Macrophages Use Distinct Actin Regulators to Switch Engulfment Strategies and Ensure Phagocytic Plasticity In Vivo

PTEN inhibits scavenger receptor-mediated phagocytosis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Phagocytosis requires the coordination of various classes of receptors and the activation of multiple signaling programs, culminating in actin cytoskeletal rearrangement and ingestion. Given the pleiotropic nature of the events necessary for proper microbial ingestion, identifying molecules that control distinct steps of phagocytosis could reveal potential strategies to enhance microbial clearance. PTEN is a lipid/protein phosphatase traditionally recognized as a tumor suppressor. While PTEN inhibits various arms of the innate immune response, its role during Staphylococcus aureus infection remains unclear. We hypothesize that PTEN inhibits the functions of scavenger receptors (SRs) and the actin cytoskeleton during methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) infection in macrophages. RNAseq analysis of PTEN KO immortalized bone marrow-derived macrophages (iBMDMs) unveiled increased expression of genes involved in actin polymerization, pathogen recognition, and SRs, which leads to enhanced MRSA phagocytosis in both iBMDMs and primary peritoneal macrophages lacking PTEN. PTEN is physically associated with 2 SRs, MARCO and CD36, and blocking these receptors prevents the increased phagocytosis seen in PTEN KO macrophages. PTEN binds to the actin depolymerizing factor cofilin-1 during infection, inhibiting F-actin (the essential form of actin for phagocytosis) while increasing G-actin pools. Cytometry by time of flight (CyTOF) analysis of human myeloid cell populations from a PTEN-haploinsufficient patient suggests that PTEN is necessary for generating specific monocyte and dendritic subclasses. This study identifies the role of PTEN in macrophage phagocytosis of a gram-positive pathogen and in the development of monocyte subsets. This highlights the spectrum of PTEN importance in host defense mechanisms in both murine and human phagocytes.

Epithelial apoptosis: A back-and-forth mechanical interplay between the dying cell and its surroundings

Apoptosis is an essential cellular process corresponding to a programmed cell suicide. It has long been considered as a cell-autonomous process, supposed to have no particular impact on the surrounding tissue. However, it has become clear in the last 15 years that epithelial apoptotic cells interact mechanically and biochemically with their environment. Here, we explore recent literature on apoptotic mechanics from an individual dying cell to the back-and-forth interplay with the neighboring epithelial tissue. Finally, we discuss how caspases, key regulators of apoptosis, appear to have a dual function as a cytoskeleton regulator favoring either cytoskeleton degradation or dynamics independently of their apoptotic or non-apoptotic role.

The role of macrophage migratory behavior in development, homeostasis and tumor invasion

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) recapitulate the developmental and homeostatic behaviors of tissue resident macrophages (TRMs) to promote tumor growth, invasion and metastasis. TRMs arise in the embryo and colonize developing tissues, initially to guide tissue morphogenesis and then to form complex networks in adult tissues to constantly search for threats to homeostasis. The macrophage growth factor, colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), which is essential for TRM survival and differentiation, is also responsible for the development of the unique motility machinery of mature macrophages that underpins their ramified morphologies, migratory capacity and ability to degrade matrix. Two CSF-1-activated kinases, hematopoietic cell kinase and the p110δ catalytic isoform of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, regulate this machinery and selective inhibitors of these proteins completely block macrophage invasion. Considering tumors co-opt the invasive capacity of TAMs to promote their own invasion, these proteins are attractive targets for drug development to inhibit tumor progression to invasion and metastasis.

Clustered macrophages cooperate to eliminate tumors via coordinated intrudopodia

Macrophages often pervade solid tumors, but their nearest neighbor organization is understudied and potentially enables key functions such as phagocytosis. Here, we observe dynamic macrophage clusters in tumors under conditions that maximize cancer cell phagocytosis and use reductionist approaches to uncover pathways to cluster formation and roles for tumor-intrusive pseudopodia, which we term 'intrudopodia'. Macrophage clusters form over hours on low- adhesion substrates after M1 polarization with interferons, including T cell-derived cytokines, and yet clusters prove fluid on timescales of minutes. Clusters also sort from M2 macrophages that disperse on the same substrates. M1 macrophages upregulate specific cell-cell adhesion receptors but suppress actomyosin contractility, and while both pathways contribute to cluster formation, decreased cortical tension was predicted to unleash pseudopodia. Macrophage neighbors in tumor spheroids indeed extend intrudopodia between adjacent cancer cell junctions - at least when phagocytosis conditions are maximized, and coordinated intrudopodia help detach and individualize cancer cells for rapid engulfment. Macrophage clusters thereby provide a cooperative advantage for phagocytosis to overcome solid tumor cohesion.

Broad-spectrum antibiotics disrupt homeostatic efferocytosis

The clearance of apoptotic cells, termed efferocytosis, is essential for tissue homeostasis and prevention of autoimmunity1. Although past studies have elucidated local molecular signals that regulate homeostatic efferocytosis in a tissue2,3, whether signals arising distally also regulate homeostatic efferocytosis remains elusive. Here, we show that large peritoneal macrophage (LPM) display impairs efferocytosis in broad-spectrum antibiotics (ABX)-treated, vancomycin-treated and germ-free mice in vivo, all of which have a depleted gut microbiota. Mechanistically, the microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acid butyrate directly boosts efferocytosis efficiency and capacity in mouse and human macrophages, and rescues ABX-induced LPM efferocytosis defects in vivo. Bulk messenger RNA sequencing of butyrate-treated macrophages in vitro and single-cell messenger RNA sequencing of LPMs isolated from ABX-treated and butyrate-rescued mice reveals regulation of efferocytosis-supportive transcriptional programmes. Specifically, we find that the efferocytosis receptor T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain containing 4 (TIM-4, Timd4) is downregulated in LPMs of ABX-treated mice but rescued by oral butyrate. We show that TIM-4 is required for the butyrate-induced enhancement of LPM efferocytosis capacity and that LPM efferocytosis is impaired beyond withdrawal of ABX. ABX-treated mice exhibit significantly worse disease in a mouse model of lupus. Our results demonstrate that homeostatic efferocytosis relies on distal metabolic signals and suggest that defective homeostatic efferocytosis may explain the link between ABX use and inflammatory disease4-7.

Ferroptosis-like cell death promotes and prolongs inflammation in Drosophila

Ferroptosis is a distinct form of necrotic cell death caused by overwhelming lipid peroxidation, and emerging evidence indicates a major contribution to organ damage in multiple pathologies. However, ferroptosis has not yet been visualized in vivo due to a lack of specific probes, which has severely limited the study of how the immune system interacts with ferroptotic cells and how this process contributes to inflammation. Consequently, whether ferroptosis has a physiological role has remained a key outstanding question. Here we identify a distinct, ferroptotic-like, necrotic cell death occurring in vivo during wounding of the Drosophila embryo using live imaging. We further demonstrate that macrophages rapidly engage these necrotic cells within the embryo but struggle to engulf them, leading to prolonged, frustrated phagocytosis and frequent corpse disintegration. Conversely, suppression of the ferroptotic programme during wounding delays macrophage recruitment to the injury site, pointing to conflicting roles for ferroptosis during inflammation in vivo.

CED-5/CED-12 (DOCK/ELMO) can promote and inhibit F-actin formation via distinct motifs that may target different GTPases

Coordinated activation and inhibition of F-actin supports the movements of morphogenesis. Understanding the proteins that regulate F-actin is important, since these proteins are mis-regulated in diseases like cancer. Our studies of C. elegans embryonic epidermal morphogenesis identified the GTPase CED-10/Rac1 as an essential activator of F-actin. However, we need to identify the GEF, or Guanine-nucleotide Exchange Factor, that activates CED-10/Rac1 during embryonic cell migrations. The two-component GEF, CED-5/CED-12, is known to activate CED-10/Rac1 to promote cell movements that result in the engulfment of dying cells during embryogenesis, and a later cell migration of the larval Distal Tip Cell. It is believed that CED-5/CED-12 powers cellular movements of corpse engulfment and DTC migration by promoting F-actin formation. Therefore, we tested if CED-5/CED-12 was involved in embryonic migrations, and got a contradictory result. CED-5/CED-12 definitely support embryonic migrations, since their loss led to embryos that died due to failed epidermal cell migrations. However, CED-5/CED-12 inhibited F-actin in the migrating epidermis, the opposite of what was expected for a CED-10 GEF. To address how CED-12/CED-5 could have two opposing effects on F-actin, during corpse engulfment and cell migration, we investigated if CED-12 harbors GAP (GTPase Activating Protein) functions. A candidate GAP region in CED-12 faces away from the CED-5 GEF catalytic region. Mutating a candidate catalytic Arginine in the CED-12 GAP region (R537A) altered the epidermal cell migration function, and not the corpse engulfment function. We interfered with GEF function by interfering with CED-5's ability to bind Rac1/CED-10. Mutating Serine-Arginine in CED-5/DOCK predicted to bind and stabilize Rac1 for catalysis, resulted in loss of both ventral enclosure and corpse engulfment. Genetic and expression studies strongly support that the GAP function likely acts on different GTPases. Thus, we propose CED-5/CED-12 support the cycling of multiple GTPases, by using distinct domains, to both promote and inhibit F-actin nucleation.

What could be the function of the spinal muscular atrophy-causing protein SMN in macrophages?

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA), a neurodegenerative disorder, extends its impact beyond the nervous system. The central protein implicated in SMA, Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) protein, is ubiquitously expressed and functions in fundamental processes such as alternative splicing, translation, cytoskeletal dynamics and signaling. These processes are relevant for all cellular systems, including cells of the immune system such as macrophages. Macrophages are capable of modulating their splicing, cytoskeleton and expression profile in order to fulfil their role in tissue homeostasis and defense. However, less is known about impairment or dysfunction of macrophages lacking SMN and the subsequent impact on the immune system of SMA patients. We aimed to review the potential overlaps between SMN functions and macrophage mechanisms highlighting the need for future research, as well as the current state of research addressing the role of macrophages in SMA.

Imaging actin organisation and dynamics in 3D

The actin cytoskeleton plays a critical role in cell architecture and the control of fundamental processes including cell division, migration and survival. The dynamics and organisation of F-actin have been widely studied in a breadth of cell types on classical two-dimensional (2D) surfaces. Recent advances in optical microscopy have enabled interrogation of these cytoskeletal networks in cells within three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds, tissues and in vivo. Emerging studies indicate that the dimensionality experienced by cells has a profound impact on the structure and function of the cytoskeleton, with cells in 3D environments exhibiting cytoskeletal arrangements that differ to cells in 2D environments. However, the addition of a third (and fourth, with time) dimension leads to challenges in sample preparation, imaging and analysis, necessitating additional considerations to achieve the required signal-to-noise ratio and spatial and temporal resolution. Here, we summarise the current tools for imaging actin in a 3D context and highlight examples of the importance of this in understanding cytoskeletal biology and the challenges and opportunities in this domain.

CED-5/CED-12 (DOCK/ELMO) can promote and inhibit F-actin formation via distinct motifs that target different GTPases

Coordinated activation and inhibition of F-actin supports the movements of morphogenesis. Understanding the proteins that regulate F-actin is important, since these proteins are mis-regulated in diseases like cancer. Our studies of C. elegans embryonic epidermal morphogenesis identified the GTPase CED-10/Rac1 as an essential activator of F-actin. However, we need to identify the GEF, or Guanine-nucleotide Exchange Factor, that activates CED-10/Rac1 during embryonic cell migrations. The two-component GEF, CED-5/CED-12, is known to activate CED-10/Rac1 to promote cell movements that result in the engulfment of dying cells during embryogenesis, and a later cell migration of the larval Distal Tip Cell. It is believed that CED-5/CED-12 powers cellular movements of corpse engulfment and DTC migration by promoting F-actin formation. Therefore, we tested if CED-5/CED-12 was involved in embryonic migrations, and got a contradictory result. CED-5/CED-12 definitely support embryonic migrations, since their loss led to embryos that died due to failed epidermal cell migrations. However, CED-5/CED-12 inhibited F-actin in the migrating epidermis, the opposite of what was expected for a CED-10 GEF. To address how CED-12/CED-5 could have two opposing effects on F-actin, during corpse engulfment and cell migration, we investigated if CED-12 harbors GAP (GTPase Activating Protein) functions. A candidate GAP region in CED-12 faces away from the CED-5 GEF catalytic region. Mutating a candidate catalytic Arginine in the CED-12 GAP region (R537A) altered the epidermal cell migration function, and not the corpse engulfment function. A candidate GEF region on CED-5 faces towards Rac1/CED-10. Mutating Serine-Arginine in CED-5/DOCK predicted to bind and stabilize Rac1 for catalysis, resulted in loss of both ventral enclosure and corpse engulfment. Genetic and expression studies showed the GEF and GAP functions act on different GTPases. Thus, we propose CED-5/CED-12 support the cycling of multiple GTPases, by using distinct domains, to both promote and inhibit F-actin nucleation.

Understanding the diversity and dynamics of in vivo efferocytosis: Insights from the fly embryo

The clearance of dead and dying cells, termed efferocytosis, is a rapid and efficient process and one that is critical for organismal health. The extraordinary speed and efficiency with which dead cells are detected and engulfed by immune cells within tissues presents a challenge to researchers who wish to unravel this fascinating process, since these fleeting moments of uptake are almost impossible to catch in vivo. In recent years, the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) embryo has emerged as a powerful model to circumvent this problem. With its abundance of dying cells, specialist phagocytes and relative ease of live imaging, the humble fly embryo provides a unique opportunity to catch and study the moment of cell engulfment in real-time within a living animal. In this review, we explore the recent advances that have come from studies in the fly, and how live imaging and genetics have revealed a previously unappreciated level of diversity in the efferocytic program. A variety of efferocytic strategies across the phagocytic cell population ensure efficient and rapid clearance of corpses wherever death is encountered within the varied and complex setting of a multicellular living organism.

Hijacking homeostasis: Regulation of the tumor microenvironment by apoptosis

Cancers are genetically driven, rogue tissues which generate dysfunctional, obdurate organs by hijacking normal, homeostatic programs. Apoptosis is an evolutionarily conserved regulated cell death program and a profoundly important homeostatic mechanism that is common (alongside tumor cell proliferation) in actively growing cancers, as well as in tumors responding to cytotoxic anti-cancer therapies. Although well known for its cell-autonomous tumor-suppressive qualities, apoptosis harbors pro-oncogenic properties which are deployed through non-cell-autonomous mechanisms and which generally remain poorly defined. Here, the roles of apoptosis in tumor biology are reviewed, with particular focus on the secreted and fragmentation products of apoptotic tumor cells and their effects on tumor-associated macrophages, key supportive cells in the aberrant homeostasis of the tumor microenvironment. Historical aspects of cell loss in tumor growth kinetics are considered and the impact (and potential impact) on tumor growth of apoptotic-cell clearance (efferocytosis) as well as released soluble and extracellular vesicle-associated factors are discussed from the perspectives of inflammation, tissue repair, and regeneration programs. An "apoptosis-centric" view is proposed in which dying tumor cells provide an important platform for intricate intercellular communication networks in growing cancers. The perspective has implications for future research and for improving cancer diagnosis and therapy.

MiR-155 enhances phagocytosis of alveolar macrophages through the mTORC2/RhoA pathway

Alveolar macrophage phagocytosis is significantly reduced in Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cigarette smoke extract is one of the chief reasons for this decrease. Nevertheless, the specific underlying mechanism remains elusive. In this study, the role and possible mechanism of miR-155-5p/mTORC2/RhoA in the phagocytosis of mouse alveolar macrophages (MH-S) were explored. Our results revealed that cigarette smoke extract intervention reduced MH-S cell phagocytosis and miR-155-5p expression. Meanwhile, the dual-luciferase reporter assay validated that Rictor is a target of miR-155-5p. On the one hand, transfecting miR-155-5p mimic, mimic NC, miR-155-5p inhibitor, or inhibitor NC in MH-S cells overexpressing miR-155-5p increased the Alveolar macrophage phagocytotic rate, up-regulated the expression level of RhoA and p-RhoA, and down-regulated that of mTOR and Rictor mRNA and protein. On the other hand, inhibiting the expression of miR-155-5p lowered the phagocytotic rate, up-regulated the expression of mTOR, Rictor mRNA, and protein, and down-regulated the expression of RhoA and p-RhoA, which taken together, authenticated that miR-155-5p participates in macrophage phagocytosis via the mTORC2/RhoA pathway. Finally, confocal microscopy demonstrated that cells overexpressing miR-155-5p underwent cytoskeletal rearrangement during phagocytosis, and the phagocytic function of cells was enhanced, signaling that miR-155-5p participated in macrophage skeletal rearrangement and enhanced alveolar macrophage phagocytosis by targeting the expression of Rictor in the mTORC2/RhoA pathway.

Mesenchymal Migration on Adhesive-Nonadhesive Alternate Surfaces in Macrophages

Mesenchymal migration usually happens on adhesive substrates, while cells adopt amoeboid migration on low/nonadhesive surfaces. Protein-repelling reagents, e.g., poly(ethylene) glycol (PEG), are routinely employed to resist cell adhering and migrating. Contrary to these perceptions, this work discovers a unique locomotion of macrophages on adhesive-nonadhesive alternate substrates in vitro that they can overcome nonadhesive PEG gaps to reach adhesive regions in the mesenchymal mode. Adhering to extracellular matrix regions is a prerequisite for macrophages to perform further locomotion on the PEG regions. Podosomes are found highly enriched on the PEG region in macrophages and support their migration across the nonadhesive regions. Increasing podosome density through myosin IIA inhibition facilitates cell motility on adhesive-nonadhesive alternate substrates. Moreover, a developed cellular Potts model reproduces this mesenchymal migration. These findings together uncover a new migratory behavior on adhesive-nonadhesive alternate substrates in macrophages.

Optimal low-intensity pulsed ultrasound stimulation for promoting anti-inflammatory effects in macrophages

In this paper, we stimulated M1-like macrophages (obtained from U937 cells) with low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) to lower pro-inflammatory cytokine production. A systematic screening of different frequencies, intensities, duty cycles, and exposure times was performed. The optimal stimulation conditions leading to a marked decrease in the release of inflammatory cytokines were determined to be 38 kHz, 250 mW/cm², 20%, and 90 min, respectively. Using these parameters, we verified that up to 72 h LIPUS did not affect cell viability, resulting in an increase in metabolic activity and in a reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Moreover, we found that two mechanosensitive ion channels (PIEZO1 and TRPV1) were involved in the LIPUS-mediated cytokine release modulation. We also assessed the role of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway and observed an enhancement of actin polymerization. Finally, transcriptomic data suggested that the bioeffects of LIPUS treatment occur through the modulation of p38 MAPK signaling pathway.

Super-Resolution Spinning-Disk Confocal Microscopy Using Optical Photon Reassignment (SoRa) to Visualize the Actin Cytoskeleton in Macrophages

Macrophages are motile, morphologically plastic cells that undergo substantial cytoskeletal remodeling to facilitate their roles in innate and adaptive immunity. Macrophages are adept at producing a variety of specialized actin-driven structures and processes including the formation of podosomes and the ability to engulf particles through phagocytosis and sample large amounts of extracellular fluid via micropinocytosis. Here, we describe techniques for immunostaining proteins and transfecting macrophages with plasmids for use with either fixed or live cell imaging. Furthermore, we discuss the use of spinning-disk super-resolution using optical reassignment to generate sub-diffraction limited structures using this type of confocal microscope.

F-actin organization and target constriction during primary macrophage phagocytosis is balanced by competing activity of myosin-I and myosin-II

Phagocytosis requires rapid remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton for extension of membrane protrusions and force generation to ultimately drive the engulfment of targets. The detailed mechanisms of phagocytosis have almost exclusively been studied in immortalized cell lines. Here, we make use of high-resolution imaging and novel biophysical approaches to determine the structural and mechanical features of phagocytosis by primary bone marrow-derived macrophages. We find that the signature behavior of these primary cells is distinct from macrophage-like cell lines; specifically, it is gentle, with only weak target constriction and modest polarization of the F-actin distribution inside the phagocytic cup. We show that long-tailed myosins 1e/f are critical for this organization. Deficiency of myo1e/f causes dramatic shifts in F-actin localization, reducing F-actin at the phagocytic cup base and enhancing F-actin-mediated constriction at the cup rim. Surprisingly, these changes can be almost fully reverted upon inhibition of another myosin motor protein, myosin-II. Hence, we show that the biomechanics and large-scale organization of phagocytic cups is tightly regulated through competing contributions from myosin-Ie/f and myosin-II.

Wun2-mediated integrin recycling promotes apoptotic cell clearance in Drosophila melanogaster

Apoptotic cell (AC) clearance is a complex process in which phagocytes recognize, engulf, and digest ACs during organismal development and tissue homeostasis. Impaired efferocytosis results in developmental defects and autoimmune diseases. In the current study, we performed RNA-sequencing to systematically identify regulators involved in the phagocytosis of ACs by Drosophila melanogaster macrophage-like S2 cells, followed by targeted RNA interference screening. Wunen2 (Wun2), a homolog of mammalian lipid phosphate phosphatase (LPP), was deemed as required for efferocytosis both in vitro and in vivo. However, efferocytosis was independent of Wun2 phosphatase activity. Proteomic analysis further revealed that Rab11 and its effector Rip11 are interaction partners of Wun2. Therefore, Wun2 collaborates with Rip11 and Rab11 to mediate efficient recycling of the phagocytic receptor βν integrin subunit to the plasma membrane. The loss of Wun2 results in the routing of βv integrin subunit (Itgbn) into lysosomes, leading to its degradation. The deficiency of βv integrin subunit on the cell surface leads to aberrant and disorganized actin cytoskeleton, thereby influencing the formation of macrophage pseudopodia toward ACs and thus failure to engulf them. The findings of this study provide insights that clarify how phagocytes coordinate AC signals and adopt a precise mechanism for the maintenance of engulfment receptors at their cell membrane surface to regulate efferocytosis.

Dynamics of phagocytosis mediated by phosphatidylserine

Phagocytosis triggered by the phospholipid phosphatidylserine (PS) is key for the removal of apoptotic cells in development, tissue homeostasis and infection. Modulation of PS-mediated phagocytosis is an attractive target for therapeutic intervention in the context of atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative disease, and cancer. Whereas the mechanisms of target recognition, lipid and protein signalling, and cytoskeletal remodelling in opsonin-driven modes of phagocytosis are increasingly well understood, PS-mediated phagocytosis has remained more elusive. This is partially due to the involvement of a multitude of receptors with at least some redundancy in functioning, which complicates dissecting their contributions and results in complex downstream signalling networks. This review focusses on the receptors involved in PS-recognition, the signalling cascades that connect receptors to cytoskeletal remodelling required for phagocytosis, and recent progress in our understanding of how phagocytic cup formation is coordinated during PS-mediated phagocytosis.

Phosphoinositide species and filamentous actin formation mediate engulfment by senescent tumor cells

Cancer cells survive chemotherapy and cause lethal relapse by entering a senescent state that facilitates expression of many phagocytosis/macrophage-related genes that engender a novel cannibalism phenotype. We used biosensors and live-cell imaging to reveal the basic steps and mechanisms of engulfment by senescent human and mouse tumor cells. We show filamentous actin in predator cells was localized to the prey cell throughout the process of engulfment. Biosensors to various phosphoinositide (PI) species revealed increased concentration and distinct localization of predator PI(4) P and PI(4,5)P2 at the prey cell during early stages of engulfment, followed by a transient burst of PI(3) P before and following internalization. PIK3C2B, the kinase responsible for generating PI(3)P, was required for complete engulfment. Inhibition or knockdown of Clathrin, known to associate with PIK3C2B and PI(4,5)P2, severely impaired engulfment. In sum, our data reveal the most fundamental cellular processes of senescent cell engulfment, including the precise localizations and dynamics of actin and PI species throughout the entire process.

Wound Healing from an Actin Cytoskeletal Perspective

Wound healing requires a complex cascade of highly controlled and conserved cellular and molecular processes. These involve numerous cell types and extracellular matrix molecules regulated by the actin cytoskeleton. This microscopic network of filaments is present within the cytoplasm of all cells and provides the shape and mechanical support required for cell movement and proliferation. Here, an overview of the processes of wound healing are described from the perspective of the cell in relation to the actin cytoskeleton. Key points of discussion include the role of actin, its binding proteins, signaling pathways, and events that play significant roles in the phases of wound healing. The identification of cytoskeletal targets that can be used to manipulate and improve wound healing is included as an emerging area of focus that may inform future therapeutic approaches to improve healing of complex wounds.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 promotes erythrocyte clearance by vascular smooth muscle cells in intraplaque hemorrhage through MFG-E8 production

Intraplaque hemorrhage (IPH) accelerates atherosclerosis progression. To scavenge excessive red blood cells (RBCs), vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) with great plasticity may function as phagocytes. Here, we investigated the erythrophagocytosis function of VSMCs and possible regulations involved. Based on transcriptional microarray analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis showed that genes up-regulated in human carotid atheroma with IPH were enriched in functions of phagocytic activities, while those down-regulated were enriched in VSMCs contraction function. Transcriptional expression of Milk fat globule-epidermal growth factor 8 (MFG-E8) was also down-regulated in atheroma with IPH. In high-fat diet-fed apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, erythrocytes were present in cells expressing VSMC markers αSMA in the brachiocephalic artery, suggesting VSMCs play a role in erythrophagocytosis. Using immunofluorescence and flow cytometry, we also found that eryptotic RBCs were bound to and internalized by VSMCs in a phosphatidylserine/MFG-E8/integrin α_Vβ₃ dependent manner in vitro. Inhibiting S1PR2 signaling with specific inhibitor JTE-013 or siRNA decreased Mfge8 expression and impaired the erythrophagocytosis of VSMCs in vitro. Partial ligation was performed in the left common carotid artery (LCA) followed by intra-intimal injection of isolated erythrocytes to observe their clearance in vivo. Interfering S1PR2 expression in VSMCs with Adeno-associated virus 9 inhibited MFG-E8 expression inside LCA plaques receiving RBCs injection and attenuated erythrocytes clearance. Erythrophagocytosis by VSMCs increased vascular endothelial growth factor-a secretion and promoted angiogenesis. The present study revealed that VSMCs act as phagocytes for RBC clearance through S1PR2 activation induced MFG-E8 release.

Building the phagocytic cup on an actin scaffold

Cells ingest large particles, such as bacteria, viruses, or apoptotic cells, via the process of phagocytosis, which involves formation of an actin-rich structure known as the phagocytic cup. Phagocytic cup assembly and closure results from a concerted action of phagocytic receptors, regulators of actin polymerization, and myosin motors. Recent studies using advanced imaging approaches and biophysical techniques have revealed new information regarding phagocytic cup architecture, regulation of actin assembly, and the distribution, direction, and magnitude of the forces produced by the cytoskeletal elements that form the cup. These findings provide insights into the mechanisms leading to the assembly, expansion, and closure of phagocytic cups. The new data show that engulfment and internalization of phagocytic targets rely on several distinct yet complementary mechanisms that support the robust uptake of foreign objects and may be precisely tailored to the demands of specific phagocytic pathways.

Macrophage ALDH2 (Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 2) Stabilizing Rac2 Is Required for Efferocytosis Internalization and Reduction of Atherosclerosis Development

BACKGROUND

Clinical studies show that the most common single-point mutation in humans, ALDH2 (aldehyde dehydrogenase 2) rs671 mutation, is a risk factor for the development and poor prognosis of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Apoptotic cells are phagocytosed and eliminated by macrophage efferocytosis during atherosclerosis, and enhancement of arterial macrophage efferocytosis reduces atherosclerosis development.

METHODS

Plaque areas, necrotic core size, apoptosis, and efferocytosis in aortic lesions were investigated in APOE-/- mice with bone marrow transplanted from APOE-/-ALDH2-/- and APOE-/- mice. RNA-seq, proteomics, and immunoprecipitation experiments were used to screen and validate signaling pathways affected by ALDH2. Efferocytosis and protein levels were verified in human macrophages from wild-type and rs671 mutation populations.

RESULTS

We found that transplanting bone marrow from APOE-/-ALDH2-/- to APOE-/- mice significantly increased atherosclerosis plaques compared with transplanting bone marrow from APOE-/- to APOE-/- mice. In addition to defective efferocytosis in plaques of APOE-/- mice bone marrow transplanted from APOE-/-ALDH2-/- mice in vivo, macrophages from ALDH2-/- mice also showed significantly impaired efferocytotic activity in vitro. Subsequent RNA-seq, proteomics, and immunoprecipitation experiments showed that wild-type ALDH2 directly interacted with Rac2 and attenuated its degradation due to decreasing the K48-linked polyubiquitination of lysine 123 in Rac2, whereas the rs671 mutant markedly destabilized Rac2. Furthermore, Rac2 played a more crucial role than other Rho GTPases in the internalization process in which Rac2 was up-regulated, activated, and clustered into dots. Overexpression of wild-type ALDH2 in ALDH2-/- macrophages, rather than the rs671 mutant, rescued Rac2 degradation and defective efferocytosis. More importantly, ALDH2 rs671 in human macrophages dampened the apoptotic cells induced upregulation of Rac2 and subsequent efferocytosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study has uncovered a pivotal role of the ALDH2-Rac2 axis in mediating efferocytosis during atherosclerosis, highlighting a potential therapeutic strategy in cardiovascular diseases, especially for ALDH2 rs671 mutation carriers.

Macrophage network dynamics depend on haptokinesis for optimal local surveillance

Macrophages are key immune cells with important roles for tissue surveillance in almost all mammalian organs. Cellular networks made up of many individual macrophages allow for optimal removal of dead cell material and pathogens in tissues. However, the critical determinants that underlie these population responses have not been systematically studied. Here, we investigated how cell shape and the motility of individual cells influences macrophage network responses in 3D culture settings and in mouse tissues. We show that surveying macrophage populations can tolerate lowered actomyosin contractility, but cannot easily compensate for a lack of integrin-mediated adhesion. Although integrins were dispensable for macrophage chemotactic responses, they were crucial to control cell movement and protrusiveness for optimal surveillance by a macrophage population. Our study reveals that β1 integrins are important for maintaining macrophage shape and network sampling efficiency in mammalian tissues, and sets macrophage motility strategies apart from the integrin-independent 3D migration modes of many other immune cell subsets.

Live cell tracking of macrophage efferocytosis during Drosophila embryo development in vivo

Apoptosis of cells and their subsequent removal through efferocytosis occurs in nearly all tissues during development, homeostasis, and disease. However, it has been difficult to track cell death and subsequent corpse removal in vivo. We developed a genetically encoded fluorescent reporter, CharON (Caspase and pH Activated Reporter, Fluorescence ON), that could track emerging apoptotic cells and their efferocytic clearance by phagocytes. Using Drosophila expressing CharON, we uncovered multiple qualitative and quantitative features of coordinated clearance of apoptotic corpses during embryonic development. When confronted with high rates of emerging apoptotic corpses, the macrophages displayed heterogeneity in engulfment behaviors, leading to some efferocytic macrophages carrying high corpse burden. Overburdened macrophages were compromised in clearing wound debris. These findings reveal known and unexpected features of apoptosis and macrophage efferocytosis in vivo.

Clearing Your Mind: Mechanisms of Debris Clearance After Cell Death During Neural Development

Neurodevelopment and efferocytosis have fascinated scientists for decades. How an organism builds a nervous system that is precisely tuned for efficient behaviors and survival and how it simultaneously manages constant somatic cell turnover are complex questions that have resulted in distinct fields of study. Although neurodevelopment requires the overproduction of cells that are subsequently pruned back, very few studies marry these fields to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms that drive nervous system development through the lens of cell clearance. In this review, we discuss these fields to highlight exciting areas of future synergy. We first review neurodevelopment from the perspective of overproduction and subsequent refinement and then discuss who clears this developmental debris and the mechanisms that control these events. We then end with how a more deliberate merger of neurodevelopment and efferocytosis could reframe our understanding of homeostasis and disease and discuss areas of future study. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Neuroscience, Volume 45 is July 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

A role for the centrosome in regulating the rate of neuronal efferocytosis by microglia in vivo

During brain development, many newborn neurons undergo apoptosis and are engulfed by microglia, the tissue-resident phagocytes of the brain, in a process known as efferocytosis. A hallmark of microglia is their highly branched morphology characterized by the presence of numerous dynamic extensions that these cells use for scanning the brain parenchyma and engulfing unwanted material. The mechanisms driving branch formation and apoptotic cell engulfment in microglia are unclear. By taking a live-imaging approach in zebrafish, we show that while microglia generate multiple microtubule-based branches, they only successfully engulf one apoptotic neuron at a time. Further investigation into the mechanism underlying this sequential engulfment revealed that targeted migration of the centrosome into one branch is predictive of phagosome formation and polarized vesicular trafficking. Moreover, experimentally doubling centrosomal numbers in microglia increases the rate of engulfment and even allows microglia to remove two neurons simultaneously, providing direct supporting evidence for a model where centrosomal migration is a rate-limiting step in branch-mediated efferocytosis. Conversely, light-mediated depolymerization of microtubules causes microglia to lose their typical branched morphology and switch to an alternative mode of engulfment, characterized by directed migration towards target neurons, revealing unexpected plasticity in their phagocytic ability. Finally, building on work focusing on the establishment of the immunological synapse, we identified a conserved signalling pathway underlying centrosomal movement in engulfing microglia.

Resolving macrophage polarization through distinct Ca2+ entry channel that maintains intracellular signaling and mitochondrial bioenergetics

Transformation of naive macrophages into classically (M1) or alternatively (M2) activated macrophages regulates the inflammatory response. Here, we identified that distinct Ca2+ entry channels determine the IFNγ-induced M1 or IL-4-induced M2 transition. Naive or M2 macrophages exhibit a robust Ca2+ entry that was dependent on Orai1 channels, whereas the M1 phenotype showed a non-selective TRPC1 current. Blockade of Ca2+ entry suppresses pNF-κB/pJNK/STAT1 or STAT6 signaling events and consequently lowers cytokine production that is essential for M1 or M2 functions. Of importance, LPS stimulation shifted M2 cells from Orai1 toward TRPC1-mediated Ca2+ entry and TRPC1-/- mice exhibited transcriptional changes that suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines. In contrast, Orai1-/- macrophages showed a decrease in anti-inflammatory cytokines and exhibited a suppression of mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate and inhibited mitochondrial shape transition specifically in the M2 cells. Finally, alterations in TRPC1 or Orai1 expression determine macrophage polarization suggesting a distinct role of Ca2+ channels in modulating macrophage transformation.

First we eat, then we do everything else: The dynamic metabolic regulation of efferocytosis

Clearance of apoptotic cells, or "efferocytosis," is essential for diverse processes including embryonic development, tissue turnover, organ regeneration, and immune cell development. The human body is estimated to remove approximately 1% of its body mass via apoptotic cell clearance daily. This poses several intriguing cell metabolism problems. For instance, phagocytes such as macrophages must induce or suppress metabolic pathways to find, engulf, and digest apoptotic cells. Then, phagocytes must manage the potentially burdensome biomass of the engulfed apoptotic cell. Finally, phagocytes reside in complex tissue architectures that vary in nutrient availability, the types of dying cells or debris that require clearance, and the neighboring cells they interact with. Here, we review advances in our understanding of these three key areas of phagocyte metabolism. We end by proposing a model of efferocytosis that integrates recent findings and establishes a new paradigm for testing how efferocytosis prevents chronic inflammatory disease and autoimmunity.

Phagocytic 'teeth' and myosin-II 'jaw' power target constriction during phagocytosis

Phagocytosis requires rapid actin reorganization and spatially controlled force generation to ingest targets ranging from pathogens to apoptotic cells. How actomyosin activity directs membrane extensions to engulf such diverse targets remains unclear. Here, we combine lattice light-sheet microscopy (LLSM) with microparticle traction force microscopy (MP-TFM) to quantify actin dynamics and subcellular forces during macrophage phagocytosis. We show that spatially localized forces leading to target constriction are prominent during phagocytosis of antibody-opsonized targets. This constriction is largely driven by Arp2/3-mediated assembly of discrete actin protrusions containing myosin 1e and 1f ('teeth') that appear to be interconnected in a ring-like organization. Contractile myosin-II activity contributes to late-stage phagocytic force generation and progression, supporting a specific role in phagocytic cup closure. Observations of partial target eating attempts and sudden target release via a popping mechanism suggest that constriction may be critical for resolving complex in vivo target encounters. Overall, our findings present a phagocytic cup shaping mechanism that is distinct from cytoskeletal remodeling in 2D cell motility and may contribute to mechanosensing and phagocytic plasticity.

Crosstalk Between CD11b and Piezo1 Mediates Macrophage Responses to Mechanical Cues

Macrophages are versatile cells of the innate immune system that perform diverse functions by responding to dynamic changes in their microenvironment. While the effects of soluble cues, including cytokines and chemokines, have been widely studied, the effects of physical cues, including mechanical stimuli, in regulating macrophage form and function are less well understood. In this study, we examined the effects of static and cyclic uniaxial stretch on macrophage inflammatory and healing activation. We found that cyclic stretch altered macrophage morphology and responses to IFNγ/LPS and IL4/IL13. Interestingly, we found that both static and cyclic stretch suppressed IFNγ/LPS induced inflammation. In contrast, IL4/IL13 mediated healing responses were suppressed with cyclic but enhanced with static stretch conditions. Mechanistically, both static and cyclic stretch increased expression of the integrin CD11b (αM integrin), decreased expression of the mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo1, and knock down of either CD11b or Piezo1 through siRNA abrogated stretch-mediated changes in inflammatory responses. Moreover, we found that knock down of CD11b enhanced the expression of Piezo1, and conversely knock down of Piezo1 enhanced CD11b expression, suggesting the potential for crosstalk between integrins and ion channels. Finally, stretch-mediated differences in macrophage activation were also dependent on actin, since pharmacological inhibition of actin polymerization abrogated the changes in activation with stretch. Together, this study demonstrates that the physical environment synergizes with biochemical cues to regulate macrophage morphology and function, and suggests a role for CD11b and Piezo1 crosstalk in mechanotransduction in macrophages.

Apoptotic cell signals and heterogeneity in macrophage function: Fine-tuning for a healthy liver

Functional heterogeneity in tissue macrophage populations has often been traced to developmental and spatial cues. Upon tissue damage, macrophages are exposed to soluble mediators secreted by activated cells, which shape their polarisation. Interestingly, macrophages are concomitantly exposed to a variety of different dying cells, which carry miscellaneous signals and that need to be recognised and promptly up-taken by professional phagocytes. This review discusses how differences in the nature of the dying cells, like their morphological and biochemical features as well as the specificity of phagocytic receptor usage on macrophages, might contribute to the transcriptional and functional heterogeneity observed in phagocytic cells in the tissue.