Mechanisms and application of microalgae on removing emerging contaminants from wastewater: A review

Bacterial N-acyl-homoserine lactone enhances the degradation of sulfamethoxazole by microalgae and the associated metabolic regulatory mechanisms

Recent studies have revealed that N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs), common quorum-sensing (QS) signal molecules in Gram-negative bacteria, can also influence microalgal cells. However, their role in regulating the metabolism of pollutants, such as antibiotics, within microalgae remains poorly understood. This study investigated the effects of N-hexanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (C6-HSL) on the degradation of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) in aquaculture wastewater by Chlorella vulgaris. The addition of 0.5 μM C6-HSL resulted in the highest biomass accumulation and the maximum SMX removal efficiency (95.6 %). At optimal concentrations, C6-HSL effectively modulated key secondary messenger signaling pathways including reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), and calcium ions (Ca2+) in microalgal cells. Additionally, it upregulated the activity of detoxification enzymes such as glutathione S-transferase (GST) and cytochrome P450 (CYP450), thereby altering SMX degradation pathways and significantly enhancing its removal. Transcriptomic analysis further demonstrated that exogenous C6-HSL upregulated critical genes associated with ROS, Ca2+, and NO signaling, along with genes encoding antioxidant enzymes and those involved in SMX metabolism. These findings indicated that C6-HSL, as a bacterial QS signal, could enhance microalgal tolerance and antibiotic degradation, offering a novel strategy to improve microalgae-based antibiotic removal in wastewater treatment.

Construction of a comprehensive functional screening system for Phanerochaete sordida YK-624 cytochrome P450s: Identification of catalytic enzymes for emerging contaminant degradation

The white-rot fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624 is capable of degrading various emerging contaminants (ECs), with cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes playing crucial catalytic roles in the degradation process. In this study, we first identified 214 putative CYPs in P. sordida YK-624 (PsCYPs), of which 208 PsCYPs were classified into 31 CYP families, and 6 PsCYPs remained unclassified. To construct a comprehensive functional screening system for identifying PsCYPs involved in EC degradation, a heterologous co-expression system was established using Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The heterologous expressing yeasts were then used to evaluate the degradation of 7-ethoxycoumarin, a natural compound commonly used to assess CYP activity. Several expressing yeasts catalyzed the hydroxylation and O-deethylation of 7-ethoxycoumarin, confirming that these yeasts expressed active forms of PsCYPs. Subsequent degradation experiments were conducted on ECs such as carbazole, acetamiprid (ACE), bisphenol A (BPA), and loxoprofen (LOX). Metabolite analyses using LC/MS, GC/MS and NMR revealed that the PsCYPs catalyzed the hydroxylation of carbazole, BPA, and LOX, as well as the N-dealkylation of ACE. These findings not only provide strong evidence supporting our previous finding regarding degradation research mediated by P. sordida YK-624 mycelia, but also offer valuable insights for future bioprospecting of fungal CYPs in the bioremediation of EC.

Diatom Chaetoceros calcitarans MZB-1 for degrading propylbenzenes in seawater: Cultivation conditions, degradation kinetics, and influencing factors

Accidental leakage of petrochemical products (such as C9 aromatics) containing propylbenzenes (PBZs) during maritime transport poses severe threats to marine ecosystems. In this study, a PBZs-degrading diatom, Chaetoceros calcitrans MZB-1, was isolated from the seawater close to Quangang Port, Fujian Province, China, where a serious spill of C9 aromatics previously occurred several years ago. The optimal growth conditions for this alga were pH 8.5, salinity 10 ‰, temperature 25 °C and light intensity 60 μmol/(m2·s). At the optimal inoculation density (1 × 106 cells/mL), removal efficiencies of two PBZs, namely n-propylbenzene (n-PBZ) and isopropylbenzene (i-PBZ), were 68.6 % and 44.6 %, respectively, within 7 days. The elimination of each PBZ over time followed the first-order kinetic model. After adding 750 mg/L and 500 mg/L of NaHCO3 into the F/2 medium, the removal efficiencies of two PBZs increased to 70.8 % and 51.2 %, respectively. These results showed that alga MZB-1 could be more effectively used for bioremediation of PBZs-contaminated seawater than the one previously isolated.

Advances of microalgae-based enhancement strategies in industrial flue gas treatment: From carbon sequestration to lipid production

The acceleration of industrial development and urban expansion has led to a significant increase in flue gas emissions, posing a significant risk to human health and ecosystems. Recent studies have elucidated the significant potential of microalgae in the domain of sustainable industrial flue gas treatment. However, the inherent multifaceted factors within flue gas exert inhibitory effects on microalgal growth, thereby diminishing the overall system efficacy. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically analyze the flue gas components and propose complete intermediate treatment steps to alleviate their stressful effects on microalgae. Concurrently, to address the intrinsic limitations of the systemic functionality and enhance the applicability of microalgal biotechnology in industrial flue gas treatment, this review proposes a series of innovative solutions and strategies aimed at improving carbon fixation efficiency and lipid productivity of microalgae during flue gas treatment. In addition, the feasibility and potential limitations of these strategies in industrial applications are also discussed. Furthermore, through systematic comparative analysis, the optimal scheme and development trend of industrial flue gas emission reduction technology are explored. This comprehensive review not only establishes a theoretical foundation for the application of microalgae in industrial flue gas treatment, but also offers valuable insights for future research directions in related fields.

The influence of 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-p-cresol stress on the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum and phycosphere bacteria community

The emerging contaminant 2, 6-di-tert-butyl-p-cresol (BHT) is a kind of synthetic phenolic antioxidant and can pose negative effects on the aquatic organism. However, the mechanism of phycosphere bacteria coordinating with microalgae in response to BHT stress remains poorly understood. Herein, the effect of BHT on the microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum was comprehensively analyzed. BHT exposure led to a dose-dependent inhibition of P. tricornutum growth and the photosynthetic pigment biosynthesis. BHT also led to an increase in the content of malondialdehyde, therefore microalgae responded to the oxidative stress by enhancing activities of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase, to eliminate excess reactive oxygen species in the cells. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis revealed that genes related to photosynthesis, TCA cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) synthesis were up-regulated in response to BHT stress, which are crucial for the microalgae's adaptation to stresses. In addition, high-throughput Illumina MiSeq sequencing results demonstrated a significant increase in the relative abundance of bacteria affiliated with Halomonas, Marivita and Oceanicaulis. Microbiological assays demonstrated that Halomonas can thrive by using BHT as the sole energy source and exhibit a chemotactic response to IAA. Therefore, we conclude that the increased content of IAA secreted by microalgae in the phycosphere environment promoted the enrichment of BHT-tolerant bacterium Halomonas, thereby it is helpful for environmental pressures adaptability of P. tricornutum. Overall, this study provided a comprehensive understanding of the physiological and biochemical effects of BHT on microalgae, and we highlight the potential functional significance of IAA in establishing an interaction between microalgae and algae-associated bacteria in adverse environments.

Microalgae - bacteria based wastewater treatment systems: Granulation, influence factors and pollutants removal

Wastewater treatment based on microalgae and bacteria symbiosis is an environmentally friendly, sustainable technology that has attracted attention recently because of its high efficiency in treating pollutants, saving energy, and short-term biomass recovery. Among them, the granular microalgae and bacteria combination emerges with the advantages of rapid gravity settling, good resistance to adverse environmental conditions, outstanding wastewater treatment performance, and easy biomass recovery. This review aims to clarify the microalgal-bacterial granule (MBG) - based process for wastewater treatment. In particular, MBG characteristics, granulation mechanism, and influence factors on the process are also discussed. The review contributes to the knowledge system related to MBG research in recent years, thereby pointing out research gaps that need to be filled in the future.

Phytohormones as a novel strategy for promoting phytoremediation in microalgae: Progress and prospects

Microalgal phytoremediation is a promising bioremediation approach that can achieve significant resource recovery while effectively removing pollutants. However, the toxicity of some pollutants in wastewater often induces stress responses in microalgae, reducing their pollutant removal efficiency. Recently, phytohormones have been identified as a novel solution to reduce these stress responses, enhancing microalgae growth and improving their ability to remove various pollutants from wastewater. This advancement significantly boosts the efficiency and viability of microalgal phytoremediation. In this paper, the pathways and challenges related to microalgal phytoremediation were systematically analyzed. On this basis, the promoting effects of phytohormones on the removal of nutrients, heavy metals, and emerging contaminants by microalgae and the related mechanisms were discussed. Additionally, the review also discusses the optimal use strategy of phytohormones, the ecological risks that may be faced in the use of phytohormones, and the feasible strategies to control the use cost of phytohormones. The goal is to provide insights and guidance for future research on the application of phytohormones in microalgal phytoremediation.

Management of a ciprofloxacin as a contaminant of emerging concern in water using microalgaebioremediation: mechanism, modeling, and kinetic studies

Pharmaceutical residues, now recognized as a new category of environmental pollutants, have potentially risks to both ecosystems and human health effects. Recently, biosorption has emerged as one of the most promising strategies for managing these pharmaceutical wastes in water. Nevertheless, the environmental impact of the adsorbents presents a challenge to the advancement of this process. Therefore, the present study proposed two biosorbent: Chlorella vulgaris and Synechocystis sp. microalgae to manage Ciprofloxacin (CIP) in water. The experimental findings revealed that the optimal conditions for adsorption conditions are CIP initial concentration 4.0 mg/L and pH 5 and 3 for Synechocystissp. and C. vulgaris, respectively. The adsorption process followed the Pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The main mechanism of biosorption is the complexation of CIP with carboxyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl, and amido groups which was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) analyses. These analyses confirmed the presence of CIP on the surface of tested microalgal cells. These results indicated that the adsorption mechanism of CIP by Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 and C. vulgaris offers theoretical insights into the biosorption mechanisms of pharmaceutical residues.

Co-metabolism of microorganisms: A study revealing the mechanism of antibiotic removal, progress of biodegradation transformation pathways

The widespread use of antibiotics has resulted in large quantities of antibiotic residues entering aquatic environments, which can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes, posing a potential environmental risk and jeopardizing human health. Constructing a microbial co-metabolism system has become an effective measure to improve the removal efficiency of antibiotics by microorganisms. This paper reviews the four main mechanisms involved in microbial removal of antibiotics: bioaccumulation, biosorption, biodegradation and co-metabolism. The promotion of extracellular polymeric substances for biosorption and extracellular degradation and the regulation mechanism of enzymes in biodegradation by microorganisms processes are detailed therein. Transformation pathways for microbial removal of antibiotics are discussed. Bacteria, microalgae, and microbial consortia's roles in antibiotic removal are outlined. The factors influencing the removal of antibiotics by microbial co-metabolism are also discussed. Overall, this review summarizes the current understanding of microbial co-metabolism for antibiotic removal and outlines future research directions.

Mitigation of Salt Stress in Lactuca sativa L. var. Gentile Rossa Using Microalgae as Priming Agents

Using renewable biomass in agriculture, particularly microalgae as a biostimulant, offers economic and environmental sustainability benefits by reducing costs, improving nutrient cycling, and enhancing water use efficiency. Microalgae contain bioactive compounds that boost crop tolerance to environmental stresses, including salinity. Saline soils, characterized by elevated sodium chloride (NaCl) levels, negatively impact many crops, resulting in low productivity and high remediation costs. Therefore, this study evaluates the biostimulant properties of a microalgae-based commercial preparation (MR) on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) plants grown hydroponically and exposed to saline stress. The extract was chemically characterized through elemental analysis, lipid composition (gas chromatography with flame ionization detector-GC-FID), the determination of functional groups (Fourier Transformed Infrared-FT-IR), structure (1H,13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance-NMR), with their hormone-like activity also assessed. Lettuce plants were treated with or without the microalgae blend, in combination with 0, 50 mM, or 100 mM NaCl. The contents of nutrients, soluble proteins, chlorophylls, and phenols, as well as the lipid peroxidation, antioxidants and root traits of lettuce plants, were estimated. The microalgae applied to salt-stressed plants resulted in a significant increase in biomass, protein, and chlorophyll contents. Additionally, significant effects on the secondary metabolism and mitigation of salinity stress were observed in terms of increased phenol content and the activity of antioxidant enzymes, as well as decreased lipid peroxidation. The potassium (K+) content was increased significantly in plants treated with 100 mM NaCl after addition of microalgae, while the content of sodium (Na+) was concurrently reduced. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that using microalgae can be a potent approach for improving the cultivation of Lactuca sativa L. under saline stress conditions.

Mechanistic insights into the potential application of Scenedesmus strains towards the elimination of antibiotics from wastewater

Scenedesmus strains have been reported to have the potential to tolerate and bioremediate antibiotic pollutants through bioadsorption, bioaccumulation, and biodegradation mechanism from the wastewater medium. Hormesis effects have been observed in the Scenedesmus strains when exposed to different concentrations of antibiotic pollutants. Lower concentrations of antibiotic pollutants are known to trigger growth-stimulating effects by triggering adaptive responses such as increased metabolic activity and activating detoxifying mechanisms leading to the biotransformation pathway. The present review examines the existing body of information pertaining to biotransformation pathways tolerance, hormesis effects, and efficiency of Scenedesmus strains in removing various antibiotic pollutants. This review provides critical information on using Scenedesmus species to treat antibiotic-polluted wastewater by boosting growth and resilience tolerant doses and avoiding toxicity at higher doses.

Exploring the influence of sulfadiazine-induced stress on antibiotic removal and transformation pathway using microalgae Chlorella sp

Sulfadiazine (SDZ) is a kind of anti-degradable antibiotics that is commonly found in wastewater, but its removal mechanism and transformation pathway remain unclear in microalgal systems. This study investigated the effects of initial algae concentration and SDZ-induced stress on microalgal growth metabolism, SDZ removal efficiency, and transformation pathways during Chlorella sp. cultivation. Results showed that SDZ had an inhibitory effect on the growth of microalgae, and increasing the initial algal biomass could alleviate the inhibitory effect of SDZ. When the initial algal biomass of Chlorella sp. was increased to 0.25 g L-1, the SDZ removal rate could reach 53.27%-89.07%. The higher the initial algal biomass, the higher the SOD activity of microalgae, and the better the protective effect on microalgae, which was one of the reasons for the increase in SDZ removal efficiency. Meanwhile, SDZ stress causes changes in photosynthetic pigments, lipids, total sugars and protein content of Chlorella sp. in response to environmental changes. The main degradation mechanisms of SDZ by Chlorella sp. were biodegradation (37.82%) and photodegradation (23%). Most of the degradation products of SDZ were less toxic than the parent compound, and the green algae were highly susceptible to SDZ and its degradation products. The findings from this study offered valuable insights into the tradeoffs between accumulating microalgal biomass and antibiotic toxic risks during wastewater treatment, providing essential direction for the advancement in future research and full-scale application.

Application of natural zeolite adsorption in cooperation with photosynthesis for the post-treatment of microbial fuel cells

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a promising technology that directly converts organic matter (OM) in wastewater into electricity while simultaneously degrading contaminants. However, MFCs are insufficient for the removal of nitrogenous compounds. Therefore, the post-treatment of MFCs is essential. This study was the first to use natural zeolite adsorption integrated with photosynthesis (ZP) for post-treating MFCs. In this system, no external energy was required; instead, natural light was used to promote the growth of photosynthetic microorganisms, thereby enhancing contaminants removal through the photosynthesis process. To assess the effectiveness of the method, comparisons were conducted under two conditions: dark (no photosynthesis) and light (with photosynthesis). In darkness, extending hydraulic retention time (HRT) enhanced COD and BOD removal by 19.8% and 28.9%, respectively. When exposed to natural light, improvements were even more notable, with COD and BOD removal reaching 32% and 40%, respectively. In both conditions, the method effectively removed NH4 +, achieving 60% efficiency in darkness and 84.5% in light. This study showed that the adsorption capacity of the zeolite reached saturation when the cumulative liquid volume per unit weight of the zeolite exceeded 0.2 L g-1. The key functional photosynthetic microbes were investigated using 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA. This revealed the presence of microorganisms such as Chlorobium, Acidovorax, Novosphingobium, and Scenedesmus, which likely play a role in enhancing the efficiency of photosynthesis in removing contaminants. The study findings indicated that the integration of MFCs-ZP represents an eco-friendly approach capable of resource recovery from wastewater while also meeting discharge standards.

Algae-constructed wetland integrated system for wastewater treatment: A review

Integrating algae into constructed wetlands (CWs) enhances wastewater treatment, although the results vary. This review evaluates the role of algae in CWs and the performance of different algae-CW (A-CW) configurations based on literature and meta-analysis. Algae considerably improve N removal, although their impact on other parameters varies. Statistical analysis revealed that 70 % of studies report improved treatment efficiencies with A-CWs, achieving average removal rates of 75 % for chemical oxygen demand (COD), 74 % for total nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen, and 79 % for total phosphorus (TP). This review identifies hydraulic retention times, which average 3.1 days, and their varied impact on treatment efficacy. Mixed-effects models showed a slight increase in COD and TP removal efficiencies of 0.6 % every ten days in the A-CWs. Future research should focus on robust experimental designs, adequate algal storage and separation techniques, and advanced modeling to optimize the treatment potential of algae in CWs.

Microalgae-mediated bioremediation: current trends and opportunities-a review

Environmental pollution poses a critical global challenge, and traditional wastewater treatment methods often prove inadequate in addressing the complexity and scale of this issue. On the other hand, microalgae exhibit diverse metabolic capabilities that enable them to remediate a wide range of pollutants, including heavy metals, organic contaminants, and excess nutrients. By leveraging the unique metabolic pathways of microalgae, innovative strategies can be developed to effectively remediate polluted environments. Therefore, this review paper highlights the potential of microalgae-mediated bioremediation as a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to conventional methods. It also highlights the advantages of utilizing microalgae and algae-bacteria co-cultures for large-scale bioremediation applications, demonstrating impressive biomass production rates and enhanced pollutant removal efficiency. The promising potential of microalgae-mediated bioremediation is emphasized, presenting a viable and innovative alternative to traditional treatment methods in addressing the global challenge of environmental pollution. This review identifies the opportunities and challenges for microalgae-based technology and proposed suggestions for future studies to tackle challenges. The findings of this review advance our understanding of the potential of microalgae-based technology wastewater treatment.

Treatment of agricultural wastewater using microalgae: A review

The rapid development of agriculture has led to a large amount of wastewater, which poses a great threat to environmental safety. Microalgae, with diverse species, nutritional modes and cellular status, can adapt well in agricultural wastewater and absorb nutrients and remove pollutants effectively. Besides, after treatment of agricultural wastewater, the accumulated biomass of microalgae has broad applications, such as fertilizer and animal feed. This paper reviewed the current progresses and further perspectives of microalgae-based agricultural wastewater treatment. The characteristics of agricultural wastewater have been firstly introduced; Then the microalgal strains, cultivation modes, cellular status, contaminant metabolism, cultivation systems and biomass applications of microalgae for wastewater treatment have been summarized; At last, the bottlenecks in the development of the microalgae treatment methods, as well as recommendations for optimizing the adaptability of microalgae to wastewater in terms of wastewater pretreatment, microalgae breeding, and microalgae-bacterial symbiosis systems were discussed. This review would provide references for the future developments of microalgae-based agricultural wastewater treatment.

Pharmaceutical removal from wastewater by introducing cytochrome P450s into microalgae

Pharmaceuticals are of increasing environmental concern as they emerge and accumulate in surface- and groundwater systems around the world, endangering the overall health of aquatic ecosystems. Municipal wastewater discharge is a significant vector for pharmaceuticals and their metabolites to enter surface waters as humans incompletely absorb prescription drugs and excrete up to 50% into wastewater, which are subsequently incompletely removed during wastewater treatment. Microalgae present a promising target for improving wastewater treatment due to their ability to remove some pollutants efficiently. However, their inherent metabolic pathways limit their capacity to degrade more recalcitrant organic compounds such as pharmaceuticals. The human liver employs enzymes to break down and absorb drugs, and these enzymes are extensively researched during drug development, meaning the cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for metabolizing each approved drug are well studied. Thus, unlocking or increasing cytochrome P450 expression in endogenous wastewater microalgae could be a cost-effective strategy to reduce pharmaceutical loads in effluents. Here, we discuss the challenges and opportunities associated with introducing cytochrome P450 enzymes into microalgae. We anticipate that cytochrome P450-engineered microalgae can serve as a new drug removal method and a sustainable solution that can upgrade wastewater treatment facilities to function as "mega livers".

Microalgal multiomics-based approaches in bioremediation of hazardous contaminants

The enhanced industrial growth and higher living standards owing to the incessant population growth have caused heightened production of various chemicals in different manufacturing sectors globally, resulting in pollution of aquatic systems and soil with hazardous chemical contaminants. The bioremediation of such hazardous pollutants through microalgal processes is a viable and sustainable approach. Accomplishing microalgal-based bioremediation of polluted wastewater requires a comprehensive understanding of microalgal metabolic and physiological dynamics. Microalgae-bacterial consortia have emerged as a sustainable agent for synergistic bioremediation and metabolite production. Effective bioremediation involves proper consortium functioning and dynamics. The present review highlights the mechanistic processes employed through microalgae in reducing contaminants present in wastewater. It discusses the multi-omics approaches and their advantages in understanding the biological processes, monitoring, and dynamics among the partners in consortium through metagenomics. Transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics enable an understanding of microalgal cell response toward the contaminants in the wastewater. Finally, the challenges and future research endeavors are summarised to provide an outlook on microalgae-based bioremediation.

Physiological responses and removal mechanisms of ciprofloxacin in freshwater microalgae

Antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin (CIP), are frequently detected in various environmental compartments, posing significant risks to ecosystems and human health. In this study, the physiological responses and elimination mechanisms of CIP in Chlorella sorokiniana and Scenedesmus dimorphus were determined. The exposure CIP had a minimal impact on the growth of microalgae, with maximum inhibit efficiency (IR) of 5.14% and 22.74 for C. sorokiniana and S. dimorphus, respectively. Notably, the photorespiration in S. dimorphus were enhanced. Both microalgae exhibited efficient CIP removal, predominantly through bioaccumulation and biodegradation processes. Intermediates involved in photolysis and biodegradation were analyzed through Liquid Chromatography High Resolution Mass Spectrometer (HPLC-MS/MS), providing insights into degradation pathways of CIP. Upregulation of key enzymes, such as dioxygenase, oxygenase and cytochrome P450, indicated their involvement in the biodegradation of CIP. These findings enhance our understanding of the physiological responses, removal mechanisms, and pathways of CIP in microalgae, facilitating the advancement of microalgae-based wastewater treatment approaches, particularly in antibiotic-contaminated environments.

Macroalgal microbiomes unveil a valuable genetic resource for halogen metabolism

BACKGROUND

Macroalgae, especially reds (Rhodophyta Division) and browns (Phaeophyta Division), are known for producing various halogenated compounds. Yet, the reasons underlying their production and the fate of these metabolites remain largely unknown. Some theories suggest their potential antimicrobial activity and involvement in interactions between macroalgae and prokaryotes. However, detailed investigations are currently missing on how the genetic information of prokaryotic communities associated with macroalgae may influence the fate of organohalogenated molecules.

RESULTS

To address this challenge, we created a specialized dataset containing 161 enzymes, each with a complete enzyme commission number, known to be involved in halogen metabolism. This dataset served as a reference to annotate the corresponding genes encoded in both the metagenomic contigs and 98 metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) obtained from the microbiome of 2 red (Sphaerococcus coronopifolius and Asparagopsis taxiformis) and 1 brown (Halopteris scoparia) macroalgae. We detected many dehalogenation-related genes, particularly those with hydrolytic functions, suggesting their potential involvement in the degradation of a wide spectrum of halocarbons and haloaromatic molecules, including anthropogenic compounds. We uncovered an array of degradative gene functions within MAGs, spanning various bacterial orders such as Rhodobacterales, Rhizobiales, Caulobacterales, Geminicoccales, Sphingomonadales, Granulosicoccales, Microtrichales, and Pseudomonadales. Less abundant than degradative functions, we also uncovered genes associated with the biosynthesis of halogenated antimicrobial compounds and metabolites.

CONCLUSION

The functional data provided here contribute to understanding the still largely unexplored role of unknown prokaryotes. These findings support the hypothesis that macroalgae function as holobionts, where the metabolism of halogenated compounds might play a role in symbiogenesis and act as a possible defense mechanism against environmental chemical stressors. Furthermore, bacterial groups, previously never connected with organohalogen metabolism, e.g., Caulobacterales, Geminicoccales, Granulosicoccales, and Microtrichales, functionally characterized through MAGs reconstruction, revealed a biotechnologically relevant gene content, useful in synthetic biology, and bioprospecting applications. Video Abstract.

Dialysis bag-microalgae photobioreactor: Novel strategy for enhanced bioresource production and wastewater purification

Cultivating microalgae in wastewater offers various advantages, but it still faces limitations such as bacteria and other impurities in wastewater affecting the growth and purity of microalgae, difficulty in microalgae harvesting, and extracellular products of microalgae affecting effluent quality. In this study, a novel dialysis bag-microalgae photobioreactor (Db-PBR) was developed to achieve wastewater purification and purer bioresource recovery by culturing microalgae in a dialysis bag. The dialysis bag in the Db-PBR effectively captured the microalgae cells and promoted their lipid accumulation, leading to higher biomass (1.53 times of the control) and lipid production (2.50 times of the control). During the stable operation stage of Db-PBR, the average soluble microbial products (SMP) content outside the dialysis bag was 25.83 mg L-1, which was significantly lower than that inside the dialysis bag (185.63 mg L-1), indicating that the dialysis bag effectively intercepted the SMP secreted by microalgae. As a result, the concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in Db-PBR effluent was significantly lower than that of traditional photobioreactor. Furthermore, benefiting from the dialysis bag in the reactor effectively intercepted the microorganisms in wastewater, significantly improving the purity of the cultured microalgae biomass, which is beneficial for the development of high-value microalgae products.

Enhancing lipid production and sedimentation of Chlorella pyrenoidosa in saline wastewater through the addition of agricultural phytohormones

In this study, the effect of external agricultural phytohormones (mixed phytohormones) addition (1.0, 5.0, 10.0, and 20.0 mg L-1) on the growth performance, lipid productivity, and sedimentation efficiency of Chlorella pyrenoidosa cultivated in saline wastewater was investigated. Among the different concentrations evaluated, the highest biomass (1.00 g L-1) and lipid productivity (11.11 mg L-1 d-1) of microalgae were obtained at 10.0 mg L-1 agricultural phytohormones addition. Moreover, exogenous agricultural phytohormones also improved the sedimentation performance of C. pyrenoidosa, which was conducive to the harvest of microalgae resources, and the improvement of sedimentation performance was positively correlated with the amount of agricultural phytohormones used. The promotion of extracellular polymeric substances synthesis by phytohormones in microalgal cells could be considered as the reason for its promotion of microalgal sedimentation. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the addition of phytohormones upregulated the expression of genes related to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-mediated phytohormone signaling pathway and lipid synthesis, thereby improving salinity tolerance and lipid production in C. pyrenoidosa. Overall, agricultural phytohormones provide an effective and inexpensive strategy for increasing the lipid productivity and sedimentation efficiency of microalgae cultured in saline wastewater.

Optimizing concentration and interaction mechanism of Demodesmus sp. and Achromobacter pulmonis sp. consortium to evaluate their potential for dibutyl phthalate removal from synthetic wastewater

A green approach of Desmodesmus sp. to Achromobacter pulmonis (1:1) coculture ratios was optimized to improve the removal efficiency of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) from simulated wastewater. High DBP resistance bacterial strains and microalgae was optimized from plastic contaminated water and acclimation process respectively. The influence of various factors on DBP removal performance was comprehensively investigated. Highest DBP removal 93 % was recorded, when the ratios algae-bacteria 1:1, with sodium acetate, pH-6, shaking speed-120 rpm and lighting periods L:D-12:12. Enough nutrient (TN/TP/TOC) availability and higher protein-108 mg/L and sugar-40 mg/L were observed in presences of 50 mg/L DBP. The degradation and sorption were calculated 81,12; 27,39 & 43,12 % in algae-bacteria, only algae and only bacteria system respectively. The degradation kinetics t1/2 3.74,22.15,12.86 days were evaluated, confirming that algae-bacteria effectively degrade the DBP. This outcome leading to promote a green sustainable approach to remove the emerging contamination from wastewater.

Microalgae: A potential bioagent for treatment of emerging contaminants from domestic wastewater

Water crisis around the world leads to a growing interest in emerging contaminants (ECs) that can affect human health and the environment. Research showed that thousands of compounds from domestic consumers, such as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), personal care products (PCPs), and pharmaceuticals active compounds (PhAcs), could be found in wastewater in concentration mostly from ng L-1 to μg L-1. However, generally, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not designed to remove these ECs from wastewater to their discharge levels. Scientists are looking for economically feasible biotreatment options enabling the complete removal of ECs before discharge. Microalgae cultivation in domestic wastewater is likely a feasible approach for removing emerging contaminants and simultaneously removing any residual organic nutrients. Microalgal growth rate and contaminants removal efficiency could be affected by various factors, including light intensity, CO2 addition, presence of different nutrients, etc., and these parameters could greatly help make microalgae treatment more efficient. Furthermore, the algal biomass harvests could be repurposed to produce various bulk chemicals such as sustainable aviation fuel, biofuel, bioplastic, and biochar; this could significantly enhance the economic viability. Therefore, this review summarizes the microalgae-based bioprocess and their mechanisms for removing different ECs from different wastewaters and highlights the different strategies to improve the ECs removal efficiency. Furthermore, this review shows the role of different ECs in biomass profile and the relevance of using ECs-treated microalgae biomass to produce green products, as well as highlights the challenges and future research recommendations.

Potential applications of microalgae-bacteria consortia in wastewater treatment and biorefinery

The use of microalgae-bacteria consortia (MBC) for wastewater treatment has garnered attention as their interactions impart greater environmental adaptability and stability compared with that obtained by only microalgae or bacteria use, thereby improving the efficiency of pollutant removal and bio-product productivity. Additionally, the value-added bio-products produced via biorefineries can improve economic competitiveness and environmental sustainability. Therefore, this review focuses on the interaction between microalgae and bacteria that leads to nutrient exchange, gene transfer and signal transduction to comprehensively understand the interaction mechanisms underlying their strong adaptability. In addition, it includes recent research in which MBC has been efficiently used to treat various wastewater. Moreover, the review summarizes the use of MBC-produced biomass in a biorefining context to produce biofuel, biomaterial, high-value bio-products and bio-fertilizer. Overall, more effort is needed to identify the symbiotic mechanism in MBC to provide a foundation for circular bio-economy and environmentally friendly development programmes.

Advances in identifying and managing emerging contaminants in aquatic ecosystems: Analytical approaches, toxicity assessment, transformation pathways, environmental fate, and remediation strategies

Emerging contaminants (ECs) are increasingly recognized as threats to human health and ecosystems. This review evaluates advanced analytical methods, particularly mass spectrometry, for detecting ECs and understanding their toxicity, transformation pathways, and environmental distribution. Our findings underscore the reliability of current techniques and the potential of upcoming methods. The adverse effects of ECs on aquatic life necessitate both in vitro and in vivo toxicity assessments. Evaluating the distribution and degradation of ECs reveals that they undergo physical, chemical, and biological transformations. Remediation strategies such as advanced oxidation, adsorption, and membrane bioreactors effectively treat EC-contaminated waters, with combinations of these techniques showing the highest efficacy. To minimize the impact of ECs, a proactive approach involving monitoring, regulations, and public education is vital. Future research should prioritize the refining of detection methods and formulation of robust policies for EC management.

Regulation effects of indoleacetic acid on lipid production and nutrient removal of Chlorella pyrenoidosa in seawater-containing wastewater

The utilization of seawater supplemented with wastewater nutrients for microalgae cultivation represents a promising and cost-effective approach that combines the benefits of wastewater treatment and microalgal resource recovery. However, the high salt content in seawater poses a significant challenge, hindering microalgal growth and reducing the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus on a large scale. The phytohormone indoleacetic acid (IAA) was used in this study to enhance stress resistance and lipid production of Chlorella pyrenoidosa grown in seawater-wastewater medium. Compared to the control groups involving regular wastewater and seawater-containing wastewater without IAA, Chlorella pyrenoidosa cultivated in the seawater-containing wastewater supplemented with IAA exhibited remarkable outcomes. Specifically, microalgae in IAA-enhanced seawater-containing wastewater achieved the highest lipid productivity (22.67 mg L-1 d-1) along with impressive nitrogen (99.3 %) and phosphorus (97.3 %) removal rates. Moreover, their cell sedimentation ratio reached 76.6 %, indicating enhanced settling properties. Additionally, the physiological mechanism changes after exposure to seawater stress and IAA were revealed based on the changes in antioxidant enzymes, endogenous hormones, and fatty acid saturation. Furthermore, the transcriptomic analysis elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying microalgal lipid synthesis and their response to antioxidant stress when exposed to seawater. The supplementation of IAA under seawater stress stimulated energy metabolism and the antioxidant response in microalgal cells, effectively mitigating the adverse effects of seawater stress and promoting overall algal lipid productivity. Overall, this study unveiled the potential of exogenous plant hormones, particularly IAA, in enhancing stress resistance and lipid productivity of microalgae grown in seawater-wastewater medium, which significantly contributed towards the efficient use of seawater resources for microalgae cultivation and biofuel production.

Effect of external acetate added in aquaculture wastewater on mixotrophic cultivation of microalgae, nutrient removal, and membrane contamination in a membrane photobioreactor

The mixotrophic cultivation of microalgae in wastewater has attracted extensive attention due to its many advantages. In this study, acetate, which can be prepared by hydrolysis of aquaculture waste, was used as exogenous organic matter to promote the growth of Chlorella pyrenoidosa cultured in aquaculture wastewater. Microalgae cultivation was carried out in a membrane photobioreactor (MPBR) with continuous inflow and outflow mode. The results showed that exogenous acetate greatly promoted the mixotrophic growth of C. pyrenoidosa. When the dosage of acetate reached 1.0 g L-1, the relative growth rate of microalgae in the logarithmic stage reached 0.31 d-1, which was 4.4 times that of the control. As a result, exogenous acetate also promoted the removal of nutrients from aquaculture wastewater. During the stable operation stage of the MPBR with acetate added in the influent, an average of 87.41%-93.93% nitrogen and 76.34%-88.55% phosphorus was removed from the aquaculture wastewater containing 19.41 mg L-1 total inorganic nitrogen and 1.31 mg L-1 total inorganic phosphorus. However, it was worth noting that adding exogenous acetate also led to an increase in the membrane resistance of the membrane module in the MPBR. Membrane resistance was mainly composed of internal resistance (Ri) and cake resistance (Rc), and with the increase of acetate content in the influent, their proportion in the total resistance gradually increased. Ri contributed the major membrane resistance and was most affected by acetate dosage. Ri reached 32.04 × 1012 m-1 with 1 g L-1 acetate, which accounted for 69.49% of total resistance. Moreover, with the increase of influent acetate concentration of the MPBRs, both the number of insoluble contaminants and dissolved organic contaminants in the membrane modules increased. In addition, the composition of proteins, polysaccharides, and humus in dissolved organic contaminants was close to that in extracellular polymeric substances and soluble microbial products secreted by microalgae. These results suggested that the membrane fouling of membrane modules was closely related to the algal biomass content in the MPBRs. The above results provided a theoretical basis for reducing membrane fouling of MPBR.

Advances in responses of microalgal-bacterial symbiosis to emerging pollutants in wastewater

Nowadays, emerging pollutants are widely used and exist in wastewater, such as antibiotics, heavy metals, nanoparticle and microplastic. As a green alternative for wastewater treatment, microalgal-bacterial symbiosis has been aware of owning multiple merits of low energy consumption and little greenhouse gas emission. Thus, the responses of microalgal-bacterial symbiosis to emerging pollutants in wastewater treatment have become a hotspot in recent years. In this review paper, the removal performance of microalgal-bacterial symbiosis on organics, nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater containing emerging pollutants has been summarized. The adaptation mechanisms of microalgal-bacterial symbiosis to emerging pollutants have been analyzed. It is found that antibiotics usually have hormesis effects on microalgal-bacterial symbiosis, and that microalgal-bacterial symbiosis appears to show more capacity to remove tetracycline and sulfamethoxazole, rather than oxytetracycline and enrofloxacin. Generally, microalgal-bacterial symbiosis can adapt to heavy metals at a concentration of less than 1 mg/L, but its capabilities to remove contaminants can be significantly affected at 10 mg/L heavy metals. Further research should focus on the influence of mixed emerging pollutants on microalgal-bacterial symbiosis, and the feasibility of using selected emerging pollutants (e.g., antibiotics) as a carbon source for microalgal-bacterial symbiosis should also be explored. This review is expected to deepen our understandings on emerging pollutants removal from wastewater by microalgal-bacterial symbiosis.

A pilot-scale study on the removal of binary mixture (ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin) by Scenedesmus obliquus: Optimization, biotransformation, and biofuel profile

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) and norfloxacin (NOR) belong to the organic contaminants of emerging concern (OCECs) that are frequently detected in wastewater matrices at ng/L to mg/L concentrations. This study investigates the potential of Scenedesmus obliquus in the treatment of CIP and NOR as a binary mixture from raw wastewater. Optimization of inoculum was done to find the required cell density concentration that has less inhibition and high removal. The optimum inoculum (cell density: 200 × 105 cells/mL and OD680: 1.0) has shown 75% removal with no inhibition of growth. A pilot scale study was conducted in controlled environment using high-rate algal pond to investigate the contribution of abiotic and biotic removal. Abiotic removal is negligible in comparison with the biotic contribution of removal. The order of removal efficiency is observed as COD (88%) > NOR (84.8%) > CIP (84.6%) > NH4+ (71.7%) with biodegradation as the major removal mechanism. Biotransformed products of CIP + NOR were identified inside the Scenedesmus obliquus. During the pilot-scale study, Biomass (3.70 ± 0.07 g/L) was harvested with carbohydrates (17.85 ± 0.1%), lipids (38.36 ± 0.13%), and proteins (28.18 ± 1.63%). Lipid productivity in binary mixture was 2.6 times higher than the lipid production in control condition. Transesterification of these lipids yielded good biofuel composition of 32.72% of saturated fatty acids and 21.7% of unsaturated fatty acids.

Phytohormones: novel strategy for removing emerging contaminants and recovering resources

Microalgae have the ability to remove emerging contaminants (ECs) from wastewater and to recover resources, but this is limited by oxidative damage caused by the contaminants. Recently, phytohormones have been found to improve the tolerance of microalgae under oxidative stress, to promote the removal of ECs, and to enhance the synthesis of metabolites.

Plants, animals, and fisheries waste-mediated bioremediation of contaminants of environmental and emerging concern (CEECs)-a circular bioresource utilization approach

The release of contaminants of environmental concern including heavy metals and metalloids, and contaminants of emerging concern including organic micropollutants from processing industries, pharmaceuticals, personal care, and anthropogenic sources, is a growing threat worldwide. Mitigating inorganic and organic contaminants, which can be coined as contaminants of environmental and emerging concern (CEECs), is a big challenge as traditional physicochemical processes are not economically viable for managing mixed contaminants of low concentrations. As a result, low-cost materials must be designed to provide high CEEC removal efficiency. One of the environmentally viable and energy-efficient approaches is biosorption, which involves using biomass or biopolymers isolated from plants or animals to decontaminate heavy metals in contaminated environments using inherent biological mechanisms. Among chemical constituents in plant biomass, cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, proteins, polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, and animal biomass include polysaccharides and other compounds to bind heavy metals covalently and non-covalently. These functional groups include carboxyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl, amide, amine, and sulfhydryl. Cation-exchange capacities of these bioadsorbents can be improved by applying chemical modifications. The relevance of chemical constituents and bioactives in biosorbents derived from agricultural production such as food and fodder crops, bioenergy and cash crops, fruit and vegetable crops, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation trees, aquatic and terrestrial weeds, and animal production such as dairy, goatery, poultry, duckery, and fisheries is highlighted in this comprehensive review for sequestering and bioremediation of CEECs, including as many as ten different heavy metals and metalloids co-contaminated with other organic micropollutants in circular bioresource utilization and one-health concepts.

Supplementation of exogenous phytohormones for enhancing the removal of sulfamethoxazole and the simultaneous accumulation of lipid by Chlorella vulgaris

In this study, the phytohormone gibberellins (GAs) were used to enhance sulfamethoxazole (SMX) removal and lipid accumulation in the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris. At the concentration of 50 mg/L GAs, the SMX removal achieved by C. vulgaris was 91.8 % while the lipid productivity of microalga was at 11.05 mg/L d^-1, which were much higher than that without GAs (3.5 % for SMX removal and 0.52 mg/L d^-1 for lipid productivity). Supplementation of GAs enhanced the expression of antioxidase-related genes in C. vulgaris as a direct response towards the toxicity of SMX. In addition, GAs increased lipid production of C. vulgaris by up-regulating the expression of genes related to carbon cycle of microalgal cells. In summary, exogenous GAs promoted the stress tolerance and lipid accumulation of microalgae at the same time, which is conducive to improving the economic benefits of microalgae-based antibiotics removal as well as biofuel production potential.

Integrated culture and harvest systems for improved microalgal biomass production and wastewater treatment

Microalgae cultivation in wastewater has received much attention as an environmentally sustainable approach. However, commercial application of this technique is challenging due to the low biomass output and high harvesting costs. Recently, integrated culture and harvest systems including microalgae biofilm, membrane photobioreactor, microalgae-fungi co-culture, microalgae-activated sludge co-culture, and microalgae auto-flocculation have been explored for efficiently coupling microalgal biomass production with wastewater purification. In such systems, the cultivation of microalgae and the separation of algal cells from wastewater are performed in the same reactor, enabling microalgae grown in the cultivation system to reach higher concentration, thus greatly improving the efficiency of biomass production and wastewater purification. Additionally, the design of such innovative systems also allows for microalgae cells to be harvested more efficiently. This review summarizes the mechanisms, characteristics, applications, and development trends of the various integrated systems and discusses their potential for broad applications, which worth further research.

Microalga Coelastrella sp. Cultivation on Unhydrolyzed Molasses-Based Medium towards the Optimization of Conditions for Growth and Biomass Production under Mixotrophic Cultivation

Improving biomass production with the utilization of low-cost substrate is a crucial approach to overcome the hindrance of high cost in developing large-scale microalgae production. The microalga Coelastrella sp. KKU-P1 was mixotrophically cultivated using unhydrolyzed molasses as a carbon source, with the key environmental conditions being varied in order to maximize biomass production. The batch cultivation in flasks achieved the highest biomass production of 3.81 g/L, under an initial pH 5.0, a substrate to inoculum ratio of 100:3, an initial total sugar concentration of 10 g/L, and a sodium nitrate concentration of 1.5 g/L with continuous light illumination at 23.7 W/m². The photobioreactor cultivation results indicated that CO₂ supplementation did not improve biomass production. An ambient concentration of CO₂ was sufficient to promote the mixotrophic growth of the microalga as indicated by the highest biomass production of 4.28 g/L with 33.91% protein, 46.71% carbohydrate, and 15.10% lipid. The results of the biochemical composition analysis suggest that the microalgal biomass obtained is promising as a source of essential amino acids and pigments as well as saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. This research highlights the potential for bioresource production via microalgal mixotrophic cultivation using untreated molasses as a low-cost raw material.

Efficient coupling of sulfadiazine removal with microalgae lipid production in a membrane photobioreactor

This study explored the feasibility of a coupled system for antibiotic removal and biofuel production through microalgae cultivation. Initial, batch culture experiments demonstrated that sulfadiazine (SDZ) had an inhibitory effect on Chlorella sp. G-9, and 100.0 mg L-1 SDZ completely inhibited its growth. In order to improve SDZ removal efficiency by microalgae, three membrane photobioreactors (MPBRs) with different hydraulic retention times (HRTs) were established for continuous microalgae cultivation. The efficient coupling of SDZ removal and microalgal lipid production was achieved through the gradual increment of influent SDZ concentration from 0 to 100.0 mg L-1. The reduction in SDZ ranged between 57.8 and 89.7%, 54.7-91.7%, and 54.6-93.5% for the MPBRs with HRT of 4 d, 2 d, and 1 d, respectively. Chlorella sp. Was found to tolerate higher concentrations of SDZ in the MPBR system, and the resulting stress from high concentrations of SDZ effectively increased the lipid content of microalgae for potential biodiesel production. With the increase of influent SDZ concentration from 0 to 100.0 mg L-1, the lipid content of microalgae increased by 43.5%. Chlorophyll content, superoxide dismutase activity, and malondialdehyde content of microalgae were also evaluated to explore the mechanism of microalgae tolerance to SDZ stress in MPBR.

Microbial Resistance to Antibiotics and Biofilm Formation of Bacterial Isolates from Different Carp Species and Risk Assessment for Public Health

The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of biofilm on antibiotic resistance of the bacterial isolates present in fish meat and to assess the risk of antibiotic residues for public health. Common carp, silver carp and grass carp fishes were purchased from retail stores for an in vitro biofilm investigation and a drug-resistant pattern determination. In all samples, up to 10⁴ CFU/g of bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Aeromonas hydrophila, Shewanella putrefaciens, Vibrio spp. and Staphylococcus spp., were observed. Isolates from the samples and their biofilms were subjected to an antibiogram assay using antibiotics such as amoxicillin, ampicillin, cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, gentamicin, streptomycin, tetracycline and trimethoprim. Obtained results showed that some of the isolates were sensitive to antibiotics and some were resistant. Results of LC-MS/MS analysis showed that antibiotics residues were present in fish samples in the range between 4.9 and 199.4 µg/kg, with a total sum of 417.1 µg/kg. Estimated daily intake (EDI) was established to be 0.274 μg/kg of body weight/day for men and 0.332 μg/kg of body weight/day for women, with an acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 8.5 and 7.0 µg/kg of body weight/day for men and women, respectively. The results of the present study, therefore, highlight the safe consumption of fresh fish.

Efficient microalgal lipid production driven by salt stress and phytohormones synergistically

In this study, a novel method of coupling phytohormones with saline wastewater was proposed to drive efficient microalgal lipid production. All the six phytohormones effectively promoted microalgae growth in saline wastewater, and further increased the microalgal lipid content based on salt stress, so as to achieve a large increase in microalgal lipid productivity. Among the phytohormones used, abscisic acid had the most significant promoting effect. Under the synergistic effect of 20 g/L salt and 20 mg/L abscisic acid, the microalgal lipid productivity reached 3.7 times that of the control. Transcriptome analysis showed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of microalgae in saline wastewater were mainly up-regulated under the effects of phytohormones except brassinolide. Common DEGs analysis showed that phytohormones all regulated the expression of genes related to DNA repair and substance synthesis. In conclusion, synergistic effect of salt stress and phytohormones can greatly improve the microalgal lipid production efficiency.