Analytical strategies for organic food packaging contaminants

Review of pretreatment and analytical methods for environmental endocrine disruptors: phthalates

Phthalates, known as phthalate esters (PAEs), are among the most ubiquitous pervasive environmental endocrine disruptors, extensively utilized globally in various facets of modern life due to their irreplaceable role as plasticizers. The exponential production and utilization of plastic goods have substantially escalated plastic waste accumulation. Consequently, PAEs have infiltrated the environment, contaminating food and drinking water reservoirs, posing notable threats to human health. This review provides a comprehensive overview of research advancements in PAE detection and identifies key focal points from 2000 to 2022, utilizing the Web of Science Core Collection. Sample pretreatment and analytical methodologies for PAEs are examined based on bibliometric analysis findings. Pretreatment methods mainly include dispersive solid-phase extraction, magnetic solid-phase extraction, molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction, and solid-phase microextraction. Laboratory analytical methods such as gas chromatography, liquid chromatography, and immunoassay have been described. Additionally, a discussion on the advantages and challenges of rapid on-site detection methods compared with traditional approaches is presented in alignment with the evolving demands of PAEs detection. Based on the current research progress, future studies can focus on the demand of rapid detection of PAEs.

Simultaneous targeted and non-targeted analysis of contaminants in fertilizers in Quebec, Canada

In this study, an LC-MS based analytical method was developed and validated for the simultaneous targeted analysis (14 bisphenols and 14 plasticizers) and suspect screening of other plastic-related contaminants in various types of fertilizers. The ultrasound-assisted extraction method showed overall satisfactory performances, achieving a median absolute recovery of 85 % for the target compounds in different types of fertilizers. The method was applied to sixteen different types of fertilizers, including fertilizing residual materials (n = 8 types), one cattle manure, and seven mineral fertilizers collected in Quebec, Canada in 2022 and 2023. Relatively higher levels of the targeted bisphenols and plasticizers were detected in some fertilizing residual materials, such as municipal biosolids and deinking residues. 4-Hydroxyphenyl 4-isoprooxyphenylsulfone (D-8) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were dominant contaminants in these matrixes, with concentrations up to 35.6 and 64.7 μg g-1 dw, respectively. A non-targeted workflow was successfully applied to municipal biosolids and deinking residues, and >30 contaminants were identified across multiple chemical families at level 1 identification confidence, with most of them previously unreported in various types of fertilizers. For example, new color developers, N-(2-((Phenylcarbamoyl)amino)phenyl)benzenesulfonamide (NKK-1304) and 2,4-bis(phenylsulfonyl)phenol (DBSP), were reported in deinking residues. This work illustrates the complexity of the contaminant mixtures in fertilizers such as municipal biosolids and deinking residues.

Analysis of Plasticizer Contamination Throughout Olive Oil Production

This study monitored the contamination of 32 plasticizers in olive oil throughout the production and storage process. Samples were collected at different stages of production from three olive oil production lines in distinct regions of Portugal and analyzed for 23 phthalates and 9 phthalates substitutes to identify contamination sources. The developed analytical method employed liquid-liquid extraction with hexane/methanol (1:4, v/v), followed by centrifugation, extract removal, and freezing as a clean-up step. Analysis was conducted using gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS), with detection limits ranging from 0.001 to 0.103 mg/kg. The results revealed that plasticizer concentrations progressively increased at each stage of the production process, although unprocessed olives also contained contaminants. Di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) was the most prevalent compound, but all phthalates regulated by the European Union for food contact materials were detected, as well as some unregulated plasticizers. In a few packaged olive oils, DINP concentrations exceeded the specific migration limits established by European regulations. Samples stored in glass and plastic bottles showed no significant differences in plasticizer concentrations after six months of storage. However, higher concentrations were observed in plastic-packaged samples after 18 months of storage. Our findings indicate that the primary source of plasticizer contamination in olive oil originates from the production process itself, except for prolonged storage in plastic bottles, which should be avoided.

Chemical profiling of paper recycling grades using GC-MS and LC-MS: An exploration of contaminants and their possible sources

Paper packaging made with recycled paperboard is used to pack various consumer goods that can include amongst others, electronics, toys, food, cosmetics, and stationery. Chemical profiling of the various paper recycling grades used in the manufacture of recycled paperboard was undertaken to investigate possible sources of contaminants and their propagation in the paper recycling chain. Pre-consumer, retail and post-consumer paper-based materials were collected at papermills, corrugators, grocery stores, household waste, solid waste disposal sites and recycling facilities. In the GC-MS analysis, phthalates, long-chain aliphatic compounds, and fatty acids were the most commonly detected compounds whilst phthalates and bisphenols featured most prevalently in the LC-MS analysis. The factors that were identified as likely contributors to the detection of the different chemical compounds included the presence of wood derivatives, the use of certain chemical additives during manufacturing, and exposure of paper to contaminants from consumers, other goods and the environment. Waste mingling, recovery, sorting and reprocessing into recycled paper were also shown to influence the chemical profile of paper materials. Sparse partial least squares-discriminate analysis indicated that newspaper and office paper had unique chemical constituents, whilst cartons were shown to have higher variability. By looking at key stages of paper recycling, this study showed that the possible persistence and transformation of chemical compounds in additives must be evaluated when considering the recyclability of paper-based materials. Further, it highlighted that different separation approaches may be required to reduce contaminant exposure opportunities in post-consumer paper materials.

A targeted review on occurrence, remediation, and risk assessments of bisphenol A in Africa

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a vital raw material used to manufacture various household and commercial goods. However, BPA is a contaminant of emerging concern (CEC) and an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) capable of migrating and bio-accumulating in environmental and biological compartments. At threshold levels, they become toxic causing adverse health and environmental issues. BPA's occurrence in food, food contact materials (FCMs), beverages, water, cosmetics, consumer goods, soil, sediments, and human/biological fluids across Africa was outlined. Unlike most reviews, it further collated data on BPA remediation techniques, including the human and ecological risk assessment studies conducted across Africa. A systematic scrutiny of the major indexing databases was employed extracting relevant data for this study. Results reveal that only 10 out of 54 countries have researched BPA in Africa. BPA levels in water were the most investigated, whereas levels in cosmetics and consumer goods were the least studied. Maximum BPA concentrations found in Africa were 3,590,000 ng/g (cosmetic and consumer goods), 154,820,000 ng/g (soils), 189 ng/mL (water), 1139 ng/g (food), and 208.55 ng/mL (biological fluids). The optimum percentage removal/degradation of BPA was within 70-100%. The potential health and ecological risk levels were assessed by comparing them with recommended limits and were found to fall within safe/low risks to unsafe/high risks. In conclusion, this study revealed that there is still little research on BPA in Africa. Levels detected in some matrices call for increased research, stricter health and environmental regulations, and surveillance.

Trioctylphosphine oxide-based hydrophobic magnetic deep eutectic solvent as a novel extractant for the enrichment of primary aromatic amines from juice and environmental water

In this study, a novel technique utilizing vortex-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction with magnetic deep eutectic solvents (MDESs) was established and coupled with HPLC-UV to analyze six primary aromatic amines (PAAs). A novel hydrophobic MDES prepared from trioctylphosphine oxide, octanol, and CoCl2 was used as the extractant, which could be dispersed uniformly during extraction, then floated onto the sample surface and re-aggregated into a single drop spontaneously after the extraction. The variables influencing the efficiency of the extraction process were investigated. When performing under the optimal extraction conditions, this method exhibited excellent linearity, low limits of detection (0.2-0.9 ng mL-1), and high precision (RSD ≤ 8.3 %). The enrichment factors ranged from 56 to 182. Satisfactory recoveries in the range of 91.6-109.2 % with RSDs < 7.1 % were obtained from three apple juices and three environmental water samples. The greenness and practicality of the developed method were assessed by AGREE, AGREEprep, and blue applicability grade index metric tools. Overall, the established procedure demonstrated its simplicity, speediness, environmental friendliness, and effectiveness in analyzing PAAs from aqueous matrices.

Recent advances and applications of ionic covalent organic frameworks in food analysis

Ionic covalent organic frameworks with both crystallinity and charged sites have attracted significant attention from the scientific community. The versatile textural structures, precisely defined channels, and abundant charged sites of ionic COFs offer immense potential in various areas such as separation, sample pretreatment, ion conduction mechanisms, sensing applications, catalytic reactions, and energy storage systems. This review presents a comprehensive overview of facile preparation methods for ionic covalent organic frameworks (iCOFs), along with their applications in food sample pretreatment techniques such as solid-phase extraction (SPE), magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE), and dispersive solid-phase extraction (DSPE). Furthermore, it highlights the extensive utilization of iCOFs in detecting various food contaminants including pesticides, contaminants from food packaging, veterinary drugs, perfluoroalkyl substances, and poly-fluoroalkyl substances. Specifically, this review critically discusses the limitations, challenges, and future prospects associated with employing iCOF materials to ensure food safety.

Landfill leachates as a significant source for emerging pollutants of phthalic acid esters: Identification, occurrence, characteristics, fate, and transport

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are byproducts released from various sources, including microplastics, cosmetics, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, waxes, inks, detergents, and insecticides. This review article provides an overview of the literature on PAEs in landfill leachates, exploring their identification, occurrence, characteristics, fate, and transport in landfills across different countries. The study emphasizes the influence of these substances on the environment, especially on water and soil. Various analytical techniques, such as GC-MS, GC-FID, and HPLC, are commonly employed to quantify concentrations of PAEs. Studies show significant variations in levels of PAEs among different countries, with the highest concentration observed in landfill leachates in Brazil, followed by Iran. Among the different types of PAE, the survey highlights DEHP as the most concentrated PAE in the leachate, with a concentration of 89.6 μg/L. The review also discusses the levels of other types of PAEs. The data shows that DBP has the highest concentration at 6.8 mg/kg, while DOP has the lowest concentration (0.04 mg/kg). The concentration of PAEs typically decreases as the depth in the soil profile increases. In older landfills, concentrations of PAE decrease significantly, possibly due to long-term degradation and conversion of PAE into other chemical compounds. Future research should prioritize evaluating the effectiveness of landfill liners and waste management practices in preventing the release of PAE and other pollutants into the environment. It is also possible to focus on developing efficient physical, biological, and chemical methods for removing PAEs from landfill leachates. Additionally, the effectiveness of existing treatment processes in removing PAEs from landfill leachates and the necessity for new treatment processes can be considered.

Integrating density functional theory and chemical ionization mass spectrometry techniques to assess benzophenone derivatives in food packaging: implications for enhancing food quality and safety

Benzophenone and related derivatives are widely used as photoinitiators for food packaging to cure inks or lacquers with ultraviolet (UV) light on cardboard and paper. However, there are concerns about the potential health risks of their migration into food. Knowing the physical and chemical properties of benzophenone and its derivatives could play a significant role in their quantification and analysis using chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CI-MS) methods. These parameters are evaluated using B3LYP/6-311++** density functional theory (DFT) implemented on Gaussian code. Ion-molecule chemistry through the selection of reagent ions, reaction energetics and kinetics, thermodynamic stability, and reactivity of molecules deemed to foster VOC identification and quantification via CI-MS techniques. The VOCs under study are expected to undergo exothermic reactions from H3 O+ , NH4 + , NO+ , and O2 + ions, except endothermic proton transfer from NH4 + to 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone and 2,3,4-trihydroxy benzophenone. These compounds possess less proton affinities than NH3 and are least stable in their protonated forms. The DFT computed properties provide the basis for developing reliable and accurate methods to detect and measure the presence of benzophenone and its derivatives in packaging materials and food products.

Dilute-and-shoot approach combined with in-situ formed metal-containing ionic liquids for extraction of benzophenone and related compounds from açaí-based food products

For the first time, benzophenone and related compounds were investigated in açaí-based food products. An extraction method based on the dilute-and-shoot approach, combined with the use of in-situ formed metal-containing ionic liquids (MCILs) followed by high-performance liquid chromatography, was developed and validated. A nickel and cobalt-based MCIL, in addition to the ratio of MCIL to lithium bis[(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl]imide salt ([Li+][NTf2-]) for the ensuing metathesis reaction, were optimized. Parameters of the in-situ formed MCIL step, namely, the amount of MCIL, centrifugation time, and dilution step, were analyzed using a multivariate optimization approach, including central composite rotatable design and Derringer and Suich's tool. Optimum extraction performance was achieved using 50.98 mg of nickel-based MCIL and a MCIL to ([Li+][NTf2-]) ratio of 1:3 (m/m), a centrifuge time of 22 min, and 10.53 mL of water for the dilution step. This condition was used to perform analytical validation, which yielded satisfactory results with R2 ≥ 0.995, limits of detection (LOD) ranging from 0.0025 to 0.5 mg kg-1, and limits of quantification (LOQ) between 0.008 and 1.5 mg kg-1. The recovery rate ranged from 87 % to 107 % and precision values (as percent relative standard deviation) were equal or lower than 13 %. The validated method was applied to 25 samples of açaí-based food products purchased from Brazil and the United States. None of the samples showed analyte concentration levels above the LOD. The method's suitability was demonstrated for future monitoring of complex samples, such as foodstuffs.

Unpacking Phthalates from Obscurity in the Environment

Phthalates (PAEs) are a group of synthetic esters of phthalic acid compounds mostly used as plasticizers in plastic materials but are widely applied in most industries and products. As plasticizers in plastic materials, they are not chemically bound to the polymeric matrix and easily leach out. Logically, PAEs should be prevalent in the environment, but their prevalence, transport, fate, and effects have been largely unknown until recently. This has been attributed, inter alia, to a lack of standardized analytical procedures for identifying them in complex matrices. Nevertheless, current advancements in analytical techniques facilitate the understanding of PAEs in the environment. It is now known that they can potentially impact ecological and human health adversely, leading to their categorization as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, carcinogenic, and liver- and kidney-failure-causing agents, which has landed them among contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Thus, this review article reports and discusses the developments and advancements in PAEs' standard analytical methods, facilitating their emergence from obscurity. It further explores the opportunities, challenges, and limits of their advancements.

A Critical Review of Analytical Methods for the Quantification of Phthalates Esters in Two Important European Food Products: Olive Oil and Wine

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are a class of chemicals widely used as plasticizers. These compounds, considered toxic, do not bond to the polymeric matrix of plastic and can, therefore, migrate into the surrounding environment, posing a risk to human health. The primary source of human exposure is food, which can become contaminated during cultivation, production, and packaging. Therefore, it is imperative to control and regulate this exposure. This review covers the analytical methods used for their determination in two economically significant products: olive oil and wine. Additionally, it provides a summary and analysis of information regarding the characteristics, toxicity, effects on human health, and current regulations pertaining to PAEs in food. Various approaches for the extraction, purification, and quantification of these analytes are highlighted. Solvent and sorbent-based extraction techniques are reviewed, as are the chromatographic separation and other methods currently applied in the analysis of PAEs in wines and olive oils. The analysis of these contaminants is challenging due to the complexities of the matrices and the widespread presence of PAEs in analytical laboratories, demanding the implementation of appropriate strategies.

Recent Advances in Non-Targeted Screening of Compounds in Plastic-Based/Paper-Based Food Contact Materials

Ensuring the safety of food contact materials has become a pressing concern in recent times. However, detecting hazardous compounds in such materials can be a complex task, and traditional screening methods may not be sufficient. Non-targeted screening technologies can provide comprehensive information on all detectable compounds, thereby supporting the identification, detection, and risk assessment of food contact materials. Nonetheless, the non-targeted screening of food contact materials remains a challenging issue. This paper presents a detailed review of non-targeted screening technologies relying on high-resolution mass spectrometry for plastic-based and paper-based food contact materials over the past five years. Methods of extracting, separating, concentrating, and enriching compounds, as well as migration experiments related to non-targeted screening, are examined in detail. Furthermore, instruments and devices of high-resolution mass spectrometry used in non-targeted screening technologies for food contact materials are discussed and summarized. The research findings aim to provide a theoretical basis and practical reference for the risk management of food contact materials and the development of relevant regulations and standards.

Commercial beers: A source of phthalates and di-ethylhexyl adipate

Beer is one of the most consumed beverages worldwide. Different materials used along its production and packaging can result in human exposure to phthalates and adipates. The aim of this study was to assess simultaneously the levels of phthalates and di-ethylhexyl adipate (DEHA) in commercial beer samples (n = 66) with a method based on DLLME and detection with GC-MS/MS, and further evaluate human exposure. Six out of seven compounds studied were found in the beers analysed, with levels ranging from 1.77 to 205.40 µg/L. The most prevalent was DEHA at 205.40 µg/L, while dimethyl phthalate (DMP) was not present in any sample. Samples with 5-6 % alcohol, packed in aluminium cans and produced in an industrial environment presented the highest level of these contaminants. Despite low-risk exposure to phthalates and adipate with beer, it is important to remember the ubiquitous nature of these compounds, which can lead to cumulative exposure.

A vision for safer food contact materials: Public health concerns as drivers for improved testing

Food contact materials (FCMs) and food contact articles are ubiquitous in today's globalized food system. Chemicals migrate from FCMs into foodstuffs, so called food contact chemicals (FCCs), but current regulatory requirements do not sufficiently protect public health from hazardous FCCs because only individual substances used to make FCMs are tested and mostly only for genotoxicity while endocrine disruption and other hazard properties are disregarded. Indeed, FCMs are a known source of a wide range of hazardous chemicals, and they likely contribute to highly prevalent non-communicable diseases. FCMs can also include non-intentionally added substances (NIAS), which often are unknown and therefore not subject to risk assessment. To address these important shortcomings, we outline how the safety of FCMs may be improved by (1) testing the overall migrate, including (unknown) NIAS, of finished food contact articles, and (2) expanding toxicological testing beyond genotoxicity to multiple endpoints associated with non-communicable diseases relevant to human health. To identify mechanistic endpoints for testing, we group chronic health outcomes associated with chemical exposure into Six Clusters of Disease (SCOD) and we propose that finished food contact articles should be tested for their impacts on these SCOD. Research should focus on developing robust, relevant, and sensitive in-vitro assays based on mechanistic information linked to the SCOD, e.g., through Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) or Key Characteristics of Toxicants. Implementing this vision will improve prevention of chronic diseases that are associated with hazardous chemical exposures, including from FCMs.

Multiplex Detection of Biogenic Amines for Meat Freshness Monitoring Using Nanoplasmonic Colorimetric Sensor Array

Biogenic amines (BAs) were presented as significant markers for the evaluation of the spoilage of meat and meat products. In this work, a colorimetric sensor array was developed for the discrimination and detection of spermine (SP), spermidine (SD), histamine (HS), and tryptamine (TP) as important BAs in food assessment. For this aim, two important spherical plasmonic nanoparticles, namely gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), were utilized as the sensing elements of the probes. The cross-reactive interaction of the target biogenic amines and the plasmonic nanoparticles caused the aggregation-induced UV-Vis spectra changes, which were accompanied by visual color variation in the solution. The collected responses were analyzed by principal component analysis-linear discrimination analysis (PCA-LDA) to classify the four BAs. This colorimetric sensor array can also discriminate between the individual BAs and their mixture accurately. Partial least squares regression (PLS-R) was also utilized for quantitative analysis of the BAs. The wide linear concentration ranges of 0.1-10.0 µM for the four BAs and desirable figures of merits (FOMs) showed the potential of the developed sensor for quantitative detection of the BAs. Finally, the practical ability of the developed probe was studied by the determination of the BAs in the meat samples, which successfully proved the potential of the colorimetric sensor array in a food sample.

Supramolecular solvent extraction and ambient mass spectrometry for the determination of organic contaminants in food packaging material

A rapid method based on a fast sample treatment with supramolecular solvents (SUPRASs) and ambient mass spectrometry (AMS) analysis was developed for the screening and quantification of organic contaminants in food packaging materials (FCMs). The suitability of SUPRASs made up of medium chain alcohols in ethanol:water mixtures was investigated, given their low toxicity, proven capacity for multi-residue analysis (since they provide a wide variety of interactions and multiple binding sites) and restricted access properties for simultaneous sample extraction and clean-up. Two families of emerging organic pollutants, bisphenols and organophosphate flame retardants, were targeted as representative compounds. The methodology was applied to 40 FCMs. Target compounds were quantitated using ASAP (atmospheric solids analysis probe)-low resolution MS and a broad-spectrum screening of contaminants was performed through spectral library search using direct injection probe (DIP) and high resolution MS (HRMS). The results showed the ubiquity of bisphenols and of some flame retardants, as well as the presence of other additives and unknown compounds in about half of the analyzed samples, which highlight the complex composition of FCMs and the possible associated health risks.

Chemical contaminants from food contact materials and articles made from or containing wood and bamboo - a review

Due to recently introduced 'so-called' bio- and plant-based friendly food contact materials and articles (FCM/FCA), some neglected safety issues need to be raised. In this review, potential chemical contaminants from FCM/FCA made from or containing wood and bamboo are presented. Sources, migration, and analytical issues in determining contaminants including intentionally and non-intentionally added substances (IAS and NIAS, respectively) are reviewed. Most of the contaminants are components from melamine-formaldehyde-resin (MFR), paints and coatings, preservatives, and bleaching agents. Tableware made of MFR containing bamboo fibres as a filler are not always suitable for use as tableware since harmful amounts of melamine and formaldehyde can migrate from the tableware into food and even accelerate the degradation of certain polymers with which they are mixed. In addition, in the EU bamboo in plastic FCM is not authorized under Regulation (EU) 10/2011. Paints and coatings used to provide surface coverage for bamboo and wooden articles also pose a risk of migration of heavy metals. Limits on preservatives in wood FCM are covered by legislation in many countries, nevertheless their contamination should not be ignored. Some wood species are considered 'toxic' or contain 'toxic' constituents that should not be used in contact with food, which are worth considering for legislation. IAS analyses in bamboo and wooden FCM is generally not a problem, but has proven to be more challenging for NIAS. Due to a complex mixture of substances contained in plant-based materials, there is a need to improve databases for non-target screening of such chemicals.

Endocrine modulating chemicals in food packaging: A review of phthalates and bisphenols

Phthalates and bisphenol chemicals have been widely used globally in packaging materials and consumer products for several decades. These highly functional chemicals have become a concern due to their toxicity (i.e., endocrine/hormone modulators) and ability to migrate from food contact materials (FCMs) into food matrices and the environment resulting in human and environmental health risks. FCMs, composed of postconsumer materials, are particularly high risk for containing these compounds. The evaluation of postconsumer recycled feedstocks in FCMs is compulsory and selection of an appropriate detection method to comply with applicable regulations is necessary to evaluate human and environmental safety. Numerous regulations have been proposed and passed globally for both compound classes that are recognized as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Union. Several brand owners and retailers have also released their own "restricted substance lists" due to the mounting consumer and regulatory concerns. This review article has two goals: (1) discuss the utilization, toxicology, human exposure routes, and occurrence levels of phthalates and bisphenols in FCMs and associated legislation in various countries and (2) discuss critical understanding and updates for detection/quantification techniques. Current techniques discussed include extraction and sample preparation methods (solid-phase microextraction [SPME], headspace SPME, Soxhlet procedure, ultrasound-assisted extraction), chromatographic techniques (gas, liquid, detectors), and environmental/blank considerations for quantification. This review complements a previous review of phthalates in foods from 2009 by discussing phthalate and bisphenol characteristics, analytical methods of determining concentrations in packaging materials, and their influence on the migration potential into food.

Leaching behavior and evaluation of zebrafish embryo toxicity of microplastics and phthalates in take-away plastic containers

Take-away containers are the common food contact materials (FCMs) that are widely used in daily life. However, little is known regarding the effects of different food simulants on the pollution characteristics of microplastics derived from food containers, as well as the toxic effects of the chemical substances that are leached from them. Extracts were obtained by adding organic solvents into plastic containers (polypropylene, PP; polystyrene, PS) to simulate aqueous, alcoholic, and fatty environments. The extracted substances and their toxic effects were then assessed by counting and characterizing the resulting microplastics and performing bio-acute toxicity assays. The results demonstrated that the highest abundance of microplastics occurred in PS containers in fatty environments, which was likely due to the rough surface of the PS. In contrast, organic solvents seemed more conducive to the migration of substances. Furthermore, the PP and PS extracts in an alcohol and fatty environment have significant impacts on zebrafish embryo development, including arrhythmia, pericardial cysts, and spinal curvature.

Development of a New Electrochemical Sensor Based on Molecularly Imprinted Biopolymer for Determination of 4,4'-Methylene Diphenyl Diamine

A new molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor was proposed to determine 4,4'-methylene diphenyl diamine (MDA) using molecularly imprinted polymer-multiwalled carbon nanotubes modified glassy carbon electrode (MIP/MWCNTs/GCE). GCE was coated by MWCNTs (MWCNTs/GCE) because of their antifouling qualities and in order to improve the sensor sensitivity. To make the whole sensor, a polymeric film made up of chitosan nanoparticles was electrodeposited by the cyclic voltammetry method on the surface of MWCNTs/GCE in the presence of MDA as a template. Different parameters such as scan cycles, elution time, incubation time, molar ratio of template molecules to functional monomers, and pH were optimized to increase the performance of the MIP sensor. With a detection limit of 15 nM, a linear response to MDA was seen in the concentration range of 0.5-100 µM. The imprinting factor (IF) of the proposed sensor was also calculated at around 3.66, demonstrating the extremely high recognition performance of a MIP/MWCNT-modified electrode. Moreover, the sensor exhibited good reproducibility and selectivity. Finally, the proposed sensor was efficiently used to determine MDA in real samples with satisfactory recoveries ranging from 94.10% to 106.76%.

Serum and Urine Metabolites in Healthy Men after Consumption of Acidified Milk and Yogurt

The identification of molecular biomarkers that can be used to quantitatively link dietary intake to phenotypic traits in humans is a key theme in modern nutritional research. Although dairy products (with and without fermentation) represent a major food group, the identification of markers of their intake lags behind that of other food groups. Here, we report the results from an analysis of the metabolites in postprandial serum and urine samples from a randomized crossover study with 14 healthy men who ingested acidified milk, yogurt, and a non-dairy meal. Our study confirms the potential of lactose and its metabolites as markers of lactose-containing dairy foods and the dependence of their combined profiles on the fermentation status of the consumed products. Furthermore, indole-3-lactic acid and 3-phenyllactic acid are two products of fermentation whose postprandial behaviour strongly discriminates yogurt from milk intake. Our study also provides evidence of the ability of milk fermentation to increase the acute delivery of free amino acids to humans. Notably, 3,5-dimethyloctan-2-one also proves to be a specific marker for milk and yogurt consumption, as well as for cheese consumption (previously published data). These molecules deserve future characterisation in human interventional and observational studies.

Facile preparation of uniform-sized covalent organic framework nanoflowers as versatile sample-pretreatment platforms for sensitive and specific determination of hazardous substances

Covalent-organic frameworks (COFs) have lately received extensive interest for their outstanding performance, especially to adsorption of hazards, while easy-preparation of uniform-sized COFs hold a great challenge. This research presented a simple synthesis method of flower-shaped COF (nanoflower) with strong hydrophobic surface at room temperature. Taking advantage of its easy-prepared and uniform-sized features, we proposed a versatile and efficient sample-pretreatment platform by employing the nanoflower COF for affinity adsorption of various hydrophobic biotoxins and further surface imprinting for selective enrichment of specific biotoxin (COF@MIP), respectively. The COF@MIP was integrating COF with molecular imprinting technique to achieve selective identification of sterigmatocystin (ST) with high specificity and sensitivity. They both exhibited well reusability, preserving 81% of initial activity after being used for six cycles. The as-prepared materials coupled with offline solid phase extraction (SPE) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were successfully applied to five common cereals with good recoveries in the range of 70.3-100.7%. Moreover, the principle of versatile sample pretreatment and detection platform based on the facile-prepared and uniform-sized COF nanoflower would be easily extended to other hazards. It provided a prospective approach for the pretreatment and determination of hazardous substances with low level in complex sample matrix.

Rapid determination of phthalates in paper products by supercritical fluid chromatography / tandem mass spectrometry

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are widely used as components of industrial and consumer products including paper and cardboard packaging materials contacting with food or human skin. Being endocrine-disrupting chemicals, PAEs have a negative effect on human health and must be controlled in pulp and paper products. In the present study, supercritical fluid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry in combination with pressurized liquid extraction was proposed for PAEs determination in such objects. Octadecyl stationary phase with non-endcapped silanol groups ensured rapid (4 min) separation of the ten priority PAEs in isocratic elution mode and allowed for effective elimination of interferences from the trace impurities of PAEs in the mobile phase. The attained LOQs are in the range of 0.7-10 μg/L in extracts and 0.02-0.3 μg/g in paper and cardboard samples. The developed method is distinguished by analysis rapidity, easy sample preparation procedure, high selectivity, low susceptibility to mobile phase contamination with analytes, low cost and environmental friendliness due to the use of carbon dioxide as a main component of the mobile phase. The method was successfully tested on real samples of toilet paper and food packaging paper and cardboard in which eight analytes were found at the levels of 0.03-43.5 μg/g. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Current approaches and challenges of sample preparation procedures for the safety assessment of paper and cardboard food contact materials: A comprehensive review

In the European Union (EU), Regulation (EC) 1935/2004 provides a harmonized legal EU framework and sets out the general principles for safety and inertness for all Food Contact Materials (FCMs) and Food Contact Articles. From a food safety point of view, however, specific EU legislation for paper and cardboard FCMs is lacking, while at Member State level, national legislation differs among countries. More than 11,000 chemicals have been identified in all types of FCMs, most of them without any information on toxicity or migration potential from FCM to food. The present review shows a wide variability of protocols, approaches, and conditions used in scientific studies, which are difficult to compare. In this regard, procedures and conditions laid down in EU legislation for plastics and European Standards (EN protocols) may serve as a good basis for the future sample preparation procedures in the framework of paper and cardboard FCMs safety assessment. Challenges on sample preparation procedures are presented involving the interlinked steps of sample preparation, conditions used and their impact in chemical analysis and in vitro bioassay testing. Currently, there is no general consensus on the criteria for structuring, evaluating, and tuning sample preparation procedures for paper and cardboard FCMs. For this purpose, a set of modified criteria and a decision tree are proposed based on the literature. Along this, mass transfer processes occurring in paper and cardboard FCMs and parameters affecting chemical migration need to be accounted for prior to reaching general consensus on criteria for sample preparation procedures.

Application of an improved hollow fiber liquid phase microextraction technique coupled to LC-MS/MS to studying migration of fluorescent whitening agents from plastic food contact materials

In this paper, a new hollow fiber liquid-phase microextraction method was developed to improve the extraction of five fluorescent whitening agents that migrated from plastics food contact materials. Influencing factors, such as the types of membrane, the extraction solvent, the stirring speed, the addition of salt ion, and extraction time, were investigated in detail. Under the optimal conditions, high enrichment factors (71-205) can be obtained with 15 μL extraction solvent. The new method is advantageous; the polypropylene hollow fiber membrane modified by sepiolite nanoparticles had excellent solvent binding force and mass transfer effect compared with the conventional extraction technique. The extracts were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, the limits of detection were 0.3 or 0.9 ng kg^-1 with good correlation coefficients (r² ≥ 0.9940) for the five fluorescent whitening agents. The intra-day and inter-day recoveries ranged between 82.6% and 112%, with a relative standard deviation of less than 12%. The established method was successfully applied to the analysis of fluorescent whitening agent migration from four types of plastic food contact materials immersed in three food simulants.

Aptamer-Based Biosensors for the Analytical Determination of Bisphenol A in Foodstuffs

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic compound utilized to manufacture plastics for Food Contact Materials (FCMs) or resins for the inside of food containers. Since it was recognized as an Endocrine-Disrupting Chemical (EDC), its implications in pathologies, such as cancer, obesity, diabetes, immune system alterations, and developmental and mental disorders, have been widely documented. Diet is considered the main source of exposure for humans to BPA. Consequently, continuous monitoring of the levels of BPA in foods is necessary to assess the risk associated with its consumption in one’s diet. So far, many reviews have been published on biosensors and aptamer-based biosensors, but none of them focus on their applications in their analyses of bisphenols in food matrices. With this review, the authors aim to fill this gap and to take a snapshot of the current state-of-the-art research on aptasensors designed to detect BPA in food matrices. Given that a new TDI value has recently been proposed by the EFSA (0.04 ng/kg), the search for new sensitive tools for the quantitative analysis of BPA is more topical and urgent than ever. From this perspective, aptasensors prove to be a good alternative to traditional analytical techniques for determining BPA levels in food.

Determination of 60 Migrant Substances in Plastic Food Contact Materials by Vortex-Assisted Liquid-Liquid Extraction and GC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS

A GC-HRMS analytical method for the determination of 60 migrant substances, including aldehydes, ketones, phthalates and other plasticizers, phenol derivatives, acrylates, and methacrylates, in plastic food contact materials (FCM) has been developed and validated. The proposed method includes migration tests, according to Commission Regulation (EU) 10/2011, using four food simulants (A, B, C, and D1), followed by vortex-assisted liquid–liquid extraction (VA-LLE) and GC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS analysis in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode, with a resolving power of 30,000 FWHM and a mass accuracy ≤5 ppm. The method was validated, showing satisfactory linearity (R² ≥ 0.98 from 40 to 400 µg L⁻¹), limits of quantification (40 µg L⁻¹), precision (RSD, 0.6–12.6%), and relative recovery (81–120%). The proposed method was applied to the analysis of field samples, including an epoxy-coated tin food can, a drinking bottle made of Tritan copolyester, a disposable glass made of polycarbonate, and a baby feeding bottle made of polypropylene, showing that they were in compliance with the current European regulation regarding the studied substances.

A Fast and Automated Strategy for the Identification and Risk Assessment of Unknown Substances (IAS/NIAS) in Plastic Food Contact Materials by GC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS: Recycled LDPE as a Proof-of-Concept

A fast and automated approach has been developed for the tentative identification and risk assessment of unknown substances in plastic food contact materials (FCM) by GC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS. The proposed approach combines GC-HRMS full scan data acquisition coupled to Compound Discoverer™ 3.2 software for automated data processing and compound identification. To perform the tentative identification of the detected features, a restrictive set of identification criteria was used, including matching with the NIST Mass Spectral Library, exact mass of annotated fragments, and retention index calculation. After the tentative identification, a risk assessment of the identified substances was performed by using the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) approach. This strategy has been applied to recycled low-density polyethylene (LDPE), which could be used as FCM, as a proof-of-concept demonstration. In the analyzed sample, 374 features were detected, of which 83 were tentatively identified after examination of the identification criteria. Most of these were additives, such as plasticizers, used in a wide variety of plastic applications, oligomers of LDPE, and substances with chemical, industrial, or cosmetic applications. The risk assessment was performed and, according to the TTC approach, the obtained results showed that there was no risk associated with the release of the identified substances. However, complementary studies related to the toxicity of the unidentified substances and the potential mixture toxicity (cocktail effects) should be conducted in parallel using bioassays.

Data analysis strategies for the characterization of chemical contaminant mixtures. Fish as a case study

Thousands of chemicals are potentially contaminating the environment and food resources, covering a wide spectrum of molecular structures, physico-chemical properties, sources, environmental behavior and toxic profiles. Beyond the description of the individual chemicals, characterizing contaminant mixtures in related matrices has become a major challenge in ecological and human health risk assessments. Continuous analytical developments, in the fields of targeted (TA) and non-targeted analysis (NTA), have resulted in ever larger sets of data on associated chemical profiles. More than ever, the implementation of advanced data analysis strategies is essential to elucidate profiles and extract new knowledge from these large data sets. Specifically focusing on the data analysis step, this review summarizes the recent progress in integrating data analysis tools into TA and NTA workflows to address the challenging characterization of chemical mixtures in environmental and food matrices. As fish matrices are relevant in both aquatic pollution and consumer exposure perspectives, fish was chosen as the main theme to illustrate this review, although the present document is equally relevant to other food and environmental matrices. The key features of TA and NTA data sets were reviewed to illustrate the challenges associated with their analysis. Advanced filtering strategies to mine NTA data sets are presented, with a particular focus on chemical filters and discriminant analysis. Further, the applications of supervised and unsupervised multivariate analysis methods to characterize exposure to chemical mixtures, and their associated challenges, is discussed.

Current Trends of Food Analysis, Safety, and Packaging

Food is a basic necessity for life, growth, survival, and maintaining a proper body function. Rising food demand leads both producers and consumers to search for alternative food sources with high nutritional value. However, food products may never be completely safe. The oxidation reaction may alter both the physicochemical and immunological properties of food products. Maillard and caramelization nonenzymatic browning reactions can play a pivotal role in food acceptance through the ways they influence quality factors such as flavor, color, texture, nutritional value, protein functionality, and digestibility. There is a multitude of adulterated foods that portray adverse risks to the human condition. To maintain food safety, the packaging material is used to preserve the quality and freshness of food products. Food safety is jeopardized by plenty of pathogens by the consumption of adulterated food resulting in multiple foodborne illnesses. Though different analytical tools are used in the analysis of food products, yet, adulterated food has repercussions for the community and is a growing issue that adversely impairs human health and well-being. Thus, pathogenic agents' rapid and effective identification is vital for food safety and security to avoid foodborne illness. This review highlights the various analytical techniques used in the analysis of food products, food structure, and quality of food along with chemical reactions in food processing. Moreover, we have also discussed the effect on health due to the consumption of adulterated food and focused on the importance of food safety, including the biodegradable packaging material.

Leaching and extraction of additives from plastic pollution to inform environmental risk: A multidisciplinary review of analytical approaches

Plastic pollution is prevalent worldwide and has been highlighted as an issue of global concern due to its harmful impacts on wildlife. The extent and mechanism by which plastic pollution effects organisms is poorly understood, especially for microplastics. One proposed mechanism by which plastics may exert a harmful effect is through the leaching of additives. To determine the risk to wildlife, the chemical identity and exposure to additives must be established. However, there are few reports with disparate experimental approaches. In contrast, a breadth of knowledge on additive release from plastics is held within the food, pharmaceutical and medical, construction, and waste management industries. This includes standardised methods to perform migration, extraction, and leaching studies. This review provides an overview of the approaches and methods used to characterise additives and their leaching behaviour from plastic pollution. The limitations of these methods are highlighted and compared with industry standardised approaches. Furthermore, an overview of the analytical strategies for the identification and quantification of additives is presented. This work provides a basis for refining current leaching approaches and analytical methods with a view towards understanding the risk of plastic pollution.

Safety of Plastic Food Packaging: The Challenges about Non-Intentionally Added Substances (NIAS) Discovery, Identification and Risk Assessment

Several food contact materials (FCMs) contain non-intentionally added substances (NIAS), and most of the substances that migrate from plastic food packaging are unknown. This review aimed to situate the main challenges involving unknown NIAS in plastic food packaging in terms of identification, migration tests, prediction, sample preparation, determination methods and risk assessment trials. Most studies have identified NIAS in plastic materials as polyurethane adhesives (PU), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester coatings, polypropylene materials (PP), multilayers materials, plastic films, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), recycled materials, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). Degradation products are almost the primary source of NIAS in plastic FCMs, most from antioxidants as Irganox 1010 and Irgafos 168, following by oligomers and side reaction products. The NIAS assessment in plastics FCMs is usually made by migration tests under worst-case conditions using food simulants. For predicted NIAS, targeted analytical methods are applied using GC-MS based methods for volatile NIAS and GC-MS and LC-MS based methods for semi- and non-volatile NIAS; non-targeted methods to analyze unknown NIAS in plastic FCMs are applied using GC and LC techniques combined with QTOF mass spectrometry (HRMS). In terms of NIAS risk assessment and prioritization, the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept is the most applied tool for risk assessment. Bioassays with sensitive analytical techniques seem to be an efficient method to identify NIAS and their hazard to human exposure; the combination of genotoxicity testing with analytical chemistry could allow the Cramer class III TTC application to prioritize unknown NIAS. The scientific justification for implementing a molecular weight-based cut-off (<1000 Da) in the risk assessment of FCMs should be reevaluated. Although official guides and opinions are being issued on the subject, the whole chain's alignment is needed, and more specific legislation on the steps to follow to get along with NIAS.

Identification of synergistic and antagonistic actions of environmental pollutants: Bisphenols A, S and F in the presence of DEP, DBP, BADGE and BADGE·2HCl in three component mixtures

Ecosystems are facing increased pressure due to the emission of many classes of emerging contaminants. However, very little is known about the interactions of these pollutants, such as bisphenols (BPs), plasticizers or pharmaceuticals. By employing bioluminescent bacteria (Microtox assay), we were able to define interactions between selected emerging pollutants (namely BPA, BPS, BPF, BADGE, BADGE·2HCl, DEP, DBP) in ternary mixtures, at environmentally relevant concentration levels (down to as low as 1.89, 1.42, 3.08, and 0.326 μM for, respectively, BPA, BPF, BPS and BADGE·2HCl). We provide the first systematic analysis of bisphenols and phthalates in three component mixtures. Using this system, we performed toxicity modelling with concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA) approaches, followed by data interpretation using Model Deviation Ratio (MDR) evaluation. Interestingly, we mathematically and experimentally confirmed a novel synergy between BPA, BADGE and BADGE·2HCl. The synergy of BPA, BADGE and BADGE·2HCl is distinct, with both models suggesting these analytes have a similar mode of action (MOA). Moreover, we unexpectedly found a strong antagonistic impact with DEP, in mixtures containing BPA and BADGE analogues, which is confirmed with both mathematical models. Our study also shows that the impact of BPS and BPF in many mixtures is highly concentration dependent, justifying the necessity to perform mixture studies using wide concentration ranges. Overall, this study demonstrates that bioluminescent bacteria are a relevant model for detecting the synergistic and antagonist actions of environmental pollutants in mixtures, and highlights the importance of analyzing combinations of pollutants in higher order mixtures.

Smokeless tobacco analysis: Simultaneous extraction and purification of alkaloids, volatile N-nitrosamines, and polycyclic hydrocarbons for GC-MS/MS

Several smokeless tobacco products are available in the market and comprise complex chemical matrices. Sample preparation for analysis of the multiple classes of harmful compounds in smokeless tobacco products is highly cumbersome. In this study, a simultaneous extraction scheme was developed for three toxic analyte classes in smokeless tobacco products using a two-phase solution consisting of 5% aqueous NaOH and dichloromethane in a 1:4 ratio. The dichloromethane extract was used to analyze four alkaloids directly at levels greater than parts per million; however, passing the layer through a silica cartridge for further purification and concentration was necessary for determining 18 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and four volatile N-nitrosoamines at the ppt level. The multitargets were determined by using gas chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. The limits of detection for the 18 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, four volatile N-nitrosoamines, three minor alkaloids, and nicotine were 0.2-1.2, 0.2-0.4, 0.6-1.0, and 10.2 μg/g, respectively. Four different smokeless tobacco substrates were fortified with three levels of mixed standards, and the recoveries ranged between 83 and 110%. The method was highly efficient, reduced the sample amounts, solvents, and the time required by approximately 60%. The method was used to assay 18 smokeless tobacco products, and showed potentials in assaying drugs and other plant-based substrates.

Identification of 24 Unknown Substances (NIAS/IAS) from Food Contact Polycarbonate by LC-Orbitrap Tribrid HRMS-DDMS3: Safety Assessment

Twenty-four substances, mainly NIAS, have been tentatively identified in food contact polycarbonate through the application a new, fast, and automated analytical strategy for the investigation of unknowns in food contact materials. Most of the identified compounds were plasticizers, slip agents, antioxidants, and ultraviolet stabilizers and fragrances, and the majority of them have not been previously identified in PC food contact materials. The workflow setup includes an intelligent data acquisition applied using LC-Orbitrap Tribrid-HRMS (MS3), with an automated data processing using Compound DiscovererTM. To obtain a high confidence identification of unknown substances, a very strict criterion has been established, which comprises exact mass, isotopic profile, MS2 match, retention time, and MS3 match. To check for the safety of the migration from the food contact polycarbonate, a risk assessment was achieved using the threshold of the toxicological concern (TTC) approach. Except for the slip agent hexadecanamide, the compounds tentatively identified do not represent a risk.

The occurrence of bisphenol compounds in animal feed plastic packaging and migration into feed

Animal-derived food plays an important role in human exposure to bisphenol compounds (BPs), potentially as a result of the presence of BPs in animal feed. Even so, there have been few studies regarding the source of BPs in animal feed. The objective of the present study was to assess both the occurrence of BPs in animal feed packaging and the migration of BPs from feed packaging into animal feed. Thirteen BPs were monitored in 30 used animal feed plastic packaging samples previously employed for different animal feedstuffs and made of polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene (PE). Six and two BPs were found in PP-based woven bags and PE-based films, respectively. Bisphenol A (BPA) was the predominant analogue with a wide range of concentrations in both the PP- and PE-based packaging. A migration experiment was performed and provided the first-ever confirmation that BPA is able to migrate from plastic packaging into solid feed. Both contact time and the initial BP concentration affected the extent of migration. These results expand our knowledge regarding the origin of BPs in the food chain and suggest that further study of the bioaccumulation of BPs in animals is warranted.

Review: Microextraction Technique Based New Trends in Food Analysis

Food chemistry is the study and classification of the quality and origin of foods. The identification of definite biomarkers and the determination of residue contaminants such as toxins, pesticides, metals, human and veterinary drugs, which are a very common source of food-borne diseases. The food analysis is continuously demanding the improvement of more robust, sensitive, highly efficient, and economically beneficial analytical approaches to promise the traceability, safety, and quality of foods in the acquiescence with the consumers and legislation demands. The traditional methods have been used at the starting of the 20th century based on wet chemical methods. Now it existing the powerful analytical techniques used in food analysis and safety. This development has led to substantial enhancements in the analytical accuracy, precision, sensitivity, selectivity, thereby mounting the applied range of food applications. In the present decade, microextraction (micro-scale extraction) pays more attention due to its futures such as low consumption of solvent and sample, throughput analysis easy to operate, greener, robotics, and miniaturization, different adsorbents have been used in the microextraction process with unique nature recognized with wide range applications.