Layered self-assemblies for controlled drug delivery: A translational overview

Rapid isolation and recovery of Salmonella using hollow glass microspheres coated with multilayered nanofilms

Timely isolation, recovery, and identification of Salmonella from food samples is essential for prevention and control of foodborne Salmonella outbreaks. Traditional culture-based Salmonella isolation and serotyping techniques are time consuming and labor intensive. Despite the progress of innovative microfluidic or immunomagnetic isolation techniques, sophisticated lab equipment and microfabrication are often needed. Here, we present a novel, rapid yet simple method for isolation and recovery of Salmonella from mixed bacterial populations in food matrices and blood. This method utilizes self-floating hollow glass microspheres (HGMS) coated with biodegradable layer-by-layer (LbL) films and Salmonella specific antibodies. The isolation and recovery process can be completed in less than 2 h, without any sophisticated laboratory equipment or external force. In this study, we demonstrate that Salmonella can be captured due to antigen-antibody interactions on the surface of HGMS, allowing them to float to the top. The HGMS can then be washed and subjected to enzymatic degradation of the LbL film to recover the captured bacteria. The recovered Salmonella can subsequently be grown on selective agar plates for further analysis. Recovery efficiency of up to 22 % and detection limit of 100 CFU/mL were achieved. This method is expected to provide a viable alternative to traditional isolation techniques, especially in resource limited areas.

The pursuit of linear dosage in pharmacy: reservoir-based drug delivery systems from macro to micro scale

INTRODUCTION

The pursuit of linear dosage in pharmacy is essential for achieving consistent therapeutic release and enhancing patient compliance. This review provides a comprehensive summary of zero-order drug delivery systems, with a particular focus on reservoir-based systems emanated from different microfabrication technologies.

AREAS COVERED

The consideration of recent advances in drug delivery systems is given to encompass the key areas including the importance of achieving a constant drug release rate for therapeutic applications. Detailed examination of reservoir-based systems, their design, mechanisms of action and materials used are highlighted. By addressing these areas, the discussion aims to provide a thorough understanding of most recent zero-order drug delivery systems, their performance advantages and methods of their manufacturing. To ensure the complete coverage of the explored research area, modern AI-assistant tools were used to find not only the most relevant, but also connected and similar articles.

EXPERT OPINION

Future developments in reservoir-based drug delivery systems are expected to significantly enhance therapeutic effectiveness and patient outcomes through the integration of innovative materials and technologies. The fabrication of intelligent drug delivery systems that utilize sensors and feedback mechanisms can enable real-time monitoring of drug release and patient reactions.

Recent advances of copper-based metal phenolic networks in biomedical applications

Metal-phenolic Networks (MPNs) are a novel class of nanomaterial developed gradually in recent years which are self-assembled by metal ions and polyphenolic ligands. Due to their environmental protection, good adhesion, and biocompatibility with green phenolic ligands, MPNs can be used as a new type of nanomaterial. They show excellent properties such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer, and have been widely studied in the biomedical field. As one of the most common subclasses of the MPNs family, copper-based MPNs have been widely studied for drug delivery, Photodynamic Therapy (PDT), Chemo dynamic Therapy (CDT), antibacterial and anti-inflammatory, bone tissue regeneration, skin regeneration wound repair, and metal ion imaging. In this paper, the preparation strategies of different types of copper-based MPNs are reviewed. Then, the application status of copper-based MPNs in the biomedical field under different polyphenol ligands is introduced in detail. Finally, the existing problems and challenges of copper-based MPNs are discussed, as well as their future application prospects in the biomedical field.

Modular Assembly of Photoactive Lipid Nanoparticles on Red Blood Cells toward Enhanced Phototherapy Efficacy

Photodynamic therapy has been developed as a promising treatment for malignant tumors, which inspires research into photosensitizers. However, the therapeutic efficacy of individual photosensitizers is often hampered by the physiological environment. The assembly of biological materials with synthetic molecules offers a strategy to enhance functionality while improving tolerance to varying physiological conditions. Herein, we present a biohybrid system for enhanced phototherapy efficacy through a simple two-step assembly process. Photoactive lipid nanoparticles were assembled based on synthesized conjugated molecules and lipophilic prodrugs, which were then modularly assembled with red blood cells (RBCs). Driven by hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic conjugated molecules were efficiently incorporated into the RBCs, while lipophilic prodrugs were simultaneously inserted into the cell membranes. The engineered RBCs harnessed the natural oxygen transport capability, enabling the internal conjugated molecules to effectively produce reactive oxygen species (ROSs) even under oxygen-poor conditions. Meanwhile, the use of ROS-cleavable linkers in prodrugs enhanced drug release for chemotherapy, which is a perfect complement to photodynamic therapy. In vitro and in vivo experiments proved the improved phototherapy efficacy of the biohybrid system. Furthermore, the changes in aggregation directed Förster resonance energy transfer between conjugated molecules and fluorescent drugs provided a mechanism to track drug release from engineered RBCs. Therefore, the modular assembly of biohybrid systems can offer multiple functionalities required for phototherapy, on-demand drug release, and imaging.

Zinc finger-inspired peptide-metal-phenolic nanointerface enhances bone-implant integration under bacterial infection microenvironment through immune modulation and osteogenesis promotion

Orthopedic and dental implantations under bacterial infection microenvironment face significant challenges in achieving high-quality bone-implant integration. Designing implant coatings that incorporate both immune defense and anti-inflammation is difficult in conventional single-functional coatings. We introduce a multifunctional nanointerface using a zinc finger-inspired peptide-metal-phenolic nanocoating, designed to enhance implant osseointegration under such conditions. Abaloparatide (ABL), a second-generation anabolic drug for treating osteoporosis, can be integrated into the design of a zinc-phenolic network constructed on the implant surface (ABL@ZnTA). Importantly, the phenolic-coordinated Zn2+ ions in ABL@ZnTA can act as zinc finger motif to co-stabilize the configuration of ABL through multiple molecular interactions, enabling high bioactivity, high loading capacity (1.36 times), and long-term release (>7 days) of ABL. Our results showed that ABL@ZnTA can modulate macrophage polarization from the pro-inflammatory M1 towards the anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype, promoting immune osteogenesis with increased OCN, ALP, and SOD 1 expression. Furthermore, the ABL@ZnTA significantly reduces inflammatory fibrous tissue encapsulation and enhances the long-term stability of the implants, indicated by enhanced binding strength (6 times) and functional connectivity (1.5-3 times) in the rat bone defect model infected by S. aureus. Overall, our research offers a nano-enabled synergistic strategy that balances infection defense and osteogenesis promotion in orthopedic and dental implantations.

Self-assembled metal-phenolic network nanoparticles for delivery of a cisplatin prodrug for synergistic chemo-immunotherapy

Despite cisplatin's pivotal role in clinically proven anticancer drugs, its application has been hampered by severe side effects and a grim prognosis. Herein, we devised a glutathione (GSH)-responsive nanoparticle (PFS-NP) that integrates a disulfide bond-based amphiphilic polyphenol (PP-SS-DA), a dopamine-modified cisplatin prodrug (Pt-OH) and iron ions (Fe3+) through coordination reactions between Fe3+ and phenols. After entering cells, the responsively released Pt-OH and disulfide bonds eliminate the intracellular GSH, in turn disrupting the redox homeostasis. Meanwhile, the activated cisplatin elevates the intracellular H2O2 level through cascade reactions. This is further utilized to produce highly toxic hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) catalyzed by the Fe3+-based Fenton reaction. Thus, the amplified oxidative stress leads to immunogenic cell death (ICD), promoting the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and ultimately activating the anti-tumor immune system. This innovative cisplatin prodrug nanoparticle approach offers a promising reference for minimizing side effects and optimizing the therapeutic effects of cisplatin-based drugs.

Alternating Magnetic Field Generation and Interaction with Magnetic Polyelectrolyte Microcapsules

Layer-by-Layer (LbL) microcapsules with iron oxide nanoparticles facilitate smart drug delivery in the presence of an alternating magnetic field. A high-frequency alternating magnetic field (AMF) has been commonly used to induce hyperthermia for killing tumor tissues. This technique, however, could harm normal tissues. To achieve a safe drug delivery approach, we fabricate and test a device producing a low-frequency alternating magnetic field to interact with magnetic LbL capsules and induce smart release. The nanoparticles act as a vehicle that can be used to guide the microcapsule to targeted areas and as a mechanism to release compounds in the area of interest. Using scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy we can visualize the interaction of the alternating magnetic field with polyelectrolyte microcapsules containing iron oxide nanoparticles. We have created a system that we consider to be a robust framework for exploring the role of Layer-by-Layer microcapsules in targeted drug therapy.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

The recent emergence of nanomedicine has revolutionized the therapeutic landscape and necessitated the creation of more sophisticated drug delivery systems. Polymeric nanoparticles sit at the forefront of numerous promising drug delivery designs, due to their unmatched control over physiochemical properties such as size, shape, architecture, charge, and surface functionality. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles have the ability to navigate various biological barriers to precisely target specific sites within the body, encapsulate a diverse range of therapeutic cargo and efficiently release this cargo in response to internal and external stimuli. However, despite these remarkable advantages, the presence of polymeric nanoparticles in wider clinical application is minimal. This review will provide a comprehensive understanding of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. The biological barriers affecting drug delivery will be outlined first, followed by a comprehensive description of the various nanoparticle designs and preparation methods, beginning with the polymers on which they are based. The review will meticulously explore the current performance of polymeric nanoparticles against a myriad of diseases including cancer, viral and bacterial infections, before finally evaluating the advantages and crucial challenges that will determine their wider clinical potential in the decades to come.

Biodegradable Local Chemotherapy Platform with Prolonged and Controlled Release of Doxorubicin for the Prevention of Local Tumor Recurrence

Local recurrence after surgical and therapeutic treatment remains a significant clinical problem in oncology. Recurrence may be due to imperfections in existing therapies, particularly chemotherapy. To improve antitumor activity and prevent local cancer recurrence while keeping toxicity at acceptable levels, we have developed and demonstrated a biodegradable local chemotherapy platform that provides controlled and prolonged drug release. The platform consists of a polycaprolactone (PCL) substrate, which provides the structural integrity of the platform and the predominant unidirectional drug release, and a thin multilayer coating (∼200 nm) containing doxorubicin (DOX). The coating is an electrostatic complex obtained by the layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly and consists of natural polyelectrolytes [poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) and chitosan (CS) or poly-l-lysine (PLL)]. To improve the release stability, an ionic conjugate of DOX and γ-PGA was prepared and incorporated into the multilayer coating. By varying the structure of the coating by adding empty (without DOX) bilayers, we were able to control the kinetics of drug release. The resulting platforms contained equal numbers of empty bilayers and DOX-loaded bilayers (15 + 15 or 30 + 30 bilayers) with a maximum loading of 566 ng/cm2. The platforms demonstrated prolonged and fairly uniform drug release for more than 5 months while retaining antitumor activity in vitro on ovarian cancer cells (SKOV-3). The empty platforms (without DOX) showed good cytocompatibility and no cytotoxicity to human fibroblasts and SKOV-3 cells. This study presents the development of a local chemotherapy platform consisting of a PCL-based substrate which provides structural stability and a biodegradable polyelectrolyte layered coating which combines layers containing a polyanion ionic complex with DOX with empty bilayers to ensure prolonged and controlled drug release. Our results may provide a basis for improving the efficacy of chemotherapy using drug delivery systems.

Colon-Targeted Oral Delivery of Hydroxyethyl Starch-Curcumin Microcapsules Loaded with Multiple Drugs Alleviates DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis in Mice

Combination therapy through colon-targeted oral delivery of multiple drugs presents a promising approach for effectively treating ulcerative colitis (UC). However, the codelivery of drugs with diverse physicochemical properties in a single formulation remains a formidable challenge. Here, microcapsules are designed based on hydroxyethyl starch-curcumin (HES─CUR) conjugates to enable the simultaneous delivery of hydrophobic dexamethasone acetate (DA) and hydrophilic cefazolin sodium (CS), yielding multiple drug-loaded microcapsules (CS/DA-loaded HES─CUR microcapsules, CDHC-MCs) tailored for colon-targeted therapy of UC. Thorough characterization confirms the successful synthesis and exceptional biocompatibility of CDHC-MCs. Biodistribution studies demonstrate that the microcapsules exhibit an impressive inflammatory targeting effect, accumulating preferentially in inflamed colons. In vivo experiments employing a dextran-sulfate-sodium-induced UC mouse model reveal that CDHC-MCs not only arrest UC progression but also facilitate the restoration of colon length and alleviate inflammation-related splenomegaly. These findings highlight the potential of colon-targeted delivery of multiple drugs within a single formulation as a promising strategy to enhance UC treatment, and the CDHC-MCs developed in this study hold great potential in developing novel oral formulations for advanced UC therapy.

Physicochemical Features and Applicability of Newly Fabricated Phytopharmaceutical-Loaded Hydrogel Alginate Microcarriers with Viscoelastic Polyelectrolyte Coatings

The design of novel polymeric carrier systems with functional coatings is of great interest for delivering various bioactive molecules. Microcapsules coated with polyelectrolyte (PE) films provide additional functionality and fine-tuning advantages essential for controlled drug release. We developed hydrogel microcarriers coated with functional PE films with encapsulated substances of natural origin, resveratrol (RES), curcumin (CUR), and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), which have cytotoxic and chemopreventive properties. Alginate (ALG) based microparticles were loaded with phytopharmaceuticals using the emulsification method, and then their surface was modified with PE coatings, such as chitosan (CHIT) or poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH). The morphology and mean diameter of microcarriers were characterised by scanning electron microscopy, encapsulation efficiency was determined by UV-Vis spectroscopy, whereas the physicochemical properties of functional PE layers were studied using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring and streaming potential measurements. The release profiles of active compounds from the hydrogel microparticles were described using the Peppas-Sahlin model. The cytotoxic effect of designed delivery systems was studied by evaluating their impact on the proliferation, mitochondrial metabolic function, and lipid peroxidation level of 5637 human bladder cancer cells. The present work demonstrates that the physicochemical and biological features of fabricated microcarriers can be controlled by the type of encapsulated anti-cancer agent and PE coating.

Multilayered Shape-Morphing Scaffolds with a Hierarchical Structure for Uterine Tissue Regeneration

Owing to dysfunction of the uterus, millions of couples around the world suffer from infertility. Different from conventional treatments, tissue engineering provides a new and promising approach to deal with difficult problems such as human tissue or organ failure. Adopting scaffold-based tissue engineering, three-dimensional (3D) porous scaffolds in combination with stem cells and appropriate biomolecules may be constructed for uterine tissue regeneration. In this study, a hierarchical tissue engineering scaffold, which mimicked the uterine tissue structure and functions, was designed, and the biomimicking scaffolds were then successfully fabricated using solvent casting, layer-by-layer assembly, and 3D bioprinting techniques. For the multilayered, hierarchical structured scaffolds, poly(l-lactide-co-trimethylene carbonate) (PLLA-co-TMC, "PLATMC" in short) and poly(lactic acid-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) blends were first used to fabricate the shape-morphing layer of the scaffolds, which was to mimic the function of myometrium in uterine tissue. The PLATMC/PLGA polymer blend scaffolds were highly stretchable. Subsequently, after etching of the PLATMC/PLGA surface and employing estradiol (E2), polydopamine (PDA), and hyaluronic acid (HA), PDA@E2/HA multilayer films were formed on PLATMC/PLGA scaffolds to build an intelligent delivery platform to enable controlled and sustained release of E2. The PDA@E2/HA multilayer films also improved the biological performance of the scaffold. Finally, a layer of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC)-laden hydrogel [which was a blend of gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) and gelatin (Gel)] was 3D printed on the PDA@E2/HA multilayer films of the scaffold, thereby completing the construction of the hierarchical scaffold. BMSCs in the GelMA/Gel hydrogel layer exhibited excellent cell viability and could spread and be released eventually upon biodegradation of the GelMA/Gel hydrogel. It was shown that the hierarchically structured scaffolds could evolve from the initial flat shape into the tubular structure completely in an aqueous environment at 37 °C, fulfilling the requirement for curved scaffolds for uterine tissue engineering. The biomimicking scaffolds with a hierarchical structure and curved shape, high stretchability, and controlled and sustained E2 release appear to be very promising for uterine tissue regeneration.

Structural and Morphological Features of Anisotropic Chitosan Hydrogels Obtained by Ion-Induced Neutralization in a Triethanolamine Medium

For the first time, anisotropic hydrogel material with a highly oriented structure was obtained by the chemical reaction of polymer-analogous transformation of chitosan glycolate-chitosan base using triethanolamine (TEA) as a neutralizing reagent. Tangential bands or concentric rings, depending on the reaction conditions, represent the structural anisotropy of the hydrogel. The formation kinetics and the ratio of the positions of these periodic structures are described by the Liesegang regularities. Detailed information about the bands is given (formation time, coordinate, width, height, and formation rate). The supramolecular ordering anisotropy of the resulting material was evaluated both by the number of Liesegang bands (up to 16) and by the average values of the TEA diffusion coefficient ((15-153) × 10-10 and (4-33) × 10-10 m2/s), corresponding to the initial and final phase of the experiment, respectively. The minimum chitosan concentration required to form a spatial gel network and, accordingly, a layered anisotropic structure was estimated as 1.5 g/dL. Morphological features of the structural anisotropic ordering of chitosan Liesegang structures are visualized by scanning electron microscopy. The hemocompatibility of the material obtained was tested, and its high sorption-desorption properties were evaluated using the example of loading-release of cholecalciferol (loading degree ~35-45%, 100% desorption within 25-28 h), which was observed for a hydrophobic substance inside a chitosan-based material for the first time.

In situ stimulus-responsive self-assembled nanomaterials for drug delivery and disease treatment

The individual motifs that respond to specific stimuli for the self-assembly of nanomaterials play important roles. In situ constructed nanomaterials are formed spontaneously without human intervention and have promising applications in bioscience. However, due to the complex physiological environment of the human body, designing stimulus-responsive self-assembled nanomaterials in vivo is a challenging problem for researchers. In this article, we discuss the self-assembly principles of various nanomaterials in response to the tissue microenvironment, cell membrane, and intracellular stimuli. We propose the applications and advantages of in situ self-assembly in drug delivery and disease diagnosis and treatment, with a focus on in situ self-assembly at the lesion site, especially in cancer. Additionally, we introduce the significance of introducing exogenous stimulation to construct self-assembly in vivo. Based on this foundation, we put forward the prospects and possible challenges in the field of in situ self-assembly. This review uncovers the relationship between the structure and properties of in situ self-assembled nanomaterials and provides new ideas for innovative drug molecular design and development to solve the problems in the targeted delivery and precision medicine.

A Bird's Eye View of Various Cell-Based Biomimetic Nanomedicines for the Treatment of Arthritis

Arthritis is the inflammation and tenderness of the joints because of some metabolic, infectious, or constitutional reasons. Existing arthritis treatments help in controlling the arthritic flares, but more advancement is required to cure arthritis meticulously. Biomimetic nanomedicine represents an exceptional biocompatible treatment to cure arthritis by minimizing the toxic effect and eliminating the boundaries of current therapeutics. Various intracellular and extracellular pathways can be targeted by mimicking the surface, shape, or movement of the biological system to form a bioinspired or biomimetic drug delivery system. Different cell-membrane-coated biomimetic systems, and extracellular-vesicle-based and platelets-based biomimetic systems represent an emerging and efficient class of therapeutics to treat arthritis. The cell membrane from various cells such as RBC, platelets, macrophage cells, and NK cells is isolated and utilized to mimic the biological environment. Extracellular vesicles isolated from arthritis patients can be used as diagnostic tools, and plasma or MSCs-derived extracellular vesicles can be used as a therapeutic target for arthritis. Biomimetic systems guide the nanomedicines to the targeted site by hiding them from the surveillance of the immune system. Nanomedicines can be functionalized using targeted ligand and stimuli-responsive systems to reinforce their efficacy and minimize off-target effects. This review expounds on various biomimetic systems and their functionalization for the therapeutic targets of arthritis treatment, and discusses the challenges for the clinical translation of the biomimetic system.

Recent advancements in design of nucleic acid nanocarriers for controlled drug delivery

Research of nanoscale nucleic acid carriers has garnered attention in recent years due to their distinctive and controllable properties. However, current knowledge is limited in how we can efficiently utilize these systems for clinical applications. Several researchers have pioneered new and innovative nanocarrier drug delivery systems, but understanding physiochemical properties and behavior in vivo is vital to implementing them as clinical drug delivery platforms. In this review, we outline the most significant innovations in the synthesis, physical properties, and utilization of nucleic acid nanocarriers in the past 5 years, addressing the crucial properties which improve nanocarrier characteristics, delivery, and drug release. The challenges of controlling the transport of nucleic acid nanocarriers and therapeutic release for biological applications are outlined. Barriers which inhibit effective transport into tissue are discussed with emphasis on the modifications needed to overcome such obstacles. The novel strategies discussed in this work summarize the pivotal features of modern nucleic nanocarriers and postulate where future developments could revolutionize the translation of these tools into a clinical setting.

Facile preparation of a metal-phenolic network-based lymph node targeting nanovaccine for antitumor immunotherapy

Cancer vaccines are being explored for enhanced cancer immunotherapy and prophylaxis. Some of their prevailing weaknesses, however, such as complicated preparation, poor biocompatibility, and failure to elicit strong cellular immune responses, have limited their further clinical applications. Here, we reported a multifunctional nanovaccine that was prepared in a quick and simple way. During the self-assembly of metal-phenolic networks (MPNs), the antigen ovalbumin (OVA) and immunoreactive chlorogenic acid (CHA) were simultaneously loaded. Owing to its dual pH and reduction sensitivities, the nanovaccine could deliver antigens into the cytoplasm of dendritic cells (DCs) and facilitate the cross-presentation of antigens. Moreover, the results of in vivo immunization assays demonstrated that the nanovaccine significantly excited the antigen presentation of DCs and provoked a robust cellular immune response with the restrained activation of regulatory T cells (Tregs), by targeting lymph nodes and executing the function of CHA. In vivo antitumor assays indicated that the nanovaccine with good biocompatibility afforded conspicuous cancer treatment and prevention effects. Overall, the nanovaccine presented in this study shows a promise for potentiating cancer immunotherapy by the lymph node-targeted delivery. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Cancer nanovaccines can be used for cancer immunotherapy. However, some existing shortcomings, such as cumbersome preparation, poor biocompatibility, and failure to elicit strong immune responses, limit the clinical application of cancer nanovaccines. This study developed a multifunctional nanovaccine that was readily prepared through the self-assembly of metal-phenolic networks. The nanovaccine with dual pH and reduction sensitivities could efficiently promote the antigen lysosome escape and cross-presentation. In vivo, it efficiently delivered antigen into lymph nodes and provoked strong cellular immune responses, and thus it showed significant cancer immunotherapy and prevention effect.

A decade of developing applications exploiting the properties of polyelectrolyte multilayer capsules

Transferring the layer-by-layer (LbL) coating approach from planar surfaces to spherical templates and subsequently dissolving these templates leads to the fabrication of polyelectrolyte multilayer capsules. The versatility of the coatings of capsules and their flexibility upon bringing in virtually any material into the coatings has quickly drawn substantial attention. Here, we provide an overview of the main developments in this field, highlighting the trends in the last decade. In the beginning, various methods of encapsulation and release are discussed followed by a broad range of applications, which were developed and explored. We also outline the current trends, where the range of applications is continuing to grow, including addition of whole new and different application areas.

Layer-by-layer self-assembled emerging systems for nanosized drug delivery

New frontiers in the development of stimuli-responsive surfaces that offer switchable properties according to the end-use application have added a new dimension to the design of drug-delivery systems (DDS). In this respect, layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembled technologies have attracted interest in nano-DDS (NDDS) design due to the advantage of encapsulating different drug types either individually or in multiple formulations as an easy-to-apply and cost-effective strategy. LbL-based microcapsules and core-shell structures in the form of polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs) have been proposed as versatile vehicles for NDDS over the last quarter. This review aims to provide a global view of LbL-PEMs used as templates in NDDS for the last 5 years with an emphasis on emerging drug loading and release strategies.

pH-Responsive Polyelectrolyte Coatings that Enable Catheter-Mediated Transfer of DNA to the Arterial Wall in Short and Clinically Relevant Inflation Times

We report the design and characterization of pH-responsive polymer coatings that enable catheter balloon-mediated transfer of DNA to arterial tissue in short, clinically relevant inflation times. Our approach exploits the pH-dependent ionization of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) to promote disassembly and release of plasmid DNA from polyelectrolyte multilayers. We characterized the contact transfer of multilayers composed of PAA, plasmid DNA, and linear poly(ethyleneimine) (LPEI) identified as promising in prior studies on the delivery of DNA to arterial tissue. In contrast to thinner films evaluated previously, we found thicker coatings composed of 32 repeating (LPEI/PAA/LPEI/DNA)_x tetralayers to swell substantially in physiologically relevant media (in PBS; pH = 7.4). In some cases, these coatings also disintegrated or delaminated rapidly from their underlying substrates, suggesting the potential for enhanced balloon-mediated transfer. We developed a technically straightforward agarose gel-based hole-insertion model to characterize factors (inflation time, lumen size, etc.) that influence contact transfer of DNA when film-coated balloons are inflated into contact with soft surfaces. Those studies and the results of in vivo experiments using small animal (rat) and large animal (pig) models of peripheral arterial injury revealed catheters coated with these materials to promote robust contact transfer of DNA to soft hydrogel surfaces and the luminal surfaces of arterial tissue using inflation times as short as 30 s. These short inflation times are relevant in the context of clinical vascular interventions in peripheral arteries. Additional studies demonstrated that contact transfer of DNA using these short times can promote subsequent dissemination and transport of DNA to the medial tissue layer, suggesting the potential for use in therapeutically relevant applications of balloon-mediated gene transfer.

Nanotechnology based drug delivery systems: Does shape really matter?

As of today, the era of nanomedicine has brought numerous breakthroughs and overcome challenges in the treatment of various disorders. Various factors like size, charge and surface hydrophilicity have garnered significant attention by nanotechnologists. However, more exploration in the field of nanoparticle shape and geometry, one of the basic physical phenomenon is required. Tuning nanoparticle shape and geometry could potentially overcome pitfalls in therapeutics and biomedical fields. Thus, in this article, we unveil the importance of tuning nanoparticle shape selection across the delivery platforms. This article provides an in-depth understanding of nanoparticle shape modulation and advise the researchers on the ideal morphology selection tailored for each implication. We deliberated the importance of nanoparticle shape selection for specific implications with respect to organ targeting, cellular internalization, pharmacokinetics and bio-distribution, protein corona formation as well as RES evasion and tumor targeting. An additional section on the significance of shape transformation, a recently introduced novel avenue with applications in drug delivery was discussed. Furthermore, regulatory concerns towards nanoparticle shape which need to be addressed for harnessing their clinical translation will be explained.

Update of ultrasound-assembling fabrication and biomedical applications for heterogeneous polymer composites

As a power-driving approach, ultrasound irradiation is very appealing to the preparation or modification of new materials. In the review, we overviewed the latest development of ultrasound-mediated effects or reactions in polymer composites, and demonstrated its unique and powerful aspects on the polymerization or aggregation. The review generalized the different categories of heterogeneous polymer composites by defining the constituents, and described the shapes, sizes and basic properties of various purpose-specific or site-specific products. Importantly, the review paid more attention to the main biomedicine applications of heterogeneous polymer composites, such as drug or bioactive substance entrapment, delivery, release, imaging, and therapy, and emphasized many advantages of ultrasound-assembling approaches and heterogeneous polymer composites in biology and medicine fields. In addition, the review also indicated the prospective challenges of heterogeneous polymer composites both in ultrasound-assembling designs and in biomedical applications.

Surface Self-Assembly Construction of Therapeutic Contact Lens with Bacterial "Kill-Releasing" and Drug-Reloading Capabilities for Efficient Bacterial Keratitis Treatment

Bacterial keratitis, an ophthalmic emergency, can cause corneal perforation and even endophthalmitis, thus leading to severe visual impairment. To achieve effective treatment of bacterial keratitis, good bioavailability of antimicrobial drugs on the ocular surface is desired. In this investigation, a layer-by-layer (LBL) self-assembly combined with the host-guest recognition was used to construct an antibacterial coating on the surface of corneal contact lens (CLs) to improve drug bioavailability and achieve successful treatment of bacterial keratitis. First, a radical copolymerization of acrylic acid (AA) and 1-adamantan-1-ylmethyl acrylate (AdA) was carried out to synthesize a polyanionic copolymer P(AA-co-AdA) (defined as PAcA). Then, PAcA copolymer combined with poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI) was used for a layer-by-layer (LBL) self-assembly to fabricate multilayer films on the surface of CLs. An antibacterial conjugate, β-cyclodextrin-levofloxacin (β-CD-LEV), was successfully synthesized and utilized to generate antibacterial coating through a host-guest interaction between AdA and β-CD-LEV. The antibacterial ability and treatment effect of bacterial keratitis was evaluated by in vitro assay and in vivo test in an animal model of staphylococcal keratitis, demonstrating that the antibacterial coating had good antibacterial and germicidal efficacy both in vivo and in vitro. We believe that this work will provide a promising strategy for the treatment of bacterial keratitis.

Layer-by-layer assembly methods and their biomedical applications

Various biomedical applications arising due to the development of different LbL assembly methods with unique process properties.

Natural polysaccharides based self-assembled nanoparticles for biomedical applications - A review

In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) derived from the self-assembly of natural polysaccharides have shown great potential in the biomedical field. Here, we described several self-assembly modes of natural polysaccharides in detail, summarized the natural polysaccharides mostly used for self-assembly, and provided insights into the current applications and achievements of these self-assembled NPs. As one of the most widespread substances in nature, most natural polysaccharides exhibit advantages of biodegradability, low immunogenicity, low toxicity, and degradable properties. Therefore, they have been fully explored, and the application of chitosan, hyaluronic acid, alginate, starch, and their derivatives has been extensively studied, especially in the fields of biomedical. Polysaccharides based NPs were proved to improve the solubility of insoluble drugs, enhance tissue target ability and realize the controlled and sustained release of drugs. When modified by hydrophobic groups, the amphiphilic polysaccharides can self-assemble into NPs. Other driven forces of self-assembly include electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonds. Up to the present, polysaccharides-based nanoparticles have been widely applied for tumor treatment, antibacterial application, gene therapy, photodynamic therapy and transporting insulin.

Coaxial Electrospun PLLA Fibers Modified with Water-Soluble Materials for Oligodendrocyte Myelination

Myelin sheaths are essential in maintaining the integrity of axons. Development of the platform for in vitro myelination would be especially useful for demyelinating disease modeling and drug screening. In this study, a fiber scaffold with a core-shell structure was prepared in one step by the coaxial electrospinning method. A high-molecular-weight polymer poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) was used as the core, while the shell was a natural polymer material such as hyaluronic acid (HA), sodium alginate (SA), or chitosan (CS). The morphology, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR), contact angle, viability assay, and in vitro myelination by oligodendrocytes were characterized. The results showed that such fibers are bead-free and continuous, with an average size from 294 ± 53 to 390 ± 54 nm. The DSC and FTIR curves indicated no changes in the phase state of coaxial brackets. Hyaluronic acid/PLLA coaxial fibers had the minimum contact angle (53.1° ± 0.24°). Myelin sheaths were wrapped around a coaxial electrospun scaffold modified with water-soluble materials after a 14-day incubation. All results suggest that such a scaffold prepared by coaxial electrospinning potentially provides a novel platform for oligodendrocyte myelination.

Anisotropic Particles through Multilayer Assembly

The anisotropy in the shape of polymeric particles has been demonstrated to have many advantages over spherical particulates, including bio-mimetic behavior, shaped-directed flow, deformation, surface adhesion, targeting, motion, and permeability. The layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly is uniquely suited for synthesizing anisotropic particles as this method allows for simple and versatile replication of diverse colloid geometries with precise control over their chemical and physical properties. This review highlights recent progress in anisotropic particles of micrometer and nanometer sizes produced by a templated multilayer assembly of synthetic and biological macromolecules. Synthetic approaches to produce capsules and hydrogels utilizing anisotropic templates such as biological, polymeric, bulk hydrogel, inorganic colloids, and metal-organic framework crystals as sacrificial templates are overviewed. Structure-property relationships controlled by the anisotropy in particle shape and surface are discussed and compared with their spherical counterparts. Advances and challenges in controlling particle properties through varying shape anisotropy and surface asymmetry are outlined. The perspective applications of anisotropic colloids in biomedicine, including programmed behavior in the blood and tissues as artificial cells, nano-motors/sensors, and intelligent drug carriers are also discussed.

Recent Advances in Metal-Phenolic Networks for Cancer Theranostics

Nanomedicine integrates different functional materials to realize the customization of carriers, aiming at increasing the cancer therapeutic efficacy and reducing the off-target toxicity. However, efforts on developing new drug carriers that combine precise diagnosis and accurate treatment have met challenges of uneasy synthesis, poor stability, difficult metabolism, and high cytotoxicity. Metal-phenolic networks (MPNs), making use of the coordination between phenolic ligands and metal ions, have emerged as promising candidates for nanomedicine, most notably through the service as multifunctional theranostic nanoplatforms. MPNs present unique properties, such as rapid preparation, negligible cytotoxicity, and pH responsiveness. Additionally, MPNs can be further modified and functionalized to meet specific application requirements. Here, the classification of polyphenols is first summarized, followed by the introduction of the properties and preparation strategies of MPNs. Then, their recent advances in biomedical sciences including bioimaging and anti-tumor therapies are highlighted. Finally, the main limitations, challenges, and outlooks regarding MPNs are raised and discussed.

The Metabolic Response of Various Cell Lines to Microtubule-Driven Uptake of Lipid- and Polymer-Coated Layer-by-Layer Microcarriers

Lipid structures, such as liposomes or micelles, are of high interest as an approach to support the transport and delivery of active agents as a drug delivery system. However, there are many open questions regarding their uptake and impact on cellular metabolism. In this study, lipid structures were assembled as a supported lipid bilayer on top of biopolymer-coated microcarriers based on the Layer-by-Layer assembly strategy. The functionalized microcarriers were then applied to various human and animal cell lines in addition to primary human macrophages (MΦ). Here, their influence on cellular metabolism and their intracellular localization were detected by extracellular flux analysis and immunofluorescence analysis, respectively. The impact of microcarriers on metabolic parameters was in most cell types rather low. However, lipid bilayer-supported microcarriers induced a decrease in oxygen consumption rate (OCR, indicative for mitochondrial respiration) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR, indicative for glycolysis) in Vero cells. Additionally, in Vero cells lipid bilayer microcarriers showed a more pronounced association with microtubule filaments than polymer-coated microcarrier. Furthermore, they localized to a perinuclear region and induced nuclei with some deformations at a higher rate than unfunctionalized carriers. This association was reduced through the application of the microtubule polymerization inhibitor nocodazole. Thus, the effect of respective lipid structures as a drug delivery system on cells has to be considered in the context of the respective target cell, but in general can be regarded as rather low.

DNAzyme- and light-induced dissipative and gated DNA networks

Nucleic acid-based dissipative, out-of-equilibrium systems are introduced as functional assemblies emulating transient dissipative biological transformations. One system involves a Pb²⁺-ion-dependent DNAzyme fuel strand-driven network leading to the transient cleavage of the fuel strand to “waste” products. Applying the Pb²⁺-ion-dependent DNAzyme to two competitive fuel strand-driven systems yields two parallel operating networks. Blocking the competitively operating networks with selective inhibitors leads, however, to gated transient operation of dictated networks, yielding gated catalytic operations. A second system introduces a “non-waste” generating out-of-equilibrium, dissipative network driven by light. The system consists of a trans-azobenzene-functionalized photoactive module that is reconfigured by light to an intermediary state consisting of cis-azobenzene units that are thermally recovered to the original trans-azobenzene-modified module. The cyclic transient photoinduced operation of the device is demonstrated. The kinetic simulation of the systems allows the prediction of the transient behavior of the networks under different auxiliary conditions.

Functional DNA modules are triggered in the presence of appropriate inhibitors to yield transient gated catalytic functions, and a photoresponsive DNA module leads to “waste-free” operation of transient, dissipative dynamic transitions.

Biofriendly molecular and protein release substrate with integrated piezoelectric motivation and anti-oxidative stress capabilities

Self-powered piezoelectrically active molecular or protein delivery devices have provoked great interest in recent years. However, electric fields used to promote delivery or healing may also induce the redox of water or oxygen to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and bring unintended oxidative pressure to the organism and harm biological functions. In addition, protein molecules are easily inactivated in the polymer reservoir matrix due to the pull of strong electrostatic effects. In this study, a multifunctional molecular delivery substrate was fabricated by integrating a piezoelectric-dielectric polymeric substrate, nanoscopic polyelectrolyte films and in-film deposited biomimetic porous CaP coating. The piezoelectric substrate promoted molecular release, and the mineralized coating effectively stored molecules or proteins and simultaneously eliminated ROS, reducing the oxidative stress response generated by oxidative pressure. The present work opens a new way for the development of multifunctional and biofriendly drug delivery devices.

Degradable polymeric vehicles for postoperative pain management

Effective control of pain management has the potential to significantly decrease the need for prescription opioids following a surgical procedure. While extended release products for pain management are available commercially, the implementation of a device that safely and reliably provides extended analgesia and is sufficiently flexible to facilitate a diverse array of release profiles would serve to advance patient comfort, quality of care and compliance following surgical procedures. Herein, we review current polymeric systems that could be utilized in new, controlled post-operative pain management devices and highlight where opportunities for improvement exist.

Which Biopolymers Are Better for the Fabrication of Multilayer Capsules? A Comparative Study Using Vaterite CaCO3 as Templates

The polymer layer-by-layer assembly is accounted among the most attractive approaches for the design of advanced drug delivery platforms and biomimetic materials in 2D and 3D. The multilayer capsules can be made of synthetic or biologically relevant (e.g., natural) polymers. The biopolymers are advantageous for bioapplications; however, the design of such "biocapsules" is more challengeable due to intrinsic complexity and lability of biopolymers. Until now, there are no systematic studies that report the formation mechanism for multilayer biocapsules templated upon CaCO₃ crystals. This work evaluates the structure-property relationship for 16 types of capsules made of different biopolymers and proposes the capsule formation mechanism. The capsules have been fabricated upon mesoporous cores of vaterite CaCO₃, which served as a sacrificial template. Stable capsules of polycations poly-l-lysine or protamine and four different polyanions were successfully formed. However, capsules made using the polycation collagen and dextran amine underwent dissolution. Formation of the capsules has been correlated with the stability of the respective polyelectrolyte complexes at increased ionic strength. All formed capsules shrink upon core dissolution and the degree of shrinkage increased in the series of polyanions: heparin sulfate < dextran sulfate < chondroitin sulfate < hyaluronic acid. The same trend is observed for capsule adhesiveness to the glass surface, which correlates with the decrease in polymer charge density. The biopolymer length and charge density govern the capsule stability and internal structure; all formed biocapsules are of a matrix-type, other words are microgels. These findings can be translated to other biopolymers to predict biocapsule properties.

Formation of Liesegang Structures under the Conditions of the Spatiotemporal Reaction of Polymer-Analogous Transformation (Salt → Base) of Chitosan

This paper presents the results of our study of the diffusion front progression of OH^- ions in the bulk of a flat layer of the salt chitosan form during the course of the chemical reaction of the polymer-analogous salt → base transformation, accompanied by the formation of a water-insoluble polymeric phase as a gel film with its structure of concentric rings or tangential bands. Using scanning electron microscopy and polarization microscopy, structural and morphological features of these periodic formations were visualized. Physicochemical parameters and spatiotemporal mass transfer characteristics were obtained. The process under study is shown to obey the classical laws of ion-exchange reactions, and the formation kinetics and the ratio of the positions of periodic structures are described by the laws characteristic of the Liesegang phenomenon. The average diffusion coefficients of hydroxide ions in the periodic formations calculated, considering the protonation degree of amino groups, were found to be no more than a decimal order of magnitude lower than those in an aqueous solution. This confirms the fact of swelling of the formed chitosan base and the existence of a gel film, in whose liquid phase diffusion occurs.

The Delivery Materials with Chemotherapy Drugs for Treatment of the Positive Margin in Solid Tumors

The positive surgical margins in solid tumors has been a disturbing issue for clinicians. Chemotherapy is an important method to deal with the positive margin. However, systemic chemotherapy is required for long-term administration and has great side effects on health, which cause great pain to the patients. Local administration of slow-release materials provides an opportunity to improve the situation. In this study, we utilized electrospinning technology to create the drug sustained-release materials with nanofibrous structure, which were made from polylactic acid and a certain proportion of chemotherapy drugs (gemcitabine and cisplatin). In vitro release behavior of the drug sustained-release materials were explored by the high-performance liquid chromatography. The antitumor efficacy of the drug sustained-release materials was preliminarily verified in prostate cancer and breast cancer in vitro. Through animal models of breast cancer, the drug sustained-release materials in the treatment of the positive margin has been well documented in vivo, and we also found that the drug sustained-release materials could definitely reduce the liver damage and myelosuppression compared with systemic chemotherapy. In summary, the experimental results showed that the local administration of the drug sustained-release materials could effectively inhibit the growth of the positive incision margins and definitely reduce the partial side effects associated with systemic chemotherapy.

A closer physico-chemical look to the Layer-by-Layer electrostatic self-assembly of polyelectrolyte multilayers

The fabrication of polyelectrolyte multilayer films (PEMs) using the Layer-by-Layer (LbL) method is one of the most versatile approaches for manufacturing functional surfaces. This is the result of the possibility to control the assembly process of the LbL films almost at will, by changing the nature of the assembled materials (building blocks), the assembly conditions (pH, ionic strength, temperature, etc.) or even by changing some other operational parameters which may impact in the structure and physico-chemical properties of the obtained multi-layered films. Therefore, the understanding of the impact of the above mentioned parameters on the assembly process of LbL materials plays a critical role in the potential use of the LbL method for the fabrication of new functional materials with technological interest. This review tries to provide a broad physico-chemical perspective to the study of the fabrication process of PEMs by the LbL method, which allows one to take advantage of the many possibilities offered for this approach on the fabrication of new functional nanomaterials.