Delivery systems for liquid food products

Comparing the lipid self-assembly behaviour and fatty acid composition of plant-based drinks to bovine milk during digestion

In this study, a static in-vitro digestion model was coupled with synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to compare the lipid self-assembly behaviour of plant-based drinks and bovine milk during digestion. The diffraction profiles were combined with principal component analysis (PCA) of the fatty acid (FA) composition during digestion. Half of the plant-based drinks were found to form an inverse micellar cubic phase which is substantially different from the inverse hexagonal and bicontinuous cubic phases determined in bovine milk during digestion. The PCA inferred that the plant-based drinks all had similar FA compositions with slight changes in oleic and linoleic acid ratios. The polyunsaturated long-chain fatty acids of the plant-based drinks forming inverse micellar structures are in agreement with the critical packing parameter theory. These findings increase the understanding of the behaviour of plant-based drinks and aid further development of new and existing plant-based dairy substitution products.

A systematic review of nanocarriers used in medicine and beyond - definition and categorization framework

Nanocarriers are transport and encapsulation systems that primarily serve to protect and improve the dispersibility of predominantly hydrophobic active ingredients but also enable their targeted delivery and controlled release at the site of action. Nanocarriers are mainly made of either organic or inorganic materials, but various combinations of materials in complex structures are also under development. Most nanocarriers represent entities that are rationally designed to meet the functional requirements of a specific application. They can therefore be understood as Advanced Materials. Nanocarrier systems are already being used in medicine, cosmetics, agriculture, food, and household products. They are therefore used in a variety of products, ideally designed to be safe and sustainable, and may need to be registered before they can be placed on the market. Inspired by medical research, nanocarriers are also increasingly being used for precision farming (nano-agrochemicals) or products, such as air fresheners or lithium-ion batteries, and could thus be released into the environment in large quantities. To enable the identification of critical nanocarriers in subsequent investigations, a comprehensive literature review of the broad and heterogeneous research field of nanocarriers is provided, as well as an approach for categorization based on the origin and chemical composition of their constituent materials. A definition of nanocarriers based on size (1-1000 nm) and function is also proposed for their risk assessment.

Disruption of biological membranes by hydrophobic molecules: a way to inhibit bacterial growth

With antibiotic resistance increasing in the global population every year, efforts to discover new strategies against microbial diseases are urgently needed. One of the new therapeutic targets is the bacterial cell membrane since, in the event of a drastic alteration, it can cause cell death. We propose the utilization of hydrophobic molecules, namely, propofol (PFL) and cannabidiol (CBD), dissolved in nanodroplets of oil, to effectively strike the membrane of two well-known pathogens: Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. First, we carried out calorimetric measurements to evaluate the effects of these drugs on model membranes formed by lipids from these bacteria. We found that the drugs modify their transition temperature, enthalpy of cohesion, and cooperativity, which indicates a strong alteration of the membranes. Then, inhibition of colony-forming units is studied in incubation experiments. Finally, we demonstrate, using atomic force and fluorescence microscopy, that the drugs, especially propofol, produce a visible disruption in real bacterial membranes, explaining the observed inhibition. These findings may have useful implications in the global effort to discover new ways to effectively combat the growing threat of drug-resistant pathogens, especially in skin infections.

O/W nanoemulsions encapsulated octacosanol: Preparation, characterization and anti-fatigue activity

Octacosanol has various biological effects such as antioxidant, hypolipidemic and anti-fatigue. However, poor solubility has limited the application of octacosanol in food. The aim of this study was to prepare octacosanol nanoemulsions with better solubility, stability and safety and to investigate in vivo anti-fatigue effect. The food-grade formulation of the octacosanol nanoemulsions consisted of octacosanol, olive oil, Tween 80, glycerol and water with 0.1 %, 1.67 %, 23.75 %, 7.92 % and 66.65 % (w/w), respectively. The nanoemulsions had an average particle size of 12.26 ± 0.76 nm and polydispersity index of 0.164 ± 0.12, and showed good stability under different pH, cold, heat, ionic stress and long-term storage conditions. The results of animal experiments showed that the octacosanol nanoemulsions significantly prolonged the fatigue tolerance time, alleviated the fatigue-related biochemical indicators, and weakened the oxidative stress. Meanwhile, octacosanol nanoemulsions upregulated hepatic glycogen levels. Taken together, these findings suggested that octacosanol nanoemulsions have promising applications as anti-fatigue functional foods.

Efficacy and safety of geranium-oregano-thymol formulations to control of dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato under laboratory and field conditions

The present study evaluated, in laboratory and field, the efficacy and safety of formulations of Pelargonium graveolens (geranium - G), Origanum majorana (oregano - O) commercial essential oils (EO) and thymol (T) to control of Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato. In the laboratory, three formulas (A: 2% tween 80%, B: powder and C: nanoemulsion) by a mixture of these components (GOT) were prepared and evaluated, and the best one was used to assess its safety and field application against R. sanguineus s. l. on naturally infested dogs. Besides the major compounds of the EO used were identified. The results of the lab study showed that formula A (2.5 g of each G + O + T + 2% tween 80 to complete 100 mL) was significantly more effective than the other two formulas tested and exhibited highly effective adulticidal, larvicidal, and ovicidal activity against R. sanguineus s.l. Significant LC50 and LC90 values of GOT were evaluated (13.4 and 21.5 mg/mL, respectively) for the adulticidal activity, (2.81 and 4.46 mg/mL, respectively) for ovicidal activity and (2.44 and 4.45 mg/mL, respectively) for larvicidal activity. The safety of formula A has been proven by the absence of its cytotoxicity on a cell line of human epidermoid carcinoma. Citronella and carvacrol were the major compounds identified in the commercial essential oils of P. graveolens and O. majorana, respectively. Formula A was used in a field control trial for almost 8 months, during the tick infestation season (April to November, 2022). Fourteen naturally infested dogs were divided into two groups, each with seven dogs. One group received formula A spraying five times during an experiment that continued for 8 months, while the other group received treatment with commercially available malathion acaricide. The animals were sprayed on five occasions throughout the experiment (April, June, July, August, and September). The results showed a substantial percentage of effectiveness after the first application of formula A with a 99.3% reduction in tick count at day 28 post-application (PA). In the case of severe infestation 60 days after the first application of formula A (more than 180 ticks per dog), the second application was done, achieving an efficacy of 54.9% at day 3 PA, so an emergency spray was done at day 5 PA to combat the rest of the tick infestation, achieving efficacy of 99% after 3 days. Consequently, a regular spray (third, fourth, and fifth application) was done every 35 days. This regular spray revealed 100% effectiveness at 14 days PA. Biochemical parameters of treated dogs were evaluated to confirm the safety of formula A. Creatinine, ALT, and albumin of the dogs treated with formula A were within the normal range of dogs, while urea and AST were higher than the normal range. In conclusion, formula A can safely treat R. sanguineus s.l. infestations in dogs with regular application every 5 weeks.

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles: A versatile platform for encapsulation and delivery of essential oils for food applications

Essential oils (EOs) are biologically active and volatile substances that have found widespread applications in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. However, there are some challenges to their commercial utilization due to their high volatility, susceptibility to degradation, and hydrophobicity. In their free form, EOs can quickly evaporate, as well as undergo degradation reactions like oxidation, isomerization, dehydrogenation, or polymerization when exposed to light, heat, or air. Encapsulating EOs within mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs) could overcome these limitations and thereby broaden their usage. MSNPs may endow protection and slow-release properties to EOs, thereby extending their stability, enhancing their efficacy, and improving their dispersion in aqueous environments. This review explores and compares the design and development of different MSNP-based nanoplatforms to encapsulate, protect, and release EOs. Initially, a brief overview of the various types of available MSNPs, their properties, and their synthesis methods is given to better understand their roles as carriers for EOs. Several encapsulation technologies are then examined, including solvent-based and solvent-free methods. The suitability of each technology for EO encapsulation, as well as its impact on their stability and release, is discussed in detail. Opportunities and challenges for using EO-loaded MSNPs as preservatives, flavor enhancers, and antimicrobial agents in the food industry are then highlighted. Overall, this review aims to bridge a knowledge gap by providing a thorough understanding of EO encapsulation within MSNPs, which should facilitate the application of this technology in the food industry.

Nano vitamin E improved the antioxidant capacity of broiler chickens

Vitamin E (VE) is a potent nutritional antioxidant that is critical in alleviating poultry oxidative stress. However, the hydrophobic nature and limited stability of VE restrict its effective utilization. Nanotechnology offers a promising approach to enhance the bioavailability of lipophilic vitamins. The objective of this experiment was to investigate the effects of different sources and addition levels of VE on the growth performance, antioxidant capacity, VE absorption site, and pharmacokinetics of Arbor Acres (AA) broilers. Three hundred and eighty-four 1-d-old AA chicks were randomly allocated into four groups supplemented with 30 and 75 IU/kg VE as regular or nano. The results showed that dietary VE sources had no significant impact on broiler growth performance. However, chickens fed 30 IU/kg VE had a higher average daily gain at 22 to 42 d and 1 to 42 d, and lower feed conversion ratio at 22 to 42 d than 75 IU/kg VE (P < 0.05). Under normal feeding conditions, broilers fed nano VE (NVE) displayed significantly higher superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) enzyme activities and lower malonic dialdehyde (MDA) concentration (P < 0.05). Similarly, NVE had a higher antioxidant effect in the dexamethasone-constructed oxidative stress model. It was found that nanosizing technology had no significant effect on the absorption of VE in the intestinal tract by examining the concentration of VE in the intestinal tract (P > 0.05). However, compared to broilers perfused with regular VE (RVE), the NVE group displayed notably higher absorption rates at 11.5 and 14.5 h (P < 0.05). Additionally, broilers perfused with NVE showed a significant increase in the area under the concentration versus time curve from zero to infinity (AUC0-∞), mean residence time (MRT0-∞), elimination half-life (t1/2z), and peak concentration (Cmax) of VE in plasma (P < 0.05). In summary, nanotechnology provides more effective absorption and persistence of VE in the blood circulation for broilers, which is conducive to the function of VE and further improves the antioxidant performance of broilers.

Investigating the self-assembling of nicotinic hydrazide-based amphiphile into nano-range vesicles and its amphotericin B loading applications

Most of the drugs are hydrophobic and have low water solubility, therefore posing issues in their absorption and bioavailability. Nonionic surfactants improve the solubility of hydrophobic drugs by entrapping them in their lipid bilayers. Two nonionic surfactants NODNH-16 and NODNH-18 are synthesized and characterized using different techniques i.e. EI-MS, ¹H NMR, and FTIR. These newly synthesized surfactants were screened for blood hemolysis assay and cell toxicity studies using the NIH/3T3 cell line to assess their biocompatibility. Then amphotericin B was loaded into niosomal vesicles, and the drug entrapment efficiency of these surfactants was measured using UV-visible spectroscopy. The morphology of drug-loaded niosomes of synthesized surfactants was investigated using AFM, and their size, polydispersity, and zeta potential were measured with the Zetasizer instrument. Finally, a simulation study was performed to determine the pattern of self-assembly of the synthesized amphiphiles. Both synthesized nonionic surfactants showed good entrapment efficiency of 60.65 ± 2.12% and 68.45 ± 2.12%, respectively. It was also confirmed that both these synthesized nonionic surfactants were safe and biocompatible and showed less blood hemolysis (i.e. 21.13 ± 2.11% and 23.32 ± 2.45%) and higher 3T3 cells' viability at 150 µg/mL concentration as compared to Tween®-80. The antifungal potential of amphotericin B-loaded niosomes has been evaluated against unicellular multi-fungal species, which showed a promising potential for fungicidal activity. These results are substantiated by constructing a safe vehicle system for drug delivery.

Chia Oil and Mucilage Nanoemulsion: Potential Strategy to Protect a Functional Ingredient

Nanoencapsulation can increase the stability of bioactive compounds, ensuring protection against physical, chemical, or biological degradations, and allows to control of the release of these biocompounds. Chia oil is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids-8% corresponds to omega 3 and 19% to omega 6-resulting in high susceptibility to oxidation. Encapsulation techniques allow the addition of chia oil to food to maintain its functionality. In this sense, one strategy is to use the nanoemulsion technique to protect chia oil from degradation. Therefore, this review aims to present the state-of-the-art use of nanoemulsion as a new encapsulation approach to chia oil. Furthermore, the chia mucilage-another chia seed product-is an excellent material for encapsulation due to its good emulsification properties (capacity and stability), solubility, and water and oil retention capacities. Currently, most studies of chia oil focus on microencapsulation, with few studies involving nanoencapsulation. Chia oil nanoemulsion using chia mucilage presents itself as a strategy for adding chia oil to foods, guaranteeing the functionality and oxidative stability of this oil.

Biosurfactants: Forthcomings and Regulatory Affairs in Food-Based Industries

The terms discussed in this review-biosurfactants (BSs) and bioemulsifiers (BEs)-describe surface-active molecules of microbial origin which are popular chemical entities for many industries, including food. BSs are generally low-molecular-weight compounds with the ability to reduce surface tension noticeably, whereas BEs are high-molecular-weight molecules with efficient emulsifying abilities. Some other biomolecules, such as lecithin and egg yolk, are useful as natural BEs in food products. The high toxicity and severe ecological impact of many chemical-based surfactants have directed interest towards BSs/BEs. Interest in food surfactant formulations and consumer anticipation of "green label" additives over synthetic or chemical-based surfactants have been steadily increasing. BSs have an undeniable prospective for replacing chemical surfactants with vast significance to food formulations. However, the commercialization of BSs/BEs production has often been limited by several challenges, such as the optimization of fermentation parameters, high downstream costs, and low yields, which had an immense impact on their broader adoptions in different industries, including food. The foremost restriction regarding the access of BSs/BEs is not their lack of cost-effective industrial production methods, but a reluctance regarding their potential safety, as well as the probable microbial hazards that may be associated with them. Most research on BSs/BEs in food production has been restricted to demonstrations and lacks a comprehensive assessment of safety and risk analysis, which has limited their adoption for varied food-related applications. Furthermore, regulatory agencies require extensive exploration and analysis to secure endorsements for the inclusion of BSs/BEs as potential food additives. This review emphasizes the promising properties of BSs/BEs, trailed by an overview of their current use in food formulations, as well as risk and toxicity assessment. Finally, we assess their potential challenges and upcoming future in substituting chemical-based surfactants.

Molluskicidal nanoemulsion of Neomitranthes obscura (DC.) N. Silveira for schistosomiasis control

Schistosomiasis is caused by the parasite Schistosoma mansoni, which uses mollusks of the Biomphalaria genus as intermediate hosts. In 2020, approximately 241 million people worldwide underwent treatment for schistosomiasis. For this reason, the World Health Organization encourages research on alternative molluskicides based on plant species. The objective of this work was to investigate Neomitranthes obscura essential oil from leaf chemical composition and its essential oil nanoemulsion activity on intermediate hosts of schistosomiasis Biomphalaria glabrata control. The major chemical components of the Neomitranthes obscura essential oil were zonarene, seline-3,7(11)-diene, β-selinene, and α-selinene. The nanoemulsion tested using 24-well plate methodology showed lethality and juvenile mollusks with LC90 values of 53.9 and 25.0 ppm after 48 h, respectively, and on their spawning with an LC90 of 66.2 ppm after 48 h. Additionally, the nanoemulsion exhibited an LC90 value against the infective form of the parasite Schistosoma mansoni of 11.5 ppm after 4 h. This pharmaceutical formulation acted inhibiting the acetylcholinesterase activity and was not toxic for Mellanoides sp. This result suggests the use of this nanoformulation as a promising alternative in the control of Biomphalaria glabrata and the transmission of schistosomiasis.

Acaricidal Activity of Tea Tree and Lemon Oil Nanoemulsions against Rhipicephalus annulatus

Tick infestation is a serious problem in many countries since it has an impact on the health of animals used for food production and pets, and frequently affects humans. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the acaricidal effects of nanoemulsions of essential oils of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree, TT) and Citrus limon (lemon oil, CL) against the different stages (adult, eggs, and larvae) of deltamethrin-resistant Rhipicephalus annulatus ticks. Three forms of these oils were tested: pure oils, nanoemulsions, and a binary combination. Tea tree and lemon oil nanoemulsions were prepared, and their properties were assessed using a zeta droplet size measurement and a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The results showed that TT and CL exhibited higher adulticidal effects in their pure forms than in their nanoemulsion forms, as demonstrated by the lower concentrations required to achieve LC₅₀ (2.05 and 1.26%, vs. 12.8 and 11.4%, respectively) and LC₉₀ (4.01% and 2.62%, vs. 20.8 and 19.9%, respectively). Significant larvicidal activity was induced by the TTCL combination, and LC₅₀ was reached at a lower concentration (0.79%) than that required for the pure and nanoemulsion forms. The use of pure CL oil was found to have the most effective ovicidal effects. In conclusion, pure TT and CL have potent acaricidal effects against phenotypically resistant R. annulatus isolates. It is interesting that the activity levels of TT and CL EOs' binary and nanoemulsion forms were lower than those of their individual pure forms.

Caffeine-loaded nano/micro-carriers: Techniques, bioavailability, and applications

Caffeine, as one of the most consumed bioactive compounds globally, has gained considerable attention during the last years. Considering the bitter taste and adverse effects of high levels of caffeine consumption, it is crucial to apply a strategy for masking the caffeine's bitter taste and facilitating its programmable deliverance within a long time. Other operational parameters such as food processing parameters, exposure to sunlight and oxygen, and gastrointestinal digestion could also degrade the phenolic compounds in general and caffeine in special. To overcome these challenges, various nano/micro-platforms have been fabricated, including lipid-based (e.g., nanoliposomal vehicles; nanoemulsions, double emulsions, Pickering emulsions; microemulsions; niosomal vehicles; solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers), as well as biopolymeric (e.g., nanoparticles; hydrogels, organogels, oleogels; nanofibers and nanotubes; protein-polysaccharide nanocomplexes, conjugates; cyclodextrin inclusion complexes) and inorganic (e.g., gold and silica nanoparticles) nano/micro-structures. In this review, the findings on various caffeine-loaded nano/micro-carriers and their potential applications in functional food products/supplements will be discussed. Also, the controlled release and bioavailability of encapsulated caffeine will be given, and finally, the toxicity and safety of encapsulated caffeine will be presented.

Microbial Polysaccharide-Based Nanoformulations for Nutraceutical Delivery

In recent times, nutrition and diet have become prominent health paradigms due to sedentary lifestyle disorders. Preventive health care strategies are becoming increasingly popular instead of treating and managing diseases. A nutraceutical is an innovative concept that offers additional health benefits beyond its fundamental nutritional value. These nutraceuticals have the potential to reduce the exorbitant use of synthetic drugs because the modern medicine approach of treating diseases with high-tech, expensive supplements, and long-term consequences aggravates consumers. However, most nutraceuticals are plant-derived, making them susceptible to degradation and prone to chemical instability, poor solubility, unpleasant taste, and bioactivity loss before absorption to the targeted site. To counteract this problem, the bioavailability of these labile compounds can be maximized by encapsulating them in protective nanocarriers. It is crucial that nanoencapsulation technologies convert bioactive compounds into forms that can be easily combined with functional foods and beverages without adversely affecting their organoleptic properties. In recent years, nanoformulations using food-grade materials, such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, etc., have received considerable attention. Among them, microbial polysaccharides are biocompatible, nontoxic, and nonimmunogenic, and most of them are US-FDA approved and can undergo tailored modifications. The nanoformulation of microbial polysaccharide is a relatively new frontier which has several advantages over existing systems. The present article, for the first time, comprehensively reviews microbial polysaccharides-based nanodelivery systems for nutraceuticals and discusses various techno-commercial aspects of these nanotechnological preparations. Moreover, this has also attempted to draw a future research perspective in this area.

Fabrication and Characterization of the Egg-White Protein Chitosan Double-Layer Emulsion

Egg-white protein has an abundance of hydrophobic amino acids and could be a potential emulsifier after modification. Here, egg-white protein was modified via ultrasonic and transglutaminase treatments to destroy the globular structure. The egg-white protein gel particles (EWP-GPs) were prepared and then a novel highly stable EWP-chitosan double-layer emulsion was constructed. When ultrasonic treatment was applied at 240 W and TGase (20 U/g EWP) treatment, the EWP-GPs had a low particle size and good emulsification performance. The particle size of EWP-GPs was a minimum of 287 nm, and the polymer dispersity index (PDI) was 0.41. The three-phase contact angle (θ_o/w) of EWP-GPs was 79.6° (lower than 90°), performing with good wettability. Based on these results, the EWP-chitosan double-layer emulsion was prepared through the EWP-GPs being treated with 240 W ultrasound, TGase, and chitosan in this study. When the double-layer emulsion had 0.6% (v/v) chitosan, the zeta potential of the double-layer emulsion was -1.1 mV and the double-layer emulsion had a small particle size (56.87 µm). The creaming index of double-layer emulsion at 0.6% (v/v) chitosan was 16.3% and the droplets were dispersed uniformly. According to the rheological results, the storage modulus (G') was larger than the loss modulus (G″) in the whole frequency, indicating the formation of an elastic gel network structure in the emulsion. It is hoped to develop a novel food-grade stabilizer and a stable double-layer emulsion, providing new environment-friendly processing in hen egg products and delivery systems.

Nanoemulsion of Sideroxylon obtusifolium as an Alternative to Combat Schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis is caused by the intestinal parasite Schistosoma mansoni. Individuals are affected by schistosomiasis when they are exposed to aquatic environments contaminated with Schistosoma cercariae that emerged from the infected intermediate host mollusk of the genus Biomphalaria. The WHO recommends using molluscicidal products to reduce the snail population and disease transmission. The WHO encourages the search for alternative substances in schistosomiasis control. Natural products are seen as a promising alternative because they are abundant in countries where schistosomiasis is endemic and have many different substances in their extracts, impairing cases of resistance. Therefore, the nanoemulsion effect of a butanol-soluble fraction of Sideroxylon obtusifolium leaves was evaluated against three study points in the biological cycle of the disease, that is, adults and young Biomphalaria glabrata, spawning by the host mollusk, and infectious larvae of the parasite. Extract-SOB (butanol fraction) and nano-SOB (nanoemulsion) demonstrated promising activity in adult B. glabrata population control with an LC50 of 125.4 mg/L, an LC90 of 178.1 mg/L, an LC50 of 75.2 mg/L, and an LC90 of 97 mg/L. Nano-SOB presented greater potency against young B. glabrata, with an LC90 of 72.1 mg/L and an LC50 of 58.3 mg/L. Still, relevant activity against S. mansoni cercariae was eliminated in 4 h (LC90: 34.6 mg/L). Nano-SOB reduced viable spawning by approximately 30% at 178.1 and 97 mg/L. Referring to most substances in this extract, quercetin-3-rhamnosyl-(1-6)-galactoside and hyperoside may cause low environmental toxicity and human toxicity according to in silico analysis. Thus, nano-SOB is a promising agent to combat B. glabrata population growth and schistosomiasis transmission.

Development of foam-like emulsion phases in porous media flow

HYPOTHESIS

While surfactant solutions mobilize residual oil under optimal conditions by lowering the water-oil interfacial tension, emulsion phases outside of the optimum tend to be immobile. How are mobility and texture of such phases related, and how can the stability of these phases be understood? Can non-optimized surfactant solutions improve displacement processes through mobility control?

EXPERIMENT

Emulsification and miscibility during surfactant flooding were investigated in microfluidics with generic oil and surfactant solutions. The salt concentration was varied in an exceptionally wide range across the optimal displacement conditions. The resulting emulsion textures were characterized in situ by optical and fluorescence microscopy and ex situ visually and by Small-Angle X-ray Scattering.

FINDINGS

During displacement, oil is increasingly solubilized and transported in a phase with a foam-like texture that develops from a droplet traffic flow. The extent and stability of these emulsion phases depend on the salinity and surfactant efficiency. The similarity with textures of classic foam phases is used to hypothesize the mechanisms that stabilize such macroemulsions in porous media. The observed microscopic displacement mechanisms can be traced back to foam formation, quality and transport. The resulting phases are of particular interest for mobility control during surfactant flooding, which, however, requires further investigation.

Progress in Colloid Delivery Systems for Protection and Delivery of Phenolic Bioactive Compounds: Two Study Cases-Hydroxytyrosol and Curcumin

Insufficient intake of beneficial food components into the human body is a major issue for many people. Among the strategies proposed to overcome this complication, colloid systems have been proven to offer successful solutions in many cases. The scientific community agrees that the production of colloid delivery systems is a good way to adequately protect and deliver nutritional components. In this review, we present the recent advances on bioactive phenolic compounds delivery mediated by colloid systems. As we are aware that this field is constantly evolving, we have focused our attention on the progress made in recent years in this specific field. To achieve this goal, structural and dynamic aspects of different colloid delivery systems, and the various interactions with two bioactive constituents, are presented and discussed. The choice of the appropriate delivery system for a given molecule depends on whether the drug is incorporated in an aqueous or hydrophobic environment. With this in mind, the aim of this evaluation was focused on two case studies, one representative of hydrophobic phenolic compounds and the other of hydrophilic ones. In particular, hydroxytyrosol was selected as a bioactive phenol with a hydrophilic character, while curcumin was selected as typical representative hydrophobic molecules.

Development of Salt- and Gastric-Resistant Whey Protein Isolate Stabilized Emulsions in the Presence of Cinnamaldehyde and Application in Salad Dressing

Protein-stabilized emulsions tend to be susceptible to droplet aggregation in the presence of high ionic strengths or when exposed to acidic gastric conditions due to a reduction of the electrostatic repulsion between the protein-coated droplets. Previously, we found that incorporating cinnamaldehyde into the oil phase improved the resistance of whey protein isolate (WPI)-stabilized emulsions against aggregation induced by NaCl, KCl and CaCl2. In the current study, we aimed to establish the impact of cinnamaldehyde on the tolerance of WPI-stabilized emulsions to high salt levels during food processing and to gastric conditions. In the absence of cinnamaldehyde, the addition of high levels of monovalent ions (NaCl and KCl) to WPI-emulsions cause appreciable droplet aggregation, with the particle sizes increasing from 150 nm to 413 nm and 906 nm in the presence of NaCl and KCl, respectively. In contrast, in the presence of 30% cinnamaldehyde in the oil phase, the WPI-emulsions remained stable to aggregation and the particle size of emulsions kept within 200 nm over a wide range of salt concentrations (0-2000 mM). Divalent counter-ions promoted droplet aggregation at lower concentrations (≤20 mM) than monovalent ones, which was attributed to ion-binding and ion-bridging effects, but the salt stability of the WPI emulsions was still improved after cinnamaldehyde addition. The incorporation of cinnamaldehyde into the oil phase also improved the resistance of the WPI-coated oil droplets to aggregation in simulated gastric fluids (pH 3.1-3.3). This study provides a novel way of improving the resistance of whey-protein-stabilized emulsions to aggregation at high ionic strengths or under gastric conditions.

Towards the systematic design of multilayer O/W emulsions with tannic acid as an interfacial antioxidant

This work discusses the possibility of designing multilayer oil-in-water emulsions to introduce the maximum possible amount of an antioxidant at the droplet interfaces for the optimal protection of a linseed oil core against oxidation, using a systematic three-step colloidal procedure. An antioxidant (here Tannic Acid - TA) is chosen and its interactions with a primary emulsifier (here Bovine Serum Albumin - BSA) and several polysaccharides are first examined in solution using turbidity measurements. As a second step, LbL deposition on solid surfaces is used to determine which of the polysaccharides to combine with BSA and tannic acid in a multilayer system to ensure maximum presence of tannic acid in the films. From UV-vis and polarization modulation infrared reflection-absorption (PM-IRRAS) spectroscopic measurements it is suggested that the best components to use in a multilayer emulsion droplet, together with BSA and TA, are chitosan and pectin. BSA, chitosan and pectin are subsequently used for the formation of three-layer linseed oil emulsions, and tannic acid is introduced into any of the three layers as an antioxidant. The effect of the exact placement of tannic acid on the oxidative stabilization of linseed oil is assessed by monitoring the fluorescence of Nile red, dissolved in the oil droplets, under the attack of radicals generated in the aqueous phase of the emulsion. From the results it appears that the three-stage procedure presented here can serve to identify successful combinations of interfacial components of multilayer emulsions. It is also concluded that the exact interfacial placement of the antioxidant plays an important role in the oxidative stabilization of the valuable oil core.

Bioinspired Antimicrobial Coatings from Peptide-Functionalized Liquid Crystalline Nanostructures

Surface-associated microbial infections and contaminations are a major challenge in various fields including the food and health sectors. This study demonstrates the design of antimicrobial coatings based on the self-assembly of the food-grade amphiphilic lipid glycerol monooleate with the human cathelicidin-derived antimicrobial peptide LL-37. Structural properties of the coating and their alterations with composition were studied using advanced experimental methods including synchrotron grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering and ellipsometry. The integration of the LL-37 and its potential release from the nanostructured films into the surrounding solution was characterized with confocal Raman microscopy. Additional biological evaluation studies with clinically relevant bacterial strains, namely, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram-negative) and Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive), were performed to investigate the antimicrobial activity of the coatings. Significant killing activity of the coating was found against both bacterial strains. The presented findings contribute to the fundamental understanding of lipid-peptide self-assembly on the surface and may open up a promising strategy for designing simple, sustainable antimicrobial coatings for medical and food applications.

Formulation, physicochemical characterization, and anti- E. coli activity of food-grade nanoemulsions incorporating clove, cinnamon, and lavender essential oils

This research studies the application of a specific nanoemulsion as anti-Escherichia coli agent. The specific mixture was generated by a simplex-centroid design. Physicochemical parameters such as droplet average diameter, pH, viscosity, density, turbidity, whitening index, refractive index, stability (thermal, physical, and osmotic stability), and antibacterial activity kinetic, have been assessed. The mixture nanoemulsions had droplet diameters significantly smaller than those of clove or cinnamon nanoemulsions. Individual and mixture essential oils nanoemulsion exhibited appropriate stability under pH, thermal, and ionic stress as well as after mid-term storage. Antibacterial activity kinetic revealed the fast and pronounced efficacy of mixture nanoemulsions on E. coli (reach 98% of growth inhibition), especially for the nanoemulsion composed of 50% essential oil in the dispersed phase upon 20 days of storage. All data considered, the actual work evidences the promising advantages of using specific nanoemulsions as delivery systems of antibacterial agents in the beverage and food industry.

Microfluidic Assembly: An Innovative Tool for the Encapsulation, Protection, and Controlled Release of Nutraceuticals

Nutraceuticals have been gradually accepted as food ingredients that can offer health benefits and provide protection against several diseases. It is widely accepted due to potential nutritional benefits, safety, and therapeutic effects. Most nutraceuticals are vulnerable to the changes in the external environment, which leads to poor physical and chemical stability and absorption. Several researchers have designed various encapsulation technologies to promote the use of nutraceuticals. Microfluidic technology is an emerging approach which can be used for nutraceutical delivery with precise control. The delivery systems using microfluidic technology have obtained much interest in recent years. In this review article, we have summarized the recently introduced nutraceutical delivery platforms including emulsions, liposomes, microspheres, microgels, and polymer nanoparticles based on microfluidic techniques. Emphasis has been made to discuss the advantages, preparations, characterizations, and applications of nutraceutical delivery systems. Finally, the challenges, several up-scaling methods, and future expectations are discussed.

Nanoencapsulation of Plant Volatile Organic Compounds to Improve Their Biological Activities

Plant volatile organic compounds (volatiles) are secondary plant metabolites that play crucial roles in the reproduction, defence, and interactions with other vegetation. They have been shown to exhibit a broad range of biological properties and have been investigated for antimicrobial and anticancer activities. In addition, they are thought be more environmentally friendly than many other synthetic chemicals 1. Despite these facts, their applications in the medical, food, and agricultural fields are considerably restricted due to their volatilities, instabilities, and aqueous insolubilities. Nanoparticle encapsulation of plant volatile organic compounds is regarded as one of the best strategies that could lead to the enhancement of the bioavailability and biological activity of the volatile compounds by overcoming their physical limitations and promoting their controlled release and cellular absorption. In this review, we will discuss the biosynthesis and analysis of plant volatile organic compounds, their biological activities, and limitations. Furthermore, different types of nanoparticle platforms used to encapsulate the volatiles and the biological efficacies of nanoencapsulated volatile organic compounds will be covered.

Fabrication of emulsion gel based on polymer sanxan and its potential as a sustained-release delivery system for β-carotene

Food-grade emulsion gels have attracted increasing attention in food and drug manufacturing, owing to their potential as novel delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive ingredients. Emulsion gels are structurally either a polymeric gel matrix with incorporated emulsion droplets (emulsion-filled gels), or a network of aggregated emulsion droplets (emulsion particulate gels). In this study, a novel emulsion gel was prepared by formulating an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion stabilized by sanxan alone, followed by heating and cooling treatment, resulting in a structured solid system. Stable O/W type sanxan emulsion gels (SEGs) were obtained at sanxan concentration >0.5% (w/w). Fluorescence microscopy results confirmed the adsorption of sanxan on oil droplet surfaces. The effect of temperature and sanxan/oil concentrations on the rheological and textural properties of the SEGs was evaluated: the SEG containing 1% (w/w) sanxan and 20% (w/w) sunflower oil exhibited excellent rheological and textural properties. Further, the addition of 10 mM Na⁺ or 5 mM Ca²⁺ greatly enhanced the thermostability of the SEG. The potential of SEGs as sustained-release delivery systems for β-carotene was also explored. The findings are of great interest for the development of novel delivery systems based on emulsion gels stabilized by sanxan for the sustained release of lipophilic components.

Heat stability of emulsions using functionalized milk protein concentrate generated by supercritical fluid extrusion

In this study, thermostable oil-in-water emulsions containing high protein contents were developed using milk protein concentrate (MPC) that was functionalized by supercritical fluid extrusion (SCFX) processing at low temperature and shear. Functionalized MPC (f-MPC) emulsions (3% protein-80% oil and 10% protein-50% oil) were compared with emulsions stabilized by commercial MPC (c-MPC), sodium caseinate (NaCas), and a commercial mayonnaise for their emulsifying properties and heat stability at 70 and 90 °C for 30 min, and 121 °C for 15 min. Zeta-potentials and interfacial protein concentrations of f-MPC emulsions were higher than that of c-MPC emulsions. f-MPC emulsions remained stable against creaming for at least 8 weeks at room temperature (23 °C), while their c-MPC counterparts showed significant creaming at the same conditions. Even after heating at 121 °C for 15 min, f-MPC emulsions retained their structural integrity as observed from their confocal images, droplet size distributions, and viscosities. In contrast, c-MPC emulsions and mayonnaise disintegrated upon heating at 121 °C for 15 min, and oil droplets of mayonnaise partially coalesced during heating at 90 °C for 30 min. f-MPC emulsions revealed higher viscosities compared to c-MPC emulsions, providing them improved stability. Viscosities of f-MPC emulsions were not significantly affected by heating at 90 °C for 30 min, while other emulsions exhibited a substantial increase in their viscosities due to protein denaturation and aggregation. Thus, f-MPC emulsions can be utilized in the development of protein-enriched functional foods (e.g., spreads) that are stable against high heat treatments.

Advantages of techniques to fortify food products with the benefits of fish oil

Fish oil has been widely applied in fortified food products because of its special health benefits especially containing high unsaturated fatty acids mainly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Nowadays, there are various foods fortify with fish oil available in the market. The main challenge of fortification of food products with fish oil is its highly susceptible to oxidation and its influence on sensory attributes during storage. The fortification methods such as direct addition through bulk fish oil, emulsion or microencapsulation could effectively improve the oxidative stability of fish oil and mask unpleasant fishy flavour in fortified products. Therefore, this article provides a review of techniques, their advantages and limitations, together with the effects of incorporating fish oil in foods products.

Effect of ultrasonication on the stability and storage of a soy protein isolate-phosphatidylcholine nanoemulsions

Phosphatidylcholine-soybean protein isolate (PC-SPI) nanoemulsions were prepared by ultrasonication. The effects of preparation conditions (SPI and PC addition, ultrasonic power and time) on the structural properties of the nanoemulsions and their storage stability were investigated. The results showed that the most optimal adsorption capacity and adsorption tightness at the oil-water interface under optimal conditions (1.5% SPI, 0.20% PC, 500 W ultrasonic power and 9 min ultrasonic time) were exhibited by the SPI-PC conjugate, which demonstrated that this nanoemulsions can be categorized as a high-quality emulsion suitable for research. To test its stability, and the high-quality nanoemulsion of β-carotene was stored. After degradation of the nanoemulsions during storage, β-carotene was released. The β-carotene retention rate of the high-quality emulsion was maintained above 86% at different temperatures in the absence of light for up to 30 days. This study provides new information for the development of transport and stability systems for nanoemulsions.

Conjugated linoleic acid loaded nanostructured lipid carrier as a potential antioxidant nanocarrier for food applications

The encapsulation of fatty acids in nanocarrier systems is a very effective technique in improving their biological efficiency and controlled delivery. Nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) is a major type of lipid-based nanoparticle. This study is focused on producing nanolipid carrier containing conjugated linoleic acid and fortifying low-fat milk using this nanoparticle. Nanostructured lipid carriers were produced by hot high-shear homogenization containing 1.5% Poloxamer 407, cocoa butter as solid lipid, and conjugated linoleic acid as liquid oil in ratio of 10:1. Results showed that the nanoparticles sized 81 nm with monomodular dispersity and the system was stable at 4 and 22°C for 40 days. Zeta potential and encapsulation efficiency (%EE) were -15.8 mV and 98.2%, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the particles are in spiral form and small size and no significant aggregation was observed because of few changes in the system turbidity after storage time. The result of oxidative stability showed that using Nanostructured lipid carriers system resulted in lower malone dialdehyde production. Conjugated linoleic acid was protected at level of 3.9% of milk fatty acids in Nanostructured lipid carrier formulation during storage time. Based on these findings, Nanostructured lipid carriers system is an appropriate and stable nanocarrier system for delivery of nutraceuticals in foods and can be used in protecting them against oxidation, heating, and other processes in order to fortify foods and beverages.

Effect of interfacial layer number on the storage stability and in vitro digestion of fish oil-loaded multilayer emulsions consisting of gelatin particle and polysaccharides

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the interfacial layer number on the storage stability and in vitro digestion of fish oil-loaded primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary multilayer emulsions stabilized by gelatin particle and polysaccharides (anionic alginate and cationic chitosan), prepared using a layer-by-layer electrostatic deposition technique. The results demonstrate that the emulsion creaming stability during the storage process and the emulsion droplet stability against the gastric phase are dependent on the interfacial layer number. But, the interfacial layer number in the multilayer emulsions has no obvious effects on the droplet stability against droplet coalescence during the storage process and against the small intestinal phases of gastrointestinal tract models. Moreover, it also has no obvious effect on the sustained free fatty acid release of multilayer emulsions. This study can advance the fundamental understanding of multilayer emulsions and promote their potential applications.

Formulation and Application of Nanoemulsions for Nutraceuticals and Phytochemicals

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Recent trends in research and investigation on nanoemulsion based products is the result of many reasons such as food security as a global concern, increasing demand for highly efficient food and agricultural products and technological need for products with the ability of manipulation and optimization in their properties. Nanoemulsions are defined as emulsions made up of nano sized droplets dispersed in another immiscible liquid which exhibit properties distinguishing them from conventional emulsions and making them suitable for encapsulation, delivery and formulations of bioactive ingredients in different fields including drugs, food and agriculture. The objective of this paper is to present a general overview of nanoemulsions definition, their preparation methods, properties and applications in food and agricultural sectors. Due to physicochemical properties of the nanoemulsion composition, creating nanosized droplets requires high/low energy methods that can be supplied by special devices or techniques. An overview about the mechanisms of these methods is also presented in this paper which are commonly used to prepare nanoemulsions. Finally, some recent works about the application of nanoemulsions in food and agricultural sectors along with challenges and legislations restricting their applications is discussed in the last sections of the current study.

Stability and in vitro simulated release characteristics of ultrasonically modified soybean lipophilic protein emulsion

Natural emulsifiers such as soybean lipophilic protein (SLP) show potential as delivery systems for hydrophobic bioactive components such as vitamin E; however, the solubility of SLP is limited by its high lipid content. This study evaluated the effects of various ultrasonic conditions on the structure and properties of SLP. Using an emulsion of modified SLP, the carrier properties and in vitro digestion and release properties for vitamin E were evaluated. Biochemical and spectroscopic analyses indicated that the ultrasonic treatment mainly changed the secondary and tertiary structures of SLP. Furthermore, appropriate ultrasonic conditions significantly improved the solubility and emulsifying properties of SLP, with the highest emulsion stability and SLP encapsulation efficiency obtained using an ultrasonic power of 240 W for 20 min. An in vitro digestion simulation revealed that the emulsion prepared by ultrasonic modification of SLP was an effective delivery system for vitamin E. In particular, the emulsion protected the biological activity of vitamin E while significantly increasing the rate of lipid digestion and the bioavailability of vitamin E. These results indicate that the ultrasonically modified SLP can be used to prepare a stable emulsion for encapsulating vitamin E, which provides a new approach for the delivery of hydrophobic bioactive components.