Plasticity and cross-talk of interleukin 6-type cytokines

Implications of obesity-mediated cellular dysfunction and adipocytokine signaling pathways in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease characterized by cartilage degradation, bone sclerosis, and chronic low-grade inflammation. Aging and injury play key roles in OA pathogenesis by triggering the release of proinflammatory factors from adipose tissue and other sources. Obesity and aging impair the function of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperones, leading to ER stress, protein misfolding, and cellular apoptosis. Obesity also induces mitochondrial dysfunction in OA through oxidative stress and disrupts mitochondrial dynamics, exacerbating chondrocyte damage. These factors contribute to inflammation, matrix imbalance, and chondrocyte apoptosis. Adipocytes, the primary source of adipokines, release inflammatory mediators that affect joint cells. Several adipocytokines have a central role in the regulation of many aspects of inflammation. Adiponectin and leptin are the two most abundant adipocytokines that are strongly associated with OA progression. This literature review suggests that adipokines activate many signaling pathways to exert downstream effects and play significant roles in obesity-induced OA. Understanding this rapidly growing family of mainly adipocyte-derived mediators and obesity-mediated cellular dysfunction may be important in the development of new therapies for obesity-associated OA management.

Investigating plasticity within the interleukin-6 family with AlphaFold-Multimer

Cytokines are important soluble mediators that are involved in physiological and pathophysiological processes. Among them, members of the interleukin-6 (IL-6) family of cytokines have gained remarkable attention, because especially the name-giving cytokine IL-6 has been shown to be an excellent target to treat inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The IL-6 family consists of nine members, which activate their target cells via combinations of non-signaling α- and/or signal-transducing β-receptors. While some receptor combinations are exclusively used by a single cytokine, other cytokine receptor combinations are used by multiple cytokines. Research in recent years unraveled another level of complexity: several cytokine cannot only signal via their canonical receptors, but can bind to and signal via additional α- and/or β-receptors, albeit with less affinity. While several examples of such cytokine plasticity have been reported, a systematic analysis of this phenomenon is lacking. The development of artificial intelligence programs like AlphaFold allows the computational analysis of protein complexes in a systematic manner. Here, we develop a analysis pipeline for cytokine:cytokine receptor interaction and show that AlphaFold-Multimer correctly predicts the canonical ligands of the IL-6 family. However, AlphaFold-Multimer does not provide sufficient insight to conclusively predict alternative, low-affinity ligands for receptors within the IL-6 family.

Transforming growth factor beta induces interleukin-11 expression in osteoarthritis

Interleukin-11 (IL-11) is a member of the IL-6 family of cytokines and possesses both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties. IL-11 activates its target cells via binding to a membrane-bound IL-11R and subsequent formation of a homodimer of the signal-transducing receptor gp130. Thus, the expression pattern of the IL-11R determines which cells can be activated by IL-11. However, knowledge about IL-11 target cells and cells that secrete IL-11 are sparse, and the overall roles of IL-11 in inflammatory diseases are largely unexplored. In this study, we show that high amounts of IL-11 can be detected via ELISA in the synovial fluid of osteoarthritis (OA) patients in comparison to rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Using primary cells and tissue of OA patients, we show that IL-11 is expressed by chondrocytes in cartilage, but not in the synovium. We further identify the cytokine transforming growth factor β 1(TGF-β1) as a potent inducer of IL-11 secretion in both primary chondrocytes and fibroblasts, and TGF-β1 and IL-11 levels correlate significantly in the synovial fluid of OA patients. Using immunohistochemistry, we show that both cartilage and synovium express IL-11R, and the amount of IL-11R is independent of the disease severity. Primary chondrocytes and fibroblasts from OA patients respond to IL-11 stimulation with potent activation of the Jak/STAT3 signaling cascade, suggesting that these cell types are not only the source, but also the targets of IL-11 in OA patients. Our results uncover IL-11 as a potential new target for therapy in OA.

Tocilizumab does not ameliorate inflammation-induced left ventricular dysfunction in a collagen-induced arthritis rat model

BACKGROUND

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is an attractive therapeutic target due to its diverse roles in the pathogenesis of conditions characterized by systemic inflammation. IL-6 has also been implicated in the pathophysiology of heart failure. This study aimed to investigate the impact of IL-6 receptor blockade with tocilizumab on the molecular pathways underlying systemic inflammation-induced left ventricular (LV) dysfunction in a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rat model.

METHODS

Seventy-three Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups: control (n=28), CIA (n=29), and CIA+IL-6 blocker (n=16). Inflammation was induced in the CIA and CIA+IL-6 blocker groups using bovine type II collagen emulsified in incomplete Freund's adjuvant. After arthritis onset, the CIA+IL-6 blocker group received tocilizumab for six weeks. Circulating inflammatory markers, relative LV mRNA gene expressions, and LV systolic and diastolic function were assessed.

RESULTS

CIA rats developed LV diastolic and early-stage LV systolic dysfunction, which was not ameliorated by IL-6 blocker administration (p > 0.05). IL-6 blocker administration did not impact circulating inflammatory markers (all p > 0.05) or LV mRNA expression of inflammatory markers compared to the CIA group, nor did it reverse inflammation-induced increases in LV mRNA expression of genes involved in fibrosis and collagen turnover, regulation of titin phosphorylation, Ca2+ handling, mitochondrial function, or apoptosis (all p > 0.05). However, LV mRNA expressions of CD68 and LOX, genes involved in macrophage infiltration and collagen cross-linking, were increased in the CIA group (p = 0.03, p = 0.0004), but not in the CIA+IL-6 blocker group compared to controls (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that although IL-6 blockade by tocilizumab may prevent inflammation-induced collagen cross-linking, the current treatment regimen may not protect against inflammation-induced LV dysfunction. Therefore, the role of IL-6 in the molecular mechanisms of inflammation-induced LV dysfunction remains inconclusive.

Analysis of tumor-infiltrating exhausted T cells highlights IL-6 and PD1 blockade as a combined immunotherapy strategy for non-small cell lung cancer

OBJECTIVE

Given the limitations of immunotherapy for treating non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), we investigated the phenotype and function of exhausted CD8+T cells and analyzed a novel combination immunotherapy to restore the effector killing function of tumor-infiltrating CD8+T lymphocyte (TIL).

METHODS

We examined the expression and function of immunosuppressive molecules on CD8+T cells of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and TILs by using prospectively collected peripheral blood, pleural effusions, and tumor tissues from patients with NSCLC and correlated the results with clinical data. We then evaluated the effect of interleukin 6 (IL-6) stimulation on CD8+T cells. Finally, we assessed the effects of combined blockade of PD1 and IL-6 on macrophage recruitment in a zebrafish macrophage model and CD8+ T cell function and tumor growth in PBMC humanized mouse model.

RESULTS

The expression of exhaustion markers on CD8+ T cells was found to be notably higher in both tumor and paraneoplastic tissues compared to peripheral blood. Furthermore, the degree of CD8+ T cell exhaustion exhibited a progressive increase with proximity to the tumor. When CD8+ T cells from peripheral blood and tumor tissues of NSCLC patients were stimulated with IL-6, the expression level of exhaustion markers, especially PD1, was further elevated. In the in vitro experiment, the combined inhibition of IL-6 and PD1 substantially enhanced the effector killing function of CD8+ T cells in NSCLC pleural effusion samples. In a macrophage-labeled zebrafish model, combined blockade of IL-6 and PD1 enhanced the recruitment of macrophages. In PBMC humanized mouse model, combined blockade of IL-6 and PD1 enhanced the inhibition of tumor growth.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that CD8+ T cells in NSCLC patients were in a state of exhaustion and combined blockade of IL-6 and PD1 to restore CD8+ T cell function to inhibit tumor growth may be an effective clinical strategy for the treatment of NSCLC.

Interleukin-11 receptor is an alternative α-receptor for interleukin-6 and the chimeric cytokine IC7

The cytokine interleukin 6 (IL-6) signals via the IL-6 α-receptor (IL-6Rα or IL-6R) in complex with the gp130 β-receptor. Cell type restricted expression of the IL-6R limits the action of IL-6 mainly to hepatocytes and some immune cells. Here, we show that IL-6 also binds to the IL-11 α receptor (IL-11Rα or IL-11R) and induces signaling via IL-11R:gp130 complexes, albeit with a lower affinity compared to IL-11. Antagonistic antibodies directed against IL-11R, but not IL-6R, inhibit IL-6 signaling via IL-11R:gp130 receptor complexes. Notably, IL-11 did not cross-react with IL-6R. IL-11R has also been identified as an alternative α receptor for the CNTF/IL-6-derived chimeric cytokine IC7, which has recently been shown to induce weight loss in mice. Accordingly, the effects of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies against IL-6 or IL-6R, which both block IL-6 signaling, may be slightly different. These findings provide new insights into IL-6 signaling and therefore offer new potential therapeutic intervention options in the future.

More and more pleiotropy within the IL-6 family of cytokines

Historically, cytokines belonging to the gp130 family bind to specific ligand-binding receptors that stimulate cell signaling through a receptor complex comprising gp130 or gp130 together with another structurally related signaling receptor. However, recent findings increasingly dispel these stereotypes and suggest that the receptor specificity of gp130-activating cytokines is less strict than originally assumed. Weitz et al. now provide the latest example of this pleiotropy and report that human interleukin-6 can bind and stimulate signaling via the interleukin-11 receptor. Possible biological and therapeutic consequences of these findings are discussed.

Orthogonalized human protease control of secreted signals

Synthetic circuits that regulate protein secretion in human cells could support cell-based therapies by enabling control over local environments. Although protein-level circuits enable such potential clinical applications, featuring orthogonality and compactness, their non-human origin poses a potential immunogenic risk. In this study, we developed Humanized Drug Induced Regulation of Engineered CyTokines (hDIRECT) as a platform to control cytokine activity exclusively using human-derived proteins. We sourced a specific human protease and its FDA-approved inhibitor. We engineered cytokines (IL-2, IL-6 and IL-10) whose activities can be activated and abrogated by proteolytic cleavage. We used species specificity and re-localization strategies to orthogonalize the cytokines and protease from the human context that they would be deployed in. hDIRECT should enable local cytokine activation to support a variety of cell-based therapies, such as muscle regeneration and cancer immunotherapy. Our work offers a proof of concept for the emerging appreciation of humanization in synthetic biology for human health.

The effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines on the development of atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus patients: ultrasonographic assessment of intimal medial thickness and resistive index

Background

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a debilitating rheumatic condition that results in the dysfunction of multiple organs in the body. Atherosclerosis is a common occurrence in people with SLE and is exacerbated by an overabundant of various cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), and their soluble receptors, such as soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor I (sTNFR I) and soluble interleukin-6 receptor (sIL-6R) (known as SLE risk factors) and high concentrations of lipids (known as dyslipidemia risk factors). The intimal medial thickness (IMT) of the internal carotid artery (ICA) is a sonographic measurement that assesses the extent of atherosclerosis. On the other hand, the resistive index (RI) is primarily employed to evaluate the severity of chronic kidney diseases (CKDs), but it is seldom utilized to estimate atherosclerosis in ICA. So, the objective of this study was to conduct retrospective cohort study among SLE patients to define which risk factor, inflammation or dyslipidemia, correlated with the development of atherosclerosis in SLE and which ultrasound assessment, CIMT or RI, is more useful in identifying atherosclerosis.

Results

TNF-α, sTNFR I, IL-6, and sIL-6R were significantly elevated (P < 0.0001) in SLE patients (n = 75) compared to the controls (n = 15); also, both CIMT and RI showed significant higher levels in patient’s group (P = 0.001 and 0.0025, respectively). Systemic lupus disease activity index (SLEDAI) (P = 0.002), total cholesterol (TC) (P = 0.025), CIMT (P = 0.00045), TNF-α (P < 0.0001), IL-6 (P < 0.0001), sTNFR I (P = 0.006), and sIL-6R (P < 0.0001) rates were significantly higher in atherosclerotic SLE patients (n = 27) than in non-atherosclerotic patients (n = 48). There were clear and meaningful positive correlations (r = 0.82, P = 0.003) observed between CIMT and SLEDAI, as well as between investigated cytokines and their soluble receptors. RI showed no significant differences between two studied groups of patients and also no significant correlations with the studied parameters except with age (r = 0.45, P = 0.035).

Conclusion

Inflammation is a more prevalent cause of atherosclerosis than dyslipidemia in SLE, thereby making it a recognized risk factor for SLE. In comparison to RI, CIMT is a valuable sonographic measure for identifying incidence of atherosclerosis.

Long-term increase in soluble interleukin-6 receptor levels in convalescents after mild COVID-19 infection

Introduction

Serum levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) are increased in COVID-19 patients. IL-6 is an effective therapeutic target in inflammatory diseases and tocilizumab, a monoclonal antibody that blocks signaling via the IL-6 receptor (IL-6R), is used to treat patients with severe COVID-19. However, the IL-6R exists in membrane-bound and soluble forms (sIL-6R), and the sIL-6R in combination with soluble glycoprotein 130 (sgp130) forms an IL-6-neutralizing buffer system capable of neutralizing small amounts of IL-6.

Methods

In this study, we analyzed serum levels of IL-6, sIL-6R and sgp130 in the serum of COVID-19 convalescent individuals with a history of mild COVID-19 disease and in acute severely ill COVID-19 patients compared to uninfected control subjects. Furthermore, we used single cell RNA sequencing data in order to determine which immune cell types are sources and targets of the individual cytokines and whether their expression is altered in severe COVID-19 patients.

Results

We find that sIL-6R levels are not only increased in acute severely ill patients, but also in convalescents after a mild COVID-19 infection. We show that this increase in sIL-6R results in an enhanced capacity of the sIL-6R/sgp130 buffer system, but that significantly enhanced free IL-6 is still present due to an overload of the buffer. Further, we identify IL-6 serum levels, age and the number of known pre-existing medical conditions as crucial determinants of disease outcome for the patients. We also show that IL-11 has no major systemic role in COVID-19 patients and that sCD25 is only increased in acute severely ill COVID-19 patients, but not in mild convalescent individuals.

Discussion

In conclusion, our study shows long-lasting alterations of the IL-6 system after COVID-19 disease, which might be relevant when applying anti-IL-6 or anti-IL-6R therapy.

SO2 activates Th17 cells through the JAK1,2/STAT3 signaling pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of SO2 on Th1/Th2/Th17 cells in allergic rhinitis (AR) and the role of JAK1, 2/STAT3 signaling pathways.To Provide potential directions for the treatment of AR.

METHODS

Fifteen AR patients were enrolled as the experimental group, while 15 healthy volunteers served as the normal control group. After collecting venous blood, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated and cultured, followed by the addition of SO2 derivatives and the JAK inhibitor Ruxolitinib. Flow cytometry was employed to assess alterations in the Th1/Th2 and Th17/Treg cell balance upon stimulation with SO2 and Ruxolitinib. qRT-PCR was utilized to detect the expression of Th1-related cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ, Th2-related cytokines IL-4 and IL-5, Th17-related cytokines IL-17A and RORγt, as well as genes JAK1, JAK2, and STAT3. Flow cytometric cytokine analysis was conducted for quantitative assessment of the expression levels of inflammation-related cytokines in PBMC culture supernatants after stimulation. In addition, we stimulated the Jurkat T lymphocyte cell line with SO2 derivatives, added Ruxolitinib as an inhibitor, and used Western blot analysis to further determine the effects of SO2 on Th cells and the role of the JAK1,2/STAT3 signaling pathway in this process.

RESULTS

Stimulation with SO2 derivatives upregulated the expression levels of Th2 cells and associated cytokines, as well as Th1 cells and associated cytokines. both AR patients and healthy individuals displayed increased percentages of Th17 cells and Th17/Treg ratios in PBMCs. The expression of IL-17A, RORγt, and IL-6 was also elevated. Under SO2 stimulation, the expression of JAK1, JAK2, STAT3, and RORγt in Jurkat cells increased. Moreover, after the application of Ruxolitinib, the JAK/STAT signaling pathway was inhibited. This led to a reduction in Th17 cells and IL-17A levels in both AR patients and healthy individuals, as well as a decrease in RORγt expression in Jurkat cells. Additionally, the expression of IL-5 decreased in healthy individuals.

CONCLUSION

SO2 exposure exacerbated Th1/Th2/Th17 inflammation in AR patients and induced Th1 and Th17 inflammation in healthy individuals. The stimulatory effect of SO2 on Th17 cell differentiation could be inhibited by Ruxolitinib. This suggests that the Th17 inflammation induced by SO2 stimulation may be related to the activation of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway, and this has been confirmed in the Jurkat cell line.

RNA sequencing reveals dynamic expression of genes related to innate immune responses in canine small intestinal epithelial cells induced by Echinococcus granulosus protoscoleces

Background

Dogs are definitive hosts of Echinococcus granulosus, with the small intestine being the only site of parasitic infections. However, the immunomodulatory processes that occur during interactions between E. granulosus and its definitive host remain unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate gene transcription patterns in canine small intestinal epithelial cells (CIECs) following stimulation by E. granulosus protoscoleces (PSCs). Particularly, this study investigated the roles of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), involved in recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and mediating the host innate immune response to the tapeworm E. granulosus.

Methods

RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was used to examine gene transcription patterns in CIECs following stimulation with PSCs for 12 and 24 h. The potential roles of differentially expressed (DE) genes were inferred through Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses.

Results

RNA-seq analysis identified 78,206,492-90,548,214 clean reads in 12 RNA samples. This included six samples stimulated with PSCs for 12 h (PSC1_12h-PSC3_12h) and 24 h (PSC1_24h-PSC3_24h) and six corresponding control samples (PBS1_12h-PBS3_12h and PBS1_24h-PBS3_24h). In the PSC_12h vs. PBS_12h and PSC_24h vs. PBS_24h groups, 3,520 (2,359 upregulated and 1,161 downregulated) and 3,287 (1765 upregulated and 1,522 downregulated) DEgenes were identified, respectively. The expression of 45 PRRs genes was upregulated in the PSC_12h and PSC_24h groups compared to those in the control groups, including 4 Toll-like receptors (TLRs), 4C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), 3 NOD-like receptors (NLRs), 17 G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), 4 scavenger receptors (SRs), and 13 leucine-rich repeat-containing proteins (LRRCs). GO enrichment and KEGG analyses revealed that these DEgenes were mainly involved in the regulation of host immune response processes and molecules. These included antigen processing and presentation, Th17, PI3K-Akt, Th1, and Th2 cell differentiation, neutrophil extracellular trap formation, NOD- and Toll-like receptors, TNF, intestinal immune network for IgA production and IL-17 signaling pathway. Furthermore, the identified DEgenes were involved in the regulation of signaling molecules and interaction (e.g., cell adhesion molecules and ECM-receptor interaction).

Conclusion

These preliminary findings provide novel perspectives on the host innate immune response to E. granulosus PSC stimulation, with a focus on the involvement of E. granulosus-specific PRRs in host defense mechanisms against infection.

Exploring the therapeutic potential of interleukin-6 receptor blockade in autoimmune diseases using drug target mendelian randomization

The blockade of the interleukin 6 receptor (IL-6R) demonstrates significant potential in various autoimmune diseases (ADs); however, the underlying therapeutic efficacy associated with this approach remains elusive. We conducted a comprehensive Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis based on large-scale genome-wide association studies to investigate the causal relationships between genetically proxied IL-6R blockade weighted by serum C-reactive protein levels and eighteen common ADs. Rheumatoid arthritis, COVID-19 infection, and COVID-19 critical illness were utilized as positive controls. The inverse-variance weighted (IVW) method was utilized as the primary analytical tool, while genetic colocalization analysis was conducted to further substantiate the causalities. Genetically proxied IL-6R blockade exhibited causally protective effects on all positive control diseases. After Bonferroni correction to IVW estimates, genetically proxied IL-6R blockade may significantly increase the risk of asthma (OR=1.031, P=2.15×10-12) and eczema (OR=1.066, P=5.92×10-22), while reducing the risk of ankylosing spondylitis (OR=0.341, P=1.39×10-5), Crohn's disease (OR=0.556, P=2.21×10-3), and type 1 diabetes (OR=0.410, P=1.78×10-7). Additionally, genetically proxied IL-6R blockade would suggestively reduce the risk of multiple sclerosis (OR=0.713, P=1.13×10-2). The results were robust under sensitivity analysis. For genetic colocalization analysis, we identified a shared causal variant rs531479718 linking serum C-reactive protein levels and asthma (posterior probability H4=0.998). Overall, our MR study demonstrated that genetically proxied IL-6R blockade may be causally associated with an increased risk of asthma and eczema, while concurrently diminishing the risk of ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, type 1 diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. These findings carry substantial implications for informing the therapeutic utilization of IL-6R blockade in the management of ADs.

Efficiency of IL-6 in Early Prognosis and Follow-Up in Critically Ill Patients with Septic Shock

Background/Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the response of interleukin-6 (IL-6) during the first few hours of a patient's stay in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) in a sample of critically ill patients with septic shock, compared to healthy subjects as controls. Additionally, the study examined the association of IL-6 with morbidity and mortality in these patients, as well as its relationship with biomarkers such as lactic acid, C-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin (PCT). Methods: This was a prospective analytical study involving 28 critically ill patients with septic shock, monitored from ICU admission through to their first three days of stay. Demographic data, comorbidities and clinical information, including IL-6 and severity scores, were recorded. Results: IL-6 levels were significantly higher in patients with septic shock compared to healthy subjects (p < 0.001) upon admission. IL-6 levels decreased by the third day of ICU stay (p < 0.005). An association between IL-6 and mortality was observed (areas under the curve 0.826, confidence interval (CI) 95% 0.659-0.994, p < 0.008). Significant correlations between IL-6 and lactic acid (p < 0.009 and p < 0.018) and partial thromboplastin time (p < 0.004 and p < 0.007) were found on the first and third days, respectively. IL-6 was also the correlated with an anion gap at admission to the ICU (p < 0.009). Conclusions: In conclusion, this study suggests that IL-6 could be a valuable marker for early sepsis follow-up in ICU patients, particularly during the first 72 h of hospitalization, providing important prognostic information in patients with septic shock.

Orthogonalized human protease control of secreted signals

Synthetic circuits that regulate protein secretion in human cells could support cell-based therapies by enabling control over local environments. While protein-level circuits enable such potential clinical applications, featuring orthogonality and compactness, their non-human origin poses a potential immunogenic risk. Here, we developed Humanized Drug Induced Regulation of Engineered CyTokines (hDIRECT) as a platform to control cytokine activity exclusively using human-derived proteins. We sourced a specific human protease and its FDA-approved inhibitor. We engineered cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, and IL-10) whose activities can be activated and abrogated by proteolytic cleavage. We utilized species specificity and re-localization strategies to orthogonalize the cytokines and protease from the human context that they would be deployed in. hDIRECT should enable local cytokine activation to support a variety of cell-based therapies such as muscle regeneration and cancer immunotherapy. Our work offers a proof of concept for the emerging appreciation of humanization in synthetic biology for human health.

Interleukin-1 Beta rs16944 and rs1143634 and Interleukin-6 Receptor rs12083537 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms as Potential Predictors of COVID-19 Severity

Host genetic variation has been recognized as a key predictor of diverse clinical sequelae among severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected patients. Insights into the link between the Interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) and Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) genetic variation and severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are crucial for developing new predictors and therapeutic targets. We aimed to investigate the association of IL-6R rs12083537, IL-1β rs16944, and IL-1β rs1143634 SNPs with the severity of COVID-19. Our study was conducted on 300 COVID-19-negative individuals (control group) and 299 COVID-19-positive cases, classified into mild, moderate, and severe subgroups. Analyses of IL-1β (rs16944, rs1143634) and IL-6R (rs12083537) SNPs' genotypes were performed using qPCR genotyping assays. The IL-1β (rs16944) CC genotype and IL-6R (rs12083537) GG genotype were substantially related to COVID-19 severity, which was also associated with comorbidities and some laboratory parameters (p < 0.001). The IL-1β (rs1143634) TT genotype was found to be protective. Likewise, the IL-1β (rs16944) CC genotype was associated with increased mortality. IL-1β rs16944 and IL-6R rs12083537 SNPs are promising potential predictors of SARS-CoV-2 disease severity. Meanwhile, the rs1143634 SNP T allele was protective against severity and mortality risk.

Immune response of Rhinogobio ventralis to Ichthyophthirius multifiliis infection: Insights from histopathological and real-time gene expression analyses

Ichthyophthirius multifiliis is a parasite that poses a considerable threat to aquaculture and the ornamental fish industry, but with limited effective treatment options available. This study employed RT-qPCR to detect and analyze the expression changes of partial toll-like receptor (TLR) genes (TLR1 and TLR21), adapter protein and signal transduction molecule genes (MyD88, TRIF, NF-κB, IRAK4, and IRF3), and cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-13, CXC-α and CXCR1), as well as complement C3, in the skin, gill, fin, liver, head kidney and spleen of Rhinogobio ventralis under different infection conditions. Additionally, tissue sections and scanning electron microscopy were utilized to observe the pathological changes in the gills and fins of R. ventralis after infection with I. multifiliis. The expression patterns of TLR-related DEGs (differentially expressed genes) in diseased wild fish were analyzed, revealing upregulation of TLR1, TLR21, MyD88, NF-κB, IRAK4, TRIF, IRF3, IL-6, IL-8, IL-13, CXC-α, CXCR1, and C3 genes in various tissues, indicating that these genes may be involved in the immune response of R. ventralis to I. multifiliis infection. To further analyze the gene expression of sampled from the field, an artificial infection model of R. ventralis was established under laboratory conditions, with additional sampling from the skin and fins. These genes continued to show varying degrees of upregulation, but the results were not entirely consistent with those from Wudongde samples, which may be due to the more complex environment in the wild or differences in the degree of I. multifiliis infection in wild fish. The infection of I. multifiliis caused severe damage to the gills and fins of R. ventralis, characterized by extensive secretions on the gill and fin surfaces, with the presence of attached I. multifiliis trophonts, including damage and loss of gill filaments, swollen gill lamellae, and deformed gill plates, as well as cell proliferation and necrosis of gill epithelial cells. This study sheds light on the role of the TLR signaling pathway in resisting I. multifiliis infection and its associated histopathological changes in R. ventralis, providing valuable insights for the prevention and treatment of I. multifiliis infection in R. ventralis.

The role of interleukin-6 family cytokines in cancer cachexia

Cachexia is a wasting syndrome that manifests in more than half of all cancer patients. Cancer-associated cachexia negatively influences the survival of patients and their quality of life. It is characterized by a rapid loss of adipose and skeletal muscle tissues, which is partly mediated by inflammatory cytokines. Here, we explored the crucial roles of interleukin-6 (IL-6) family cytokines, including IL-6, leukemia inhibitory factor, and oncostatin M, in the development of cancer cachexia. These cytokines have been shown to exacerbate cachexia by promoting the wasting of adipose and muscle tissues, activating mechanisms that enhance lipolysis and proteolysis. Overlapping effects of the IL-6 family cytokines depend on janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 signaling. We argue that the blockade of these cytokine pathways individually may fail due to redundancy and future therapeutic approaches should target common downstream elements to yield effective clinical outcomes.

Interleukin-31: The Inflammatory Cytokine Connecting Pruritus and Cancer

Interleukin 31 (IL-31) is a proinflammatory cytokine, mainly secreted by Type II helper T cells. It signals through a heterodimeric receptor complex composed of IL-31 receptor α and oncostatin-M receptor β chain. The hallmark feature of IL-31, in its pathological role, is its ability to induce pruritus in mammals. Pruritus is a common symptom and major reason of morbidity in cancer patients, compromising their quality of life. Although, IL-31 is differentially expressed in different tumor types and could promote or inhibit cancer progression, high expression of IL-31 is a contributing factor to advanced stage tumor and severity of pruritus. The simultaneous existence of pruritus and cancer could either result from the aberrations in common proteins that co-exist in both cancer and pruritus or the therapeutic treatment of cancer could indirectly induce pruritus. Although the biology of IL-31 has predominantly been described in skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis and other inflammatory diseases, the precise role of IL-31 in the tumor biology of different cancer types remains elusive. Herein, we summarize the current understanding on the role of this cytokine in the pathogenesis of different cancers.

Evolution of a bispecific G-quadruplex-forming circular aptamer to block IL-6/sIL-6R interaction for inflammation inhibition

IL-6 (interleukin-6) is an essential cytokine that participates in many inflammatory and immune responses, and disrupting the interaction between IL-6 and its receptor sIL-6R (soluble form of IL-6 receptor) represents a promising treatment strategy for inflammation and related diseases. Herein we report the first-ever effort of evolving a bispecific circular aptamer, named CIL-6A6-1, that is capable of binding both IL-6 and sIL-6R with nanomolar affinities and is stable in serum for more than 48 hours. CIL-6A6-1 can effectively block the IL-6/sIL-6R interaction and significantly inhibit cell inflammation. Most importantly, this bispecific aptamer is much more effective than aptamers that bind IL-6 and sIL-6R alone as well as tocilizumab, a commercially available humanized monoclonal antibody against sIL-6R, highlighting the advantage of selecting bispecific circular aptamers as molecular tools for anti-inflammation therapy. Interestingly, CIL-6A6-1 is predicted to adopt a unique structural fold with two G-quadruplex motifs capped by a long single-stranded region, which differs from all known DNA aptamers. This unique structural fold may also contribute to its excellent functionality and high stability in biological complex media. We anticipate that our study will represent a significant step forward towards demonstrating the practical utility of bispecific DNA aptamers for therapeutic applications.

G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor-Mediated Anti-Inflammatory and Mucosal Healing Activity of a Trimethylpyridinol Analogue in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by abnormal immune responses, including elevated proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. This study presents the synthesis and anti-inflammatory evaluation of 2,4,5-trimethylpyridin-3-ol analogues, which exhibit dual inhibition of TNFα- and IL-6-induced inflammation. Analysis using in silico methods, including 3D shape-based target identification, modeling, and docking, identified G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER) as the molecular target for the most effective analogue, 6-26, which exhibits remarkable efficacy in ameliorating inflammation and restoring colonic mucosal integrity. This was further validated by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assay results, which showed direct binding to GPER, and by the results showing that GPER knockdown abolished the inhibitory effects of 6-26 on TNFα and IL-6 actions. Notably, 6-26 displayed no cytotoxicity, unlike G1 and G15, a well-known GPER agonist and an antagonist, respectively, which induced necroptosis independently of GPER. These findings suggest that the GPER-selective compound 6-26 holds promise as a therapeutic candidate for IBD.

Brain Metastasis from EGFR-Mutated Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Secretion of IL11 from Astrocytes Up-Regulates PDL1 and Promotes Immune Escape

Patients who have non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations are more prone to brain metastasis (BM) and poor prognosis. Previous studies showed that the tumor microenvironment of BM in these patients is immunosuppressed, as indicated by reduced T-cell abundance and activity, although the mechanism of this immunosuppression requires further study. This study shows that reactive astrocytes play a critical role in promoting the immune escape of BM from EGFR-mutated NSCLC by increasing the apoptosis of CD8+ T lymphocytes. The increased secretion of interleukin 11(IL11) by astrocytes promotes the expression of PDL1 in BM, and this is responsible for the increased apoptosis of T lymphocytes. IL11 functions as a ligand of EGFR, and this binding activates EGFR and downstream signaling to increase the expression of PDL1, culminating in the immune escape of tumor cells. IL11 also promotes immune escape by binding to its intrinsic receptor (IL11Rα/glycoprotein 130 [gp130]). Additional in vivo studies show that the targeted inhibition of gp130 and EGFR suppresses the growth of BM and prolongs the survival time of mice. These results suggest a novel therapeutic strategy for treatment of NSCLC patients with EGFR mutations.

Evaluating the IL-6 Family of Cytokines Throughout Equine Gestation

INTRODUCTION

The interleukin (IL)-6 family of cytokines is grouped by a common receptor subunit (gp130), but functions in distinct but overlapping physiological activities, including regulation of acute phase reaction and the balance between effector and regulatory T cell populations-both of which play a role in successful pregnancy maturation.

METHODS

Here, we aim to assess the expression profiles of members of the IL-6 cytokine family throughout equine gestation. To do so, RNA Sequencing was performed on chorioallantois and endometrium of mares at 120, 180, 300, and 330 days of gestation (n = 4/stage), as well as 45-day chorioallantois (n = 4) and diestrus endometrium (n = 3). Expression levels of members of the IL-6 cytokine family including ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), cardiotrophin 1 (CT-1), cardiotrophin-like cytokine factor 1 (CLCF1), galectin-10, oncostatin M (OSM), and IL-6, -11, and -27 were evaluated in addition to the receptors for IL-6 (IL-6R) and the common receptor subunit gp130. Additionally, peripheral concentration of IL-6 was assessed.

RESULTS

In the chorioallantois, differential expression of IL-6, IL-11, CNTF, CLCF1, OSM, and CT-1 was noted. In the endometrium, the gestational age of pregnancy impacted the expression of IL-11, CNTF, and CT-1. Circulatory IL-6 concentrations reached their highest concentrations at 120 days, with lesser concentrations noted at 45, 180, 300, and 330 days. Both IL-6R and gp130 altered in expression throughout equine gestation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, members of the IL-6 cytokine family appear to fluctuate constantly throughout equine pregnancy, with varying expression profiles noted when comparing individual members. Additionally, different expression profiles were noted when comparing chorioallantois, endometrium, and circulation, indicating that the function of the cytokine is tissue-specific.

Matrine Ameliorates DSS-Induced Colitis by Suppressing Inflammation, Modulating Oxidative Stress and Remodeling the Gut Microbiota

Matrine (MT) possesses anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and antioxidative properties. However, the impact and underlying mechanisms of matrine on colitis are unclear. The purpose of this research was to examine the protective impact and regulatory mechanism of matrine on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) in mice. MT alleviated DSS-induced UC by inhibiting weight loss, relieving colon shortening and reducing the disease activity index (DAI). Moreover, DSS-induced intestinal injury and the number of goblet cells were reversed by MT, as were alterations in the expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin in colon. Simultaneously, matrine not only effectively restored DSS-induced oxidative stress in colonic tissues but also reduced the production of inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, MT could treat colitis mice by regulating the regulatory T cell (Treg)/T helper 17 (Th17) cell imbalance. We observed further evidence that MT alleviated the decrease in intestinal flora diversity, reduced the proportion of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, decreased the proportion of Proteobacteria and increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Akkermansia in colitis mice. In conclusion, these results suggest that MT may mitigate DSS-induced colitis by enhancing the colon barrier integrity, reducing the Treg/Th17 cell imbalance, inhibiting intestinal inflammation, modulating oxidative stress and regulating the gut microbiota. These findings provide strong evidence for the development and application of MT as a dietary treatment for UC.

MiR-653-5p drives osteoarthritis pathogenesis by modulating chondrocyte senescence

BACKGROUND

Due to the unclear pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA), effective treatment for this ailment is presently unavailable. Accumulating evidence points to chondrocyte senescence as a key driver in OA development. This study aims to identify OA-specific microRNAs (miRNAs) targeting chondrocyte senescence to alleviate OA progression.

METHODS

We screened and identified miRNAs differentially expressed in OA and normal cartilage, then confirmed the impact of miR-653-5p on chondrocyte functions and senescence phenotypes through in vitro experiments with overexpression/silencing. We identified interleukin 6 (IL-6) as the target gene of miR-653-5p and confirmed the regulatory influence of miR-653-5p on the IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway through gain/loss-of-function studies. Finally, we assessed the therapeutic efficacy of miR-653-5p on OA using a mouse model with destabilization of the medial meniscus.

RESULTS

MiR-653-5p was significantly downregulated in cartilage tissues and chondrocytes from OA patients. Overexpression of miR-653-5p promoted chondrocyte matrix synthesis and proliferation while inhibiting chondrocyte senescence. Furthermore, bioinformatics target prediction and the luciferase reporter assays identified IL-6 as a target of miR-653-5p. Western blot assays demonstrated that miR-653-5p overexpression inhibited the protein expression of IL-6, the phosphorylation of JAK1 and STAT3, and the expression of chondrocyte senescence phenotypes by regulating the IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway. More importantly, the cartilage destruction was significantly alleviated and chondrocyte senescence phenotypes were remarkably decreased in the OA mouse model treated by agomiR-653-5p compared to the control mice.

CONCLUSIONS

MiR-653-5p showed a significant decrease in cartilage tissues of individuals with OA, leading to an upregulation of chondrocyte senescence phenotypes in the articular cartilage. AgomiR-653-5p emerges as a potential treatment approach for OA. These findings provide further insight into the role of miR-653-5p in chondrocyte senescence and the pathogenesis of OA.

Prognostic and therapeutic potential of STAT3: Opportunities and challenges in targeting HPV-mediated cervical carcinogenesis

Cervical cancer (CaCx) ranks as the fourth most prevalent cancer among women globally. Persistent infection of high-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs) is major etiological factor associated with CaCx. Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3), a prominent member of the STAT family, has emerged as independent oncogenic driver. It is a target of many oncogenic viruses including HPV. How STAT3 influences HPV viral gene expression or gets affected by HPV is an area of active investigation. A better understanding of host-virus interaction will provide a prognostic and therapeutic window for CaCx control and management. In this comprehensive review, we delve into carcinogenic role of STAT3 in development of HPV-induced CaCx. With an emphasis on fascinating interplay between STAT3 and HPV genome, the review explores the diverse array of opportunities and challenges associated with this field to harness the prognostic and therapeutic potential of STAT3 in CaCx.

Manual therapy and exercise effects on inflammatory cytokines: a narrative overview

Background

Matching disease and treatment mechanisms is a goal of the Precision Medicine Initiative. Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, Transforming Growth Factor-beta, and Interleukin-2, 10, and 12) have gained a significant amount of interest in their potential role in persistent pain for musculoskeletal (MSK) conditions. Manual therapy (MT) and exercise are two guideline-recommended approaches for treating MSK conditions. The objective of this narrative overview was to investigate of the effects of MT and exercise on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and determine the factors that lead to variability in results.

Methods

Two reviewers evaluated the direction and variabilities of MT and exercise literature. A red, yellow, and green light scoring system was used to define consistencies.

Results

Consistencies in responses were seen with acute and chronic exercise and both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Chronic exercise is associated with a consistent shift towards a more anti-inflammatory cytokine profile (Transforming Growth Factor-beta, and Interleukin-2 and 13, whereas acute bouts of intense exercise can transiently increase pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. The influence of MT on cytokines was less commonly studied and yielded more variable results.

Conclusion

Variability in findings is likely related to the subject and their baseline condition or disease, when measurement occurs, and the exercise intensity, duration, and an individual's overall health and fitness.

Navigating IL-6: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic breakthroughs

This concise review navigates the intricate realm of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), an important member of the cytokine family. Beginning with an introduction to cytokines, this narrative review unfolds with the historical journey of IL-6, illuminating its evolving significance. A crucial section unravels the three distinct signaling modes employed by IL-6, providing a foundational understanding of its versatile interactions within cellular landscapes. Moving deeper, the review meticulously dissects IL-6's signaling mechanisms, unraveling the complexities of its pleiotropic effects in both physiological responses and pathological conditions. A significant focus is dedicated to the essential role IL-6 plays in inflammatory diseases, offering insights into its associations and implications for various health conditions. The review also takes a therapeutic turn by exploring the emergence of anti-IL-6 monoclonal inhibitors, marking a profound stride in treatment modalities. Diving into the molecular realm, the review explores small molecules as agents for IL-6 inhibition, providing a nuanced perspective on diverse intervention strategies. As the review embarks on the final chapters, it contemplates future aspects, offering glimpses into potential research trajectories and the evolving landscape of IL-6-related studies.

Molecular characterization of the craniosynostosis-associated interleukin-11 receptor variants p.T306_S308dup and p.E364_V368del

Interleukin-11 (IL-11) is a member of the IL-6 family of cytokines and is an important factor for bone homeostasis. IL-11 binds to and signals via the membrane-bound IL-11 receptor (IL-11R, classic signaling) or soluble forms of the IL-11R (sIL-11R, trans-signaling). Mutations in the IL11RA gene, which encodes the IL-11R, are associated with craniosynostosis, a human condition in which one or several of the sutures close prematurely, resulting in malformation of the skull. The biological mechanisms of how mutations within the IL-11R are linked to craniosynostosis are mostly unexplored. In this study, we analyze two variants of the IL-11R described in craniosynostosis patients: p.T306_S308dup, which results in a duplication of three amino-acid residues within the membrane-proximal fibronectin type III domain, and p.E364_V368del, which results in a deletion of five amino-acid residues in the so-called stalk region adjacent to the plasma membrane. The stalk region connects the three extracellular domains to the transmembrane and intracellular region of the IL-11R and contains cleavage sites for different proteases that generate sIL-11R variants. Using a combination of bioinformatics and different biochemical, molecular, and cell biology methods, we show that the IL-11R-T306_S308dup variant does not mature correctly, is intracellularly retained, and does not reach the cell surface. In contrast, the IL-11R-E364_V368del variant is fully biologically active and processed normally by proteases, thus allowing classic and trans-signaling of IL-11. Our results provide evidence that mutations within the IL11RA gene may not be causative for craniosynostosis and suggest that other regulatory mechanism(s) are involved but remain to be identified.

LIF Aggravates Pulpitis by Promoting Inflammatory Response in Macrophages

Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) has been recognized as a novel inflammatory modulator in inflammation-associated diseases. This study aimed to investigate the modulation of LIF in dental pulp inflammation. Experimental pulpitis was established in wild-type (WT) and Lif-deficient (Lif-/-) mice. Histological and immunostaining analyses were conducted to assess the role of LIF in the progression of pulpitis. Mouse macrophage cell line (RAW264.7) was treated with LPS to simulate an inflammatory environment. Exogenous LIF was added to this system to examine its modulation in macrophage inflammatory response in vitro. Primary bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from WT and Lif-/- mice were isolated and stimulated with LPS to confirm the effect of Lif deletion on macrophage inflammatory response. Supernatants from LIF and LPS-treated human dental pulp cells (hDPCs) were collected and added to macrophages. Macrophage chemotaxis was assessed using transwell assays. The results showed an increased expression of LIF and LIFR with the progression of pulpitis, and LIFR was highly expressed in macrophages. Lif deficiency alleviated experimental pulpitis with the reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and macrophage infiltration. Exogenous LIF promoted inflammatory response of LPS-induced macrophages through a STAT3/p65-dependent pathway. Consistently, Lif deletion inhibited macrophage inflammatory response in vitro. Supernatants of LIF-treated hDPCs enhanced macrophage migration in LPS-induced inflammatory environment. Our findings demonstrated that LIF aggravates pulpitis by promoting macrophage inflammatory response through a STAT3/p65-dependent pathway. Furthermore, LIF plays a crucial role in driving the recruitment of macrophages to inflamed pulp tissue by promoting chemokine secretion in DPCs.

Resveratrol-βcd inhibited premature ovarian insufficiency progression by regulating granulosa cell autophagy

BACKGROUND

The ovarian environment of premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) patients exhibits immune dysregulation, which leads to excessive secretion of numerous proinflammatory cytokines that affect ovarian function. An abnormal level of macrophage polarization directly or indirectly inhibits the differentiation of ovarian granulosa cells and steroid hormone production, ultimately leading to POI. Resveratrol, as a health supplement, has been widely recognized for its safety. There is a substantial amount of evidence indicating that resveratrol and its analogs possess significant immune-regulatory functions. It has also been reported that resveratrol can effectively inhibit the progression of POI. However, the underlying immunological and molecular mechanisms through which resveratrol inhibits the progression of POI are still unclear.

RESULTS

Our preliminary reports have shown that resveratrol-βcd, the beta-cyclodextrin complex of resveratrol, significantly enhances the stability of resveratrol. Resveratrol-βcd could regulate the dysfunctional immune status of macrophages and T cells in the tumor microenvironment. In this study, we treated busulfan and cyclophosphamide (B/C)-treated mice, which were used as a POI model, with resveratrol-βcd. After resveratrol-βcd treatment, the levels of IL-6 in the ovaries were significantly increased, and the progression of POI was suppressed. IL-6 activated granulosa cells (GCs) through soluble IL-6R (sIL-6R), promoting autophagy in GCs. Resveratrol-βcd and IL-6 had a synergistic effect on enhancing autophagy in GCs and promoting E2 secretion.

CONCLUSIONS

We partially elucidated the immune mechanism by which resveratrol inhibits the progression of POI and the autophagy-regulating function of GCs. This provides a theoretical basis for using resveratrol to prevent POI in future studies and clinical guidance.

Immune-neuroendocrine patterning and response to stress. A latent profile analysis in the English longitudinal study of ageing

Psychosocial stress exposure can disturb communication signals between the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems that are intended to maintain homeostasis. This dysregulation can provoke a negative feedback loop between each system that has high pathological risk. Here, we explore patterns of immune-neuroendocrine activity and the role of stress. Using data from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA), we first identified the latent structure of immune-neuroendocrine activity (indexed by high sensitivity C-reactive protein [CRP], fibrinogen [Fb], hair cortisol [cortisol], and insulin growth-factor-1 [IGF-1]), within a population-based cohort using latent profile analysis (LPA). Then, we determined whether life stress was associated with membership of different immune-neuroendocrine profiles. We followed 4,934 male and female participants, with a median age of 65 years, over a four-year period (2008-2012). A three-class LPA solution offered the most parsimonious fit to the underlying immune-neuroendocrine structure in the data, with 36 %, 40 %, and 24 % of the population belonging to profiles 1 (low-risk), 2 (moderate-risk), and 3 (high-risk), respectively. After adjustment for genetic predisposition, sociodemographics, lifestyle, and health, higher exposure to stress was associated with a 61 % greater risk of belonging to the high-risk profile (RRR: 1.61; 95 %CI = 1.23-2.12, p = 0.001), but not the moderate-risk profile (RRR = 1.10, 95 %CI = 0.89-1.35, p = 0.401), as compared with the low-risk profile four years later. Our findings extend existing knowledge on psychoneuroimmunological processes, by revealing how inflammation and neuroendocrine activity cluster in a representative sample of older adults, and how stress exposure was associated with immune-neuroendocrine responses over time.

ER-α36 is involved in calycosin inhibition of IL-6 production in macrophages

The tumour microenvironment (TME) is crucial for tumour development and progression. Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) in the TME can promote tumour progression and metastasis by releasing cytokines, such as IL-6. Calycosin, a phytoestrogen that is one of the active compounds in Radix Astragali, has been shown to inhibit tumour growth and metastasis. However, the underlying mechanism by which calycosin inhibits tumour growth remains unclear. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of calycosin on IL-6 production in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC)- and THP-1-derived macrophages and explore its potential mechanisms using co-immunoprecipitation, western blotting, immunofluorescence, chromatin immunoprecipitation and luciferase assays. We found that calycosin treatment substantially upregulated the expression of ER-α36, a variant of the ER, and reduced IL-6 production in macrophages. Mechanistically, ER-α36 physically interacted with NF-κBp65 and retained p65 in the cytoplasm to attenuate NF-κB function as an IL-6 transcriptional inducer. In conclusion, our result indicated that calycosin inhibited IL-6 production by enhancing ER-α36 expression and its interaction with p65, which attenuated NF-κB function as an IL-6 inducer. Therefore, calycosin can be developed as an effective agent for cancer therapy by targeting TAMs.

Cytokines of the interleukin-6 family as emerging targets in inflammatory bowel disease

INTRODUCTION

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an umbrella term that includes different chronic inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. IBD affects more than 6 million people worldwide and constitutes not only a debilitating disease for the patients, but also a significant factor for society due to costs for health care and reduced working capacity. Despite the introduction of biologicals for the treatment of IBD, the identification of novel targets that could lead to novel therapeutics is still needed.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the interleukin-6 family of cytokines as potential therapeutic targets for improving the therapy of patients with IBD. We discuss cytokines like IL-6 itself for which therapeutics such as inhibitory monoclonal antibodies have already entered the clinics, but also focus on other family members whose therapeutic potential has not been explored yet.

EXPERT OPINION

The different cytokines of the IL-6 family offer multiple therapeutic targets that can potentially be used to treat patients with inflammatory bowel disease, but unwanted side effects like inhibition of epithelial regeneration have to be considered.

Exogenous l-fucose attenuates neuroinflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide

α1,6-Fucosyltransferase (Fut8) catalyzes the transfer of fucose to the innermost GlcNAc residue of N-glycan to form core fucosylation. Our previous studies showed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment highly induced neuroinflammation in Fut8 homozygous KO (Fut8-/-) or heterozygous KO (Fut8+/-) mice, compared with the WT (Fut8+/+) mice. To understand the underlying mechanism, we utilized a sensitive inflammation-monitoring mouse system that contains the human interleukin-6 (hIL6) bacterial artificial chromosome transgene modified with luciferase (Luc) reporter cassette. We successfully detected LPS-induced neuroinflammation in the central nervous system by exploiting this bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic monitoring system. Then we examined the effects of l-fucose on neuroinflammation in the Fut8+/- mice. The lectin blot and mass spectrometry analysis showed that l-fucose preadministration increased the core fucosylation levels in the Fut8+/- mice. Notably, exogenous l-fucose attenuated the LPS-induced IL-6 mRNA and Luc mRNA expression in the cerebral tissues, confirmed using the hIL6-Luc bioluminescence imaging system. The activation of microglial cells, which provoke neuroinflammatory responses upon LPS stimulation, was inhibited by l-fucose preadministration. l-Fucose also suppressed the downstream intracellular signaling of IL-6, such as the phosphorylation levels of JAK2 (Janus kinase 2), Akt (protein kinase B), and STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3). l-Fucose administration increased gp130 core fucosylation levels and decreased the association of gp130 with the IL-6 receptor in Fut8+/- mice, which was further confirmed in BV-2 cells. These results indicate that l-fucose administration ameliorates the LPS-induced neuroinflammation in the Fut8+/- mice, suggesting that core fucosylation plays a vital role in anti-inflammation and that l-fucose is a potential prophylactic compound against neuroinflammation.

Evaluating the potential of Vitamin D and curcumin to alleviate inflammation and mitigate the progression of osteoarthritis through their effects on human chondrocytes: A proof-of-concept investigation

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic degenerative joint disorder primarily affecting the elderly, characterized by a prominent inflammatory component. The long-term side effects associated with current therapeutic approaches necessitate the development of safer and more efficacious alternatives. Nutraceuticals, such as Vitamin D and curcumin, present promising therapeutic potentials due to their safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness. In this study, we utilized a proinflammatory human chondrocyte model of OA to assess the anti-inflammatory properties of Vitamin D and curcumin, with a particular focus on the Protease-Activated Receptor-2 (PAR-2) mediated inflammatory pathway. Employing a robust siRNA approach, we effectively modulated the expression of PAR-2 to understand its role in the inflammatory process. Our results reveal that both Vitamin D and curcumin attenuate the expression of PAR-2, leading to a reduction in the downstream proinflammatory cytokines, such as Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α), Interleukin 6 (IL-6), and Interleukin 8 (IL-8), implicated in the OA pathogenesis. Concurrently, these compounds suppressed the expression of Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor kappa-Β Ligand (RANKL) and its receptor RANK, which are associated with PAR-2 mediated TNF-α stimulation. Additionally, Vitamin D and curcumin downregulated the expression of Interferon gamma (IFN-γ), known to elevate RANKL levels, underscoring their potential therapeutic implications in OA. This study, for the first time, provides evidence of the mitigating effect of Vitamin D and curcumin on PAR-2 mediated inflammation, employing an siRNA approach in OA. Thus, our findings pave the way for future research and the development of novel, safer, and more effective therapeutic strategies for managing OA.

A SOX9-B7x axis safeguards dedifferentiated tumor cells from immune surveillance to drive breast cancer progression

How dedifferentiated stem-like tumor cells evade immunosurveillance remains poorly understood. We show that the lineage-plasticity regulator SOX9, which is upregulated in dedifferentiated tumor cells, limits the number of infiltrating T lymphocytes in premalignant lesions of mouse basal-like breast cancer. SOX9-mediated immunosuppression is required for the progression of in situ tumors to invasive carcinoma. SOX9 induces the expression of immune checkpoint B7x/B7-H4 through STAT3 activation and direct transcriptional regulation. B7x is upregulated in dedifferentiated tumor cells and protects them from immunosurveillance. B7x also protects mammary gland regeneration in immunocompetent mice. In advanced tumors, B7x targeting inhibits tumor growth and overcomes resistance to anti-PD-L1 immunotherapy. In human breast cancer, SOX9 and B7x expression are correlated and associated with reduced CD8+ T cell infiltration. This study, using mouse models, cell lines, and patient samples, identifies a dedifferentiation-associated immunosuppression mechanism and demonstrates the therapeutic potential of targeting the SOX9-B7x pathway in basal-like breast cancer.

Fusing WGCNA and Machine Learning for Immune-Related Gene Prognostic Index in Lung Adenocarcinoma: Precision Prognosis, Tumor Microenvironment Profiling, and Biomarker Discovery

Background

The objective is to create an IRGPI (Immune-related genes prognostic index), which could predict the survival and effectiveness of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatment for lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD).

Methods

By applying weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), we ascertained 13 genes associated with immune functions. An IRGPI was constructed using four genes through multicox regression, and its validity was assessed in the GEO dataset. Next, we explored the immunological and molecular attributes and advantages of ICI treatment in subcategories delineated by IRGPI. The model genes were also validated by the random forest tree, and functional experiments were conducted to validate it.

Results

The IRGPI relied on the genes CD79A, IL11, CTLA-4, and CD27. Individuals categorized as low-risk exhibited significantly improved overall survival in comparison to those classified as high-risk. Extensive findings indicated that the low-risk category exhibited associations with immune pathways, significant infiltration of CD8 T cells, M1 macrophages, and CD4 T cells, a reduced rate of gene mutations, and improved sensitivity to ICI therapy. Conversely, the higher-risk group displayed metabolic signals, elevated frequencies of TP53, KRAS, and KEAP1 mutations, escalated levels of NK cells, M0, and M2 macrophage infiltration, and a diminished response to ICI therapy. Additionally, our study unveiled that the downregulation of IL11 effectively impedes the proliferation and migration of lung carcinoma cells, while also inducing cell cycle arrest.

Conclusion

IRGPI is a biomarker with significant potential for predicting the effectiveness of ICI treatment in LUAD patients and is closely related to the microenvironment and clinicopathological characteristics.

Regulatory B cells induced by interleukin-35 inhibit inflammation and alveolar bone resorption in ligature-induced periodontitis

BACKGROUND

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) have been reported to suppress immune responses and alveolar bone loss in murine periodontitis models. These cells could be induced by interleukin (IL)-35 which is increased upon periodontal inflammation. Thus, this study aimed to explore the role of Bregs induced by IL-35 in periodontitis.

METHODS

Experimental periodontitis was induced in mice by ligature. Two weeks after ligation, the test group was systemically treated with IL-35 for 1 week. Four weeks after ligation, all mice were euthanized, and alveolar bone loss was evaluated by microcomputed tomography. Cytokines associated with periodontitis were analyzed using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Bregs in spleens, cervical lymph nodes, and periodontal tissues were detected by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence staining.

RESULTS

In the mouse model of periodontitis, IL-35 induced the expansion of CD1dhi CD5+ B10 cells with increased interleukin-10 (IL-10) and IL-35 production. IL-35 administration also attenuated alveolar bone loss and reduced the levels of proinflammatory cytokines in situ.

CONCLUSIONS

Following ligature-induced periodontitis in mice, IL-35 inhibited periodontal inflammation and alveolar bone resorption at least partially through the induction of B10 cells and IL-35+ Bregs.

Relationship among serum levels of IL-6, sIL-6R, s gp130 and CD126 on T-cell in HIV-1 infected and uninfected men participating in the Los Angeles Multi-Center AIDS Cohort Study

INTRODUCTION

Interleukin 6 (IL-6) activates cells through its unique heterodimeric signaling complex of IL-6 receptor (IL6R) subunit and interleukin 6 signal transducer β-subunit glycoprotein 130 (gp130). The objective of this study was to investigate associations among serum levels of IL-6, sIL-6R, sgp130 and relative fluorescence intensity (RFI) of the α-subunit of the IL-6 receptor (CD126) on T-cells of HIV-1 infected and uninfected men.

METHODS

Blood samples were obtained from 69 HIV-1-infected men on Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) with mean age of 49.1 and 52 HIV-1-uninfected with mean age of 54.3 years -. All men were participating in the Los Angeles Multi-Center AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Serum levels of IL-6, sIL-6R, sgp130 were measured by enzyme-linked immunoassays and T-cell phenotypic analysis and RFI of CD126 on CD4+ and CD8+ by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Mean serum levels of IL-6, sIL6R, sgp130 and of CD126 RFI on CD4+ were 4.34 pg/mL, 39.3 ng/mL, 349 ng/mL and 526 RFI respectively for HIV-1-infected men and 2.74 pg/mL, 41.9 ng/mL, 318 ng/mL and 561 RFI respectively for HIV-1-uninfected men. The mean serum concentrations of IL-6, sIL-6R in HIV-1-infected and uninfected men were not significantly different (p>0.05). There was a positive correlation between plasma HIV-1 RNA and the levels of IL-6 (p<0.001), sIL6R (p = 0.002) but no correlation with sgp130 (p = 0.339). In addition, there was a negative correlation between serum levels of IL-6 with RFI of CD126 on CD4+ (p = 0.037) and a positive correlation between serum levels of sgp130 (p = 0.021) and sIL-6R in HIV-1-infected men.

CONCLUSION

Knowledge of biological variation, differences in the blood levels of biomarkers among healthy individuals and individuals experiencing illness, are very important for selection of appropriate tests for stage and progression of disease. Our data suggest no correlation among IL-6, and sIL-R6, in the treated phase of HIV-1 infection. The action and blood level of IL-6 and its receptors may be different at each stage of a disease progression.

Targeting IL-6 trans-signalling: past, present and future prospects

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a key immunomodulatory cytokine that affects the pathogenesis of diverse diseases, including autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammatory conditions and cancer. Classical IL-6 signalling involves the binding of IL-6 to the membrane-bound IL-6 receptor α-subunit (hereafter termed 'mIL-6R') and glycoprotein 130 (gp130) signal-transducing subunit. By contrast, in IL-6 trans-signalling, complexes of IL-6 and the soluble form of IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R) signal via membrane-bound gp130. A third mode of IL-6 signalling - known as cluster signalling - involves preformed complexes of membrane-bound IL-6-mIL-6R on one cell activating gp130 subunits on target cells. Antibodies and small molecules have been developed that block all three forms of IL-6 signalling, but in the past decade, IL-6 trans-signalling has emerged as the predominant pathway by which IL-6 promotes disease pathogenesis. The first selective inhibitor of IL-6 trans-signalling, sgp130, has shown therapeutic potential in various preclinical models of disease and olamkicept, a sgp130Fc variant, had promising results in phase II clinical studies for inflammatory bowel disease. Technological developments have already led to next-generation sgp130 variants with increased affinity and selectivity towards IL-6 trans-signalling, along with indirect strategies to block IL-6 trans-signalling. Here, we summarize our current understanding of the biological outcomes of IL-6-mediated signalling and the potential for targeting this pathway in the clinic.

Recent Progresses in Optical Biosensors for Interleukin 6 Detection

Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is pleiotropic cytokine with pathological pro-inflammatory effects in various acute, chronic and infectious diseases. It is involved in a variety of biological processes including immune regulation, hematopoiesis, tissue repair, inflammation, oncogenesis, metabolic control, and sleep. Due to its important role as a biomarker of many types of diseases, its detection in small amounts and with high selectivity is of particular importance in medical and biological fields. Laboratory methods including enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISAs) and chemiluminescent immunoassays (CLIAs) are the most common conventional methods for IL-6 detection. However, these techniques suffer from the complexity of the method, the expensiveness, and the time-consuming process of obtaining the results. In recent years, too many attempts have been conducted to provide simple, rapid, economical, and user-friendly analytical approaches to monitor IL-6. In this regard, biosensors are considered desirable tools for IL-6 detection because of their special features such as high sensitivity, rapid detection time, ease of use, and ease of miniaturization. In this review, current progresses in different types of optical biosensors as the most favorable types of biosensors for the detection of IL-6 are discussed, evaluated, and compared.

Discovery, Optimization, and Evaluation of Novel N-(Benzimidazol-5-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-amine Analogues as Potent STAT3 Inhibitors for Cancer Treatment

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is an attractive target for cancer therapy. However, identifying potent and selective STAT3 small-molecule inhibitors with drug-like properties remains challenging. Based on a scaffold combination strategy, compounds with a novel N-(benzimidazol-5-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-amine scaffold were designed and their inhibition of the interleukin-6 (IL-6)/JAK/STAT3 pathway was tested in HEK-Blue IL-6 reporter cells. After optimization of lead compound 12, compound 40 was identified as a selective STAT3 inhibitor that directly binds the SH2 domain to inhibit STAT3 phosphorylation, translocation, and downstream gene transcription. Compound 40 exhibited antiproliferative activities against STAT3-overactivated DU145 (IC50 value = 2.97 μM) and MDA-MB-231 (IC50 value = 3.26 μM) cancer cells and induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. In the DU145 xenograft model, compound 40 showed in vivo antitumor efficacy following intraperitoneal administration, with a tumor growth inhibition rate of 65.3% at 50 mg/kg, indicating promise for further development.

Leveraging decagonal in-silico strategies for uncovering IL-6 inhibitors with precision

Interleukin-6 upregulation leads to various acute phase reactions such as local inflammation and systemic inflammation in many diseases like cancer, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, anemia, and Alzheimer's disease stimulating JAK/STAT3, Ras/MAPK, PI3K-PKB/Akt pathogenic pathways. Since no small molecules are available in the market against IL-6 till now, we have designed a class of small bioactive 1,3 - indanedione (IDC) molecules for inhibiting IL-6 using a decagonal approach computational studies. The IL-6 mutations were mapped in the IL-6 protein (PDB ID: 1ALU) from thorough pharmacogenomic and proteomics studies. The protein-drug interaction networking analysis for 2637 FFDA-approved drugs with IL-6 protein using Cytoscape software showed that 14 drugs have prominent interactions with IL-6. Molecular docking studies showed that the designed compound IDC-24 (-11.8 kcal/mol) and methotrexate (-5.20) bound most strongly to the 1ALU south asian population mutated protein. MMGBSA results indicated that IDC-24 (-41.78 kcal/mol) and methotrexate (-36.81 kcal/mol) had the highest binding energy when compared to the standard molecules LMT-28 (-35.87 kcal/mol) and MDL-A (-26.18 kcal/mol). These results we substantiated by the molecular dynamic studies in which the compound IDC-24 and the methotrexate had the highest stability. Further, the MMPBSA computations produced energies of -28 kcal/mol and -14.69 kcal/mol for IDC-24 and LMT-28. KDeep absolute binding affinity computations revealed energies of -5.81 kcal/mol and -4.74 kcal/mol for IDC-24 and LMT-28 respectively. Finally, our decagonal approach established the compound IDC-24 from the designed 1,3-indanedione library and methotrexate from protein drug interaction networking as suitable HITs against IL-6.

The interleukin-11 receptor variant p.W307R results in craniosynostosis in humans

Craniosynostosis is characterized by the premature fusion and ossification of one or more of the sutures of the calvaria, often resulting in abnormal features of the face and the skull. In cases in which growth of the brain supersedes available space within the skull, developmental delay or cognitive impairment can occur. A complex interplay of different cell types and multiple signaling pathways are required for correct craniofacial development. In this study, we report on two siblings with craniosynostosis and a homozygous missense pathogenic variant within the IL11RA gene (c.919 T > C; p.W307R). The patients present with craniosynostosis, exophthalmos, delayed tooth eruption, mild platybasia, and a basilar invagination. The p.W307R variant is located within the arginine-tryptophan-zipper within the D3 domain of the IL-11R, a structural element known to be important for the stability of the cytokine receptor. Expression of IL-11R-W307R in cells shows impaired maturation of the IL-11R, no transport to the cell surface and intracellular retention. Accordingly, cells stably expressing IL-11R-W307R do not respond when stimulated with IL-11, arguing for a loss-of-function mutation. In summary, the IL-11R-W307R variant, reported here for the first time to our knowledge, is most likely the causative variant underlying craniosynostosis in these patients.

Immune-Neuroendocrine Patterning and Response to Stress. A latent profile analysis in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing

Psychosocial stress exposure can disturb communication signals between the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems that are intended to maintain homeostasis. This dysregulation can provoke a negative feedback loop between each system that has high pathological risk. Here, we explore patterns of immune-neuroendocrine activity and the role of stress. Using data from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA), we first identified the latent structure of immune-neuroendocrine activity (indexed by high sensitivity C-reactive protein [CRP], fibrinogen [Fb], hair cortisol [cortisol], and insulin growth-factor-1 [IGF-1]), within a population-based cohort using latent profile analysis (LPA). Then, we determined whether life stress was associated with membership of different immune-neuroendocrine profiles. We followed 4,934 male and female participants with a median age of 65 years over a four-year period (2008-2012). A three-class LPA solution offered the most parsimonious fit to the underlying immune-neuroendocrine structure in the data, with 36%, 40%, and 24% of the population belonging to profiles 1 (low-risk), 2 (moderate-risk), and 3 (high-risk), respectively. After adjustment for genetic predisposition, sociodemographics, lifestyle, and health, higher exposure to stress was associated with a 61% greater risk of belonging to the high-risk profile (RRR: 1.61; 95%CI=1.23-2.12, p=0.001), but not the moderate-risk profile (RRR=1.10, 95%CI=0.89-1.35, p=0.401), as compared with the low-risk profile four years later. Our findings extend existing knowledge on psychoneuroimmunological processes, by revealing how inflammation and neuroendocrine activity cluster in a representative sample of older adults, and how stress exposure was associated with immune-neuroendocrine responses over time.

Cytokimera GIL-11 rescued IL-6R deficient mice from partial hepatectomy-induced death by signaling via non-natural gp130:LIFR:IL-11R complexes

All except one cytokine of the Interleukin (IL-)6 family share glycoprotein (gp) 130 as the common β receptor chain. Whereas Interleukin (IL-)11 signal via the non-signaling IL-11 receptor (IL-11R) and gp130 homodimers, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) recruits gp130:LIF receptor (LIFR) heterodimers. Using IL-11 as a framework, we exchange the gp130-binding site III of IL-11 with the LIFR binding site III of LIF. The resulting synthetic cytokimera GIL-11 efficiently recruits the non-natural receptor signaling complex consisting of gp130, IL-11R and LIFR resulting in signal transduction and proliferation of factor-depending Ba/F3 cells. Besides LIF and IL-11, GIL-11 does not activate receptor complexes consisting of gp130:LIFR or gp130:IL-11R, respectively. Human GIL-11 shows cross-reactivity to mouse and rescued IL-6R^-/- mice following partial hepatectomy, demonstrating gp130:IL-11R:LIFR signaling efficiently induced liver regeneration. With the development of the cytokimera GIL-11, we devise the functional assembly of the non-natural cytokine receptor complex of gp130:IL-11R:LIFR.

Role of interleukin-6-mediated inflammation in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease: focus on the available therapeutic approaches and gut microbiome

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is considered a chronic inflammatory and multifactorial disease of the gastrointestinal tract. Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are two types of chronic IBD. Although there is no accurate information about IBD pathophysiology, evidence suggests that various factors, including the gut microbiome, environment, genetics, lifestyle, and a dysregulated immune system, may increase susceptibility to IBD. Moreover, inflammatory mediators such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) are involved in the immunopathogenesis of IBDs. IL-6 contributes to T helper 17 (Th17) differentiation, mediating further destructive inflammatory responses in CD and UC. Moreover, Th1-mediated responses participate in IBD, and the antiapoptotic IL-6/IL-6 receptor (IL-6R)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signals are responsible for preserving Th1 cells in the site of inflammation. It has been revealed that fecal bacteria isolated from UC-active and UC-remission patients stimulate the hyperproduction of several cytokines, such as IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-10, and IL-12. Given the importance of the IL-6/IL-6R axis, various therapeutic options exist for controlling or treating IBD. Therefore, alternative therapeutic approaches such as modulating the gut microbiome could be beneficial due to the failure of the target therapies so far. This review article summarizes IBD immunopathogenesis focusing on the IL-6/IL-6R axis and discusses available therapeutic approaches based on the gut microbiome alteration and IL-6/IL-6R axis targeting and treatment failure.

A phytotherapic blend immunity-6™ inhibits myeloid leukemic cells 2 activation involving purinergic signaling

Leukemia is among the most common types of hematological cancers and the use of herbal medicines to prevent and treat leukemia are under quick development. Among several molecular pathways involved in leukemia pathogenesis and exacerbations, purinergic signaling is revealed as a key component. In the present study, the effects of two doses (5 ug/mL and 10 ug/mL) of Immunity-6™, a phytocomplex composed by beta-glucan, green tea (Camelia sinensis), chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) was tested in vitro, using chronic myelogenous leukemia cell line (K-562; 5 ×104/mL/well), which were challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 1 ug/mL) for 24 h. The results demonstrated that both doses of Immunity-6™ inhibited ATP release (p < 0.001) and P2×7 receptor at mRNA levels expression (p < 0.001). Purinergic inhibition by Immunity-6™ was followed by reduced release of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta (p < 0.001) and IL-6 (p < 0.001), while only 5 ug/mL of Immunity-6™ reduced the release of TNF-alpha (p < 0.001). Beyond to inhibit the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, both doses of Immunity-6™ induced the release of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 (p < 0.001), while only the higher dose (10 ug/mL) of Immunity-6™ induced the release of anti-inflammatory IL-1ra (p < 0.05) and klotho (p < 0.001). Thus, Immunity-6™ may be a promising adjuvant in the treatment of leukemia and further clinical trials are guaranteed.

Inactivation of interleukin-30 in colon cancer stem cells via CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing inhibits their oncogenicity and improves host survival

BACKGROUND

Progression of colorectal cancer (CRC), a leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, is driven by colorectal cancer stem cells (CR-CSCs), which are regulated by endogenous and microenvironmental signals. Interleukin (IL)-30 has proven to be crucial for CSC viability and tumor progression. Whether it is involved in CRC tumorigenesis and impacts clinical behavior is unknown.

METHODS

IL30 production and functions, in stem and non-stem CRC cells, were determined by western blot, immunoelectron microscopy, flow cytometry, cell viability and sphere formation assays. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated deletion of the IL30 gene, RNA-Seq and implantation of IL30 gene transfected or deleted CR-CSCs in NSG mice allowed to investigate IL30's role in CRC oncogenesis. Bioinformatics and immunopathology of CRC samples highlighted the clinical implications.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that both CR-CSCs and CRC cells express membrane-anchored IL30 that regulates their self-renewal, via WNT5A and RAB33A, and/or proliferation and migration, primarily by upregulating CXCR4 via STAT3, which are suppressed by IL30 gene deletion, along with WNT and RAS pathways. Deletion of IL30 gene downregulates the expression of proteases, such as MMP2 and MMP13, chemokine receptors, mostly CCR7, CCR3 and CXCR4, and growth and inflammatory mediators, including ANGPT2, CXCL10, EPO, IGF1 and EGF. These factors contribute to IL30-driven CR-CSC and CRC cell expansion, which is abrogated by their selective blockade. IL30 gene deleted CR-CSCs displayed reduced tumorigenicity and gave rise to slow-growing and low metastatic tumors in 80% of mice, which survived much longer than controls. Bioinformatics and CIBERSORTx of the 'Colorectal Adenocarcinoma TCGA Nature 2012' collection, and morphometric assessment of IL30 expression in clinical CRC samples revealed that the lack of IL30 in CRC and infiltrating leucocytes correlates with prolonged overall survival.

CONCLUSIONS

IL30 is a new CRC driver, since its inactivation, which disables oncogenic pathways and multiple autocrine loops, inhibits CR-CSC tumorigenicity and metastatic ability. The development of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeting of IL30 could improve the current therapeutic landscape of CRC.