition, many preclinical and clinical studies, including the siRNA-LNP product, Onpattro®, highlight that LNPs unlock the potential of nucleic acid-based therapies and vaccines. To understand what is key to the success of LNPs, we need to understand the role of the building blocks that constitute them.

In this Review, we discuss what each lipid component adds to the LNP delivery platform in terms of size, structure, stability, apparent pK_a, nucleic acid encapsulation efficiency, cellular uptake, and endosomal escape. To explore this, we present findings from the liposome field as well as from landmark and recent articles in the LNP literature. We also discuss challenges and strategies related to in vitro/in vivo studies of LNPs based on fluorescence readouts, immunogenicity/reactogenicity, and LNP delivery beyond the liver. How these fundamental challenges are pursued, including what lipid components are added and combined, will likely determine the scope of LNP-based gene therapies and vaccines for treating various diseases.

Extrahepatic targeting of lipid nanoparticles in vivo with intracellular targeting for future nanomedicines

A new era of nanomedicines that involve nucleic acids/gene therapy has been opened after two decades in 21^st century and new types of more efficient drug delivery systems (DDS) are highly expected and will include extrahepatic delivery. In this review, we summarize the possibility and expectations for the extrahepatic delivery of small interfering RNA/messenger RNA/plasmid DNA/genome editing to the spleen, lung, tumor, lymph nodes as well as the liver based on our studies as well as reported information. Passive targeting and active targeting are discussed in in vivo delivery and the importance of controlled intracellular trafficking for successful therapeutic results are also discussed. In addition, mitochondrial delivery as a novel strategy for nucleic acids/gene therapy is introduced to expand the therapeutic dimension of nucleic acids/gene therapy in the liver as well as the heart, kidney and brain.

Intermittent lipid nanoparticle mRNA administration prevents cortical dysmyelination associated with arginase deficiency

Arginase deficiency is associated with prominent neuromotor features, including spastic diplegia, clonus, and hyperreflexia; intellectual disability and progressive neurological decline are other signs. In a constitutive murine model, we recently described leukodystrophy as a significant component of the central nervous system features of arginase deficiency. In the present studies, we sought to examine if the administration of a lipid nanoparticle carrying human ARG1 mRNA to constitutive knockout mice could prevent abnormalities in myelination associated with arginase deficiency. Imaging of the cingulum, striatum, and cervical segments of the corticospinal tract revealed a drastic reduction of myelinated axons; signs of degenerating axons were also present with thin myelin layers. Lipid nanoparticle/ARG1 mRNA administration resulted in both light and electron microscopic evidence of a dramatic recovery of myelin density compared with age-matched controls; oligodendrocytes were seen to be extending processes to wrap many axons. Abnormally thin myelin layers, when myelination was present, were resolved with intermittent mRNA administration, indicative of not only a greater density of myelinated axons but also an increase in the thickness of the myelin sheath. In conclusion, lipid nanoparticle/ARG1 mRNA administration in arginase deficiency prevents the associated leukodystrophy and restores normal oligodendrocyte function.

Lipid-Nanoparticle-Based Delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 Genome-Editing Components

Gene editing mediated by CRISPR/Cas9 systems is due to become a beneficial therapeutic option for treating genetic diseases and some cancers. However, there are challenges in delivering CRISPR components which necessitate sophisticated delivery systems for safe and effective genome editing. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have become an attractive nonviral delivery platform for CRISPR-mediated genome editing due to their low immunogenicity and application flexibility. In this review, we provide a background of CRISPR-mediated gene therapy, as well as LNPs and their applicable characteristics for delivering CRISPR components. We then highlight the challenges of CRISPR delivery, which have driven the significant development of new, safe, and optimized LNP formulations in the past decade. Finally, we discuss considerations for using LNPs to deliver CRISPR and future perspectives on clinical translation of LNP-CRISPR gene editing.

Mechanistic Studies of an Automated Lipid Nanoparticle Reveal Critical Pharmaceutical Properties Associated with Enhanced mRNA Functional Delivery In Vitro and In Vivo

Recently, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have attracted attention due to their emergent use for COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. The success of LNPs can be attributed to ionizable lipids, which enable functional intracellular delivery. Previously, the authors established an automated high-throughput platform to screen ionizable lipids and identified that the LNPs generated using this automated technique show comparable or increased mRNA functional delivery in vitro as compared to LNPs prepared using traditional microfluidics techniques. In this study, the authors choose one benchmark lipid, DLin-MC3-DMA (MC3), and investigate whether the automated formulation technique can enhance mRNA functional delivery in vivo. Interestingly, a 4.5-fold improvement in mRNA functional delivery in vivo by automated LNPs as compared to LNPs formulated by conventional microfluidics techniques, is observed. Mechanistic studies reveal that particles with large size accommodate more mRNA per LNP, possess more hydrophobic surface, are more hemolytic, bind a larger protein corona, and tend to accumulate more in macropinocytosomes, which may quantitatively benefit mRNA cytosolic delivery. These data suggest that mRNA loading per particle is a critical factor that accounts for the enhanced mRNA functional delivery of automated LNPs. These mechanistic findings provide valuable insight underlying the enhanced mRNA functional delivery to accelerate future mRNA LNP product development.

Synthesis and bioactivity of readily hydrolysable novel cationic lipids for potential lung delivery application of mRNAs

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) mediated mRNA delivery has gained prominence due to the success of mRNA vaccines against Covid-19, without which it would not have been possible. However, there is little clinical validation of this technology for other mRNA-based therapeutic approaches. Systemic administration of LNPs predominantly targets the liver, but delivery to other organs remains a challenge. Local approaches remain a viable option for some disease indications, such as Cystic Fibrosis, where aerosolized delivery to airway epithelium is the preferred route of administration. With this in mind, novel cationic lipids (L1-L4) have been designed, synthesized and co-formulated with a proprietary ionizable lipid. These LNPs were further nebulized, along with baseline control DOTAP-based LNP (DOTAP⁺), and tested in vitro for mRNA integrity and encapsulation efficiency, as well as transfection efficiency and cytotoxicity in cell cultures. Improved biodegradability and potentially superior elimination profiles of L1-L4, in part due to physicochemical characteristics of putative metabolites, are thought to be advantageous for prospective therapeutic lung delivery applications using these lipids.

Synthetic molecule libraries for nucleic acid delivery: Design parameters in cationic/ionizable lipids and polymers

Recent progress in the design of cationic lipids and polymers has successfully translated nucleic acid drugs into clinical applications, such as the treatment of liver diseases and the prevention of virus infection. Small or large libraries of delivery molecules have been used to find the key chemical structures to protect nucleic acids from nucleases in the extracellular milieu and to facilitate the endosomal escape after endocytosis. This review introduces three essential design parameters (i.e., acid dissociation constant, hydrophobicity, and biodegradability) to develop synthetic molecules for nucleic acid delivery. The significance and mechanism of each parameter are described based on the results obtained from in vitro and in vivo evaluations. Other design parameters were then discussed to create the next generation of delivery molecules for future nucleic acid therapeutics.

Spotlight on the protein corona of liposomes

Although an established drug delivery platform, liposomes have not fulfilled their true potential. In the body, interactions of liposomes are mediated by the layer of plasma proteins adsorbed on the surface, the protein corona. The review aims to collect the data of the last decade on liposome protein corona, tracing the path from interactions of individual proteins to the effects mediated by the protein corona in vivo. It offers a classification of the approaches to exploitation of the protein corona-rather than elimination thereof-based on the bilayer composition-corona composition-molecular interactions-biological performance framework. The multitude of factors that affect each level of this relationship urge to the widest implementation of bioinformatics tools to predict the most effective liposome compositions relying on the data on protein corona. Supplementing the picture with new pieces of accurately reported experimental data will contribute to the accuracy and efficiency of the predictions. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The review focuses on liposomes as an established nanomedicine platform and analyzes the available data on how the protein corona formed on liposome surface in biological fluids affects performance of the liposomes. The review offers a rigorous account of existing literature and critical analysis of methodology currently applied to the assessment of liposome-plasma protein interactions. It introduces a classification of the approaches to exploitation of the protein corona and tailoring liposome carriers to advance the field of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems for the benefit of patients.

Ionization and structural properties of mRNA lipid nanoparticles influence expression in intramuscular and intravascular administration

Lipid Nanoparticles (LNPs) are used to deliver siRNA and COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. The main factor known to determine their delivery efficiency is the pKa of the LNP containing an ionizable lipid. Herein, we report a method that can predict the LNP pKa from the structure of the ionizable lipid. We used theoretical, NMR, fluorescent-dye binding, and electrophoretic mobility methods to comprehensively measure protonation of both the ionizable lipid and the formulated LNP. The pKa of the ionizable lipid was 2-3 units higher than the pKa of the LNP primarily due to proton solvation energy differences between the LNP and aqueous medium. We exploited these results to explain a wide range of delivery efficiencies in vitro and in vivo for intramuscular (IM) and intravascular (IV) administration of different ionizable lipids at escalating ionizable lipid-to-mRNA ratios in the LNP. In addition, we determined that more negatively charged LNPs exhibit higher off-target systemic expression of mRNA in the liver following IM administration. This undesirable systemic off-target expression of mRNA-LNP vaccines could be minimized through appropriate design of the ionizable lipid and LNP.

Carrasco et al. report a method that can predict the lipid nanoparticles (LNP) pKa from the structure of the ionizable lipid. They investigate the delivery efficiency for intramuscular and intravascular administration and propose design principles to limit off-target systemic distribution and expression for mRNA LNP vaccines.

Internalisation and Biological Activity of Nucleic Acids Delivering Cell-Penetrating Peptide Nanoparticles Is Controlled by the Biomolecular Corona

Nucleic acid molecules can be transferred into cells to alter gene expression and, thus, alleviate certain pathological conditions. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are vectors that can be used for transfecting nucleic acids as well as many other compounds. CPPs associate nucleic acids non-covalently, forming stable nanoparticles and providing efficient transfection of cells in vitro. However, in vivo, expected efficiency is achieved only in rare cases. One of the reasons for this discrepancy is the formation of protein corona around nanoparticles, once they are exposed to a biological environment, e.g., blood stream. In this study, we compared protein corona of CPP-nucleic acid nanoparticles formed in the presence of bovine, murine and human serum. We used Western blot and mass-spectrometry to identify the major constituents of protein corona forming around nanoparticles, showing that proteins involved in transport, haemostasis and complement system are its major components. We investigated physical features of nanoparticles and measured their biological efficiency in splice-correction assay. We showed that protein corona constituents might alter the fate of nanoparticles in vivo, e.g., by subjecting them to phagocytosis. We demonstrated that composition of protein corona of nanoparticles is species-specific that leads to dissimilar transfection efficiency and should be considered while developing delivery systems for nucleic acids.

HBV Pre-S1-Derived Myristoylated Peptide (Myr47): Identification of the Inhibitory Activity on the Cellular Uptake of Lipid Nanoparticles

The Myr47 lipopeptide, consisting of hepatitis B virus (HBV) pre-S1 domain (myristoylated 2–48 peptide), is an effective commercialized anti-HBV drug that prevents the interaction of HBV with sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP) on human hepatocytes, an activity which requires both N-myristoylation residue and specific amino acid sequences. We recently reported that Myr47 reduces the cellular uptake of HBV surface antigen (HBsAg, subviral particle of HBV) in the absence of NTCP expression. In this study, we analyzed how Myr47 reduces the cellular uptake of lipid nanoparticles (including liposomes (LPs) and HBsAg) without NTCP expression. By using Myr47 mutants lacking the HBV infection inhibitory activity, they could reduce the cellular uptake of LPs in an N-myristoylation-dependent manner and an amino acid sequence-independent manner, not only in human liver-derived cells but also in human non-liver-derived cells. Moreover, Myr47 and its mutants could reduce the interaction of LPs with apolipoprotein E3 (ApoE3) in an N-myristoylation-dependent manner regardless of their amino acid sequences. From these results, lipopeptides are generally anchored by inserting their myristoyl residue into the lipid bilayer and can inhibit the interaction of LPs/HBsAg with apolipoprotein, thereby reducing the cellular uptake of LPs/HBsAg. Similarly, Myr47 would interact with HBV, inhibiting the uptake of HBV into human hepatic cells, while the inhibitory effect of Myr47 may be secondary to its ability to protect against HBV infection.

Nanomaterial Delivery Systems for mRNA Vaccines

The recent success of mRNA vaccines in SARS-CoV-2 clinical trials is in part due to the development of lipid nanoparticle delivery systems that not only efficiently express the mRNA-encoded immunogen after intramuscular injection, but also play roles as adjuvants and in vaccine reactogenicity. We present an overview of mRNA delivery systems and then focus on the lipid nanoparticles used in the current SARS-CoV-2 vaccine clinical trials. The review concludes with an analysis of the determinants of the performance of lipid nanoparticles in mRNA vaccines.

Development of Lipid Nanoparticles for the Delivery of Macromolecules Based on the Molecular Design of pH-Sensitive Cationic Lipids

Considerable efforts have been made on the development of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for delivering of nucleic acids in LNP-based medicines, including a first-ever short interfering RNA (siRNA) medicine, Onpattro, and the mRNA vaccines against the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which have been approved and are currently in use worldwide. The successful rational design of ionizable cationic lipids was a major breakthrough that dramatically increased delivery efficiency in this field. The LNPs would be expected to be useful as a platform technology for the delivery of various therapeutic modalities for genome editing and even for undiscovered therapeutic mechanisms. In this review, the current progress of my research, including the molecular design of pH-sensitive cationic lipids, their applications for various tissues and cell types, and for delivering various macromolecules, including siRNA, antisense oligonucleotide, mRNA, and the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated (Cas) system will be described. Mechanistic studies regarding relationships between the physicochemical properties of LNPs, drug delivery, and biosafety are also summarized. Furthermore, current issues that need to be addressed for next generation drug delivery systems are discussed.

Lipid Nanoparticles for Cell-Specific in Vivo Targeted Delivery of Nucleic Acids

The last few years have witnessed a great advance in the development of nonviral systems for in vivo targeted delivery of nucleic acids. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are the most promising carriers for producing clinically approved products in the future. Compared with other systems used for nonviral gene delivery, LNPs provide several advantages including higher stability, low toxicity, and greater efficiency. Additionally, systems based on LNPs can be modified with ligands and devices for controlled biodistribution and internalization into specific cells. Efforts are ongoing to improve the efficiency of lipid-based gene vectors. These efforts depend on the appropriate design of nanocarriers as well as the development of new lipids with improved gene delivery ability. Several ionizable lipids have recently been developed and have shown dramatically improved efficiency. However, enhancing the ability of nanocarriers to target specific cells in the body remains the most difficult challenge. Systemically administered LNPs can access organs in which the capillaries are characterized by the presence of fenestrations, such as the liver and spleen. The liver has received the most attention to date, although targeted delivery to the spleen has recently emerged as a promising tool for modulating the immune system. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the use of LNPs for cell-specific targeted delivery of nucleic acids. We focus mainly on targeting liver hepatocytes and spleen immune cells as excellent targets for gene therapy. We also discuss the potential of endothelial cells as an alternate approach for targeting organs with a continuous endothelium.

Evolution of drug delivery system from viewpoint of controlled intracellular trafficking and selective tissue targeting toward future nanomedicine

Due to the rapid changes that have occurred in the field of drug discovery and the recent developments in the early 21st century, the role of drug delivery systems (DDS) has become increasingly more important. For the past 20 years, our laboratory has been developing gene delivery systems based on lipid-based delivery systems. One of our efforts has been directed toward developing a multifunctional envelope-type nano device (MEND) by modifying the particle surface with octaarginine, which resulted in a remarkably enhanced cellular uptake and improved intracellular trafficking of plasmid DNA (pDNA). When we moved to in vivo applications, however, we were faced with the PEG-dilemma and we shifted our strategy to the incorporation of ionizable cationic lipids into our system. This resulted in some dramatic improvements over our original design and this can be attributed to the development of a new lipid library. We have also developed a mitochondrial targeting system based on a membrane fusion mechanism using a MITO-Porter, which can deliver nucleic acids/pDNA into the matrix of mitochondria. After the appearance of antibody medicines, Opdivo, an immune checkpoint inhibitor, has established cancer immunology as the 4th strategy in cancer therapy. Our DDS technologies can also be applied to this new field of cancer therapy to cure cancer by controlling our immune mechanisms. The latest studies are summarized in this review article.

The Biomolecular Corona of Lipid Nanoparticles for Gene Therapy

Gene therapy holds great potential for treating almost any disease by gene silencing, protein expression, or gene correction. To efficiently deliver the nucleic acid payload to its target tissue, the genetic material needs to be combined with a delivery platform. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have proven to be excellent delivery vectors for gene therapy and are increasingly entering into routine clinical practice. Over the past two decades, the optimization of LNP formulations for nucleic acid delivery has led to a well-established body of knowledge culminating in the first-ever RNA interference therapeutic using LNP technology, i.e., Onpattro, and many more in clinical development to deliver various nucleic acid payloads. Screening a lipid library in vivo for optimal gene silencing potency in hepatocytes resulted in the identification of the Onpattro formulation. Subsequent studies discovered that the key to Onpattro's liver tropism is its ability to form a specific "biomolecular corona". In fact, apolipoprotein E (ApoE), among other proteins, adsorbed to the LNP surface enables specific hepatocyte targeting. This proof-of-principle example demonstrates the use of the biomolecular corona for targeting specific receptors and cells, thereby opening up the road to rationally designing LNPs. To date, however, only a few studies have explored in detail the corona of LNPs, and how to efficiently modulate the corona remains poorly understood. In this review, we summarize recent discoveries about the biomolecular corona, expanding the knowledge gained with other nanoparticles to LNPs for nucleic acid delivery. In particular, we address how particle stability, biodistribution, and targeting of LNPs can be influenced by the biological environment. Onpattro is used as a case study to describe both the successful development of an LNP formulation for gene therapy and the key influence of the biological environment. Moreover, we outline the techniques available to isolate and analyze the corona of LNPs, and we highlight their advantages and drawbacks. Finally, we discuss possible implications of the biomolecular corona for LNP delivery and we examine the potential of exploiting the corona as a targeting strategy beyond the liver to develop next-generation gene therapies.

Lipid-based nanoparticle formulations for small molecules and RNA drugs

Introduction: Liposomes and lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) effectively deliver cargo molecules to specific tissues, cells, and cellular compartments. Patients benefit from these nanoparticle formulations by altered pharmacokinetic properties, higher efficacy, or reduced side effects. While liposomes are an established delivery option for small molecules, Onpattro® (Sanofi Genzyme, Cambridge, MA) is the first commercially available LNP formulation of a small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA). Areas covered: This review article summarizes key features of liposomal formulations for small molecule drugs and LNP formulations for RNA therapeutics. We describe liposomal formulations that are commercially available or in late-stage clinical development and the most promising LNP formulations for ASOs, siRNAs, saRNA, and mRNA therapeutics. Expert opinion: Similar to liposomes, LNPs for RNA therapeutics have matured but still possess a niche application status. RNA therapeutics, however, bear an immense hope for difficult to treat diseases and fuel the imagination for further applications of RNA drugs. LNPs face similar challenges as liposomes including limitations in biodistribution, the risk to provoke immune responses, and other toxicities. However, since properties of RNA molecules within the same group are very similar, the entire class of therapeutic molecules would benefit from improvements in a few key parameters of the delivery technology.

Different kinetics for the hepatic uptake of lipid nanoparticles between the apolipoprotein E/low density lipoprotein receptor and the N-acetyl-d-galactosamine/asialoglycoprotein receptor pathway

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are one of the more promising technologies for efficiently delivering nucleic acids in vivo. Hepatocytes are the primary target cells of LNPs that are delivered via the apolipoprotein E (ApoE)-low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) pathway, an endogenous targeting pathway. This robust targeting mechanism results in the specific and efficient delivery of nucleic acids to hepatocytes. Trivalent N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (GalNAc) is known to be a high-affinity exogenous ligand against the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR), which is highly expressed on hepatocytes. In this study, we report that the kinetics of the hepatic uptake process between the two types of targeting pathways are different. Rapid blood clearance, accumulation to the space of Disse and a subsequent slow cellular uptake was observed in the case of the endogenous ApoE-LDLR pathway. On the other hand, both blood clearance and cellular uptake were more gradual in the case of the exogenous GalNAc-ASGPR pathway. Interactions between ApoE-bound LNPs and hepatic heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) were involved in the rapid blood clearance and accumulation to the space of Disse in the case of the endogenous pathway. The findings presented here contribute to a more precise understanding of the mechanism of hepatic uptake and to the rational design of hepatocyte-targeting nanoparticles.

Gene delivery into hepatic cells with ternary complexes of plasmid DNA, cationic liposomes and apolipoprotein E-derived peptide

Cationic liposomes containing a cationic lipid, such as 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane (DOTAP), have often been used for the transduction of plasmid DNA (pDNA) in vivo. However, such liposomes induce gene expression primarily in the lungs after intravenous injection. To improve the delivery of cationic liposomes/pDNA complexes (pDNA lipoplexes) to the liver by intravenous administration, the current study synthesized two apolipoprotein E (ApoE)-derived peptides, dApoE-R9 and ApoE-F-R9, for liver targeting via certain ApoE receptors, including the low-density lipoprotein receptor. Ternary complexes of pDNA, cationic liposomes and ApoE-R9 peptide were also prepared. After in vitro transfection, ternary complexes with DOTAP/1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE) liposomes exhibited high transfection activity in HepG2 cells compared with DOTAP/cholesterol (Chol) liposomes. In particular, ternary complexes with dApoE-R9 exhibited high transfection activity in cells compared with ApoE-F-R9. However, in vivo transfection studies revealed that ternary complexes with DOTAP/DOPE liposomes and dApoE-R9 did not increase gene expression in the liver compared with DOTAP/DOPE lipoplexes. In contrast, ternary complexes with DOTAP/Chol liposomes and dApoE-R9 increased gene expression in the liver compared with DOTAP/Chol lipoplexes. The results demonstrated that the in vivo optimal liposomal formulation in ternary complexes with ApoE-R9 peptide for liver delivery were different from those that were in vitro.

Spleen selective enhancement of transfection activities of plasmid DNA driven by octaarginine and an ionizable lipid and its implications for cancer immunization

Efficiently delivering plasmid DNA (pDNA) to the spleen is particularly significant for DNA immunization. However, increasing the efficiency of gene expression in spleen cells for achieving a therapeutic effect remains a serious challenge. An ideal spleen-targeted system should avoid liver uptake and should efficiently transfect specific functional spleen cells. Here, we report on pDNA nanocarriers with enhanced transfection in spleen cells driven by synergism between an octaarginine (R8) peptide and YSK05; a pH-responsive ionizable lipid. A double-coating design is essential for enhancing spleen selective transfection which is significantly affected by the total amount of lipid and the composition of the outer coat. The optimized R8/YSK system shows a high gene expression in the spleen with a high spleen/liver ratio and a surprising ability to target spleen B cells. Compared to other organs, the high spleen activity cannot be explained based on the amount of pDNA delivered to each organ, indicating that the system is extremely efficient in transfecting spleen cells. The system can be used in cancer immunization where a strong anti-tumor effect was observed in mice immunized with the R8/YSK system encapsulating antigen-encoding pDNA. The R8/YSK system holds great promise for future applications in the field of DNA vaccination.

Recent advances in the targeting of systemically administered non-viral gene delivery systems

Introduction: Systemically administered non-viral gene delivery systems face multiple biological barriers that decrease their efficiency. These systems are rapidly cleared from the circulation and sufficient concentrations do not accumulate in diseased tissues. A number of targeting strategies can be used to provide for sufficient accumulation in the desired tissues to achieve a therapeutic effect. Areas covered: We discuss recent advances in the targeting of non-viral gene delivery systems to different tissues after systemic administration. We compare passive and active targeting applied for tumor delivery and propose some strategies that can be used to overcome the drawbacks of each case. We also discuss targeting the liver and lungs as two particularly important organs in gene therapy. Expert opinion: There is currently no optimum non-viral gene delivery system for targeting genes to specific tissues. The dose delivered to tumor tissues using passive targeting is low and shows a high patient variation. Although active targeting can enhance binding to specific cells, only a few reports are available to support its value in vivo. The design of smart nanocarriers for promoting active targeting is urgently needed and targeting the endothelium is a promising strategy for gene delivery to tumors as well as other organs.

Lipid nanoparticle-mediated siRNA delivery for safe targeting of human CML in vivo

Efficient and safe delivery of siRNA in vivo is the biggest roadblock to clinical translation of RNA interference (RNAi)-based therapeutics. To date, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have shown efficient delivery of siRNA to the liver; however, delivery to other organs, especially hematopoietic tissues still remains a challenge. We developed DLin-MC3-DMA lipid-based LNP-siRNA formulations for systemic delivery against a driver oncogene to target human chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cells in vivo. A microfluidic mixing technology was used to obtain reproducible ionizable cationic LNPs loaded with siRNA molecules targeting the BCR-ABL fusion oncogene found in CML. We show a highly efficient and non-toxic delivery of siRNA in vitro and in vivo with nearly 100% uptake of LNP-siRNA formulations in bone marrow of a leukemic model. By targeting the BCR-ABL fusion oncogene, we show a reduction of leukemic burden in our myeloid leukemia mouse model and demonstrate reduced disease burden in mice treated with LNP-BCR-ABL siRNA as compared with LNP-CTRL siRNA. Our study provides proof-of-principle that fusion oncogene specific RNAi therapeutics can be exploited against leukemic cells and promise novel treatment options for leukemia patients.