Hexane fraction of Zingiberis Rhizoma Crudus extract inhibits the production of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells via the NF-kappaB pathway

Conversion of gingerols to shogaols in ginger (Zingiber officinale roscoe) by puffing

Effect of puffing on conversion of gingerols to shogaols, physicochemical properties as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of puffed ginger was investigated. Puffing significantly increased extraction yield and the highest value was 12.52% at 980 kPa. The significant decrease in gingerols and increase in shogaols were occurred after puffing, respectively. Especially, 6-shogaol was dramatically increased from 4.84 to 99.10 mg/g dried ginger. Puffed ginger exhibited the higher antioxidant activities (analyzed by DPPH, ABTS, TPC, and TFC) than those of control, and they were significantly increased with increasing puffing pressure. In case of anti-inflammatory activity, puffed ginger did not inhibit NO production, but significantly inhibited TNF-α and IL-6 productions. Among gingerols and shogaols, 6-shogaol showed significantly strong correlations with both antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Consequently, puffed ginger can be applied to functional food industry, which dramatically increased the contents of 6, 8, 10-shogaols, the main bioactive compounds in ginger.

Long COVID-19 gastrointestinal related disorders and traditional Chinese medicine: A network target-based approach

The significant number of individuals impacted by the pandemic makes prolonged symptoms after COVID-19 a matter of considerable concern. These are numerous and affect multiple organ systems. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), prolonged gastrointestinal issues are a crucial part of post-COVID-19 syndrome. The resulting disruption of homeostasis underscores the need for a therapeutic approach based on compounds that can simultaneously affect more than one target/node. The present review aimed to check for nutraceuticals possessing multiple molecular mechanisms helpful in relieving Long COVID-19-specific gastrointestinal symptoms. Specific plants used in Keywords Chinese Medicine (TCM) expected to be included in the WHO Global Medical Compendium were selected based on the following criteria: (1) they are widely used in the Western world as natural remedies and complementary medicine adjuvants; (2) their import and trade are regulated by specific laws that ensure quality and safety (3) have the potential to be beneficial in alleviating intestinal issues associated with Long COVID-19. Searches were performed in PubMed, Elsevier, Google Scholar, Scopus, Science Direct, and ResearchGate up to 2023. Cinnamomum cassia, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Magnolia officinalis, Poria cocos, Salvia miltiorrhiza, Scutellaria baicalensis, and Zingiber officinalis were identified as the most promising for their potential impact on inflammation and oxidative stress. Based on the molecular mechanisms of the phytocomplexes and isolated compounds of the considered plants, their clinical use may lead to benefits in gastrointestinal diseases associated with Long COVID-19, thanks to a multiorgan and multitarget approach.

Therapeutic effects and mechanisms of action of ginger and its bioactive components on inflammatory response, oxidative stress, the immune system, and organ failure in sepsis: a comprehensive systematic review

CONTEXT

Sepsis refers to a usually lethal medical condition that results from an extreme, uncontrolled, and multifaceted immune system response to infection. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe; Zingiberaceae) is 1 of the most popular spice. It is widely used as a traditional herb and as medicine in the treatment of some inflammatory conditions, such as vomiting, pain, cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, because of its varied medical characteristics, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antitumor effects.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to demonstrate the potential roles of ginger and its elements in sepsis.

DATA SOURCES

This systematic review article was conducted and reported by following the guideline of the Preferred Reporting for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA). Electronic databases, including Web of Sciences, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and ProQuest, were searched using related key words up to January 2023.

DATA EXTRACTION

Among 141 found articles, 48 eligible articles were included and reviewed for their details. Data were extracted, including the first author's name, year of publication, name of origin country, study design, number and type of subject, dosage and type of intervention, study duration, assay, and main results.

DATA ANALYSIS

The data from the included articles showed that ginger and its bioactive elements, such as gingerol (1-300 µg/mL or 1-100 mg/kg for 24 hours to 14 days), shogaol (0.2-100 µg/mL or 10-40 mg/kg body weight for 24 hours to 8 days), gingerdione (1-100 µg/mL for 20-48 hours), and zingerone (2-20 µM for 4 hours to 8 days), can be effective in sepsis via suppressing the gene expression and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidant agents, downregulating immune response, and protecting against sepsis-induced organ failures in experimental and animal models.

CONCLUSION

Ginger has potential therapeutic effects in sepsis. Human clinical trials are recommended.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration no. CRD42023373613.

Antimicrobial potential of extracts from leaves and culms of an Amazonian native bamboo

Antibiotics have shown less efficiency against resistance of pathogenic microorganisms. As a result, research centers have sought therapeutic alternatives against multidrug resistance of bacteria to antibiotics, one of which is using plant extracts. Bamboo extracts are used for several medicinal purposes. This study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial potential of hydroalcoholic extracts of culms and leaves of the species Guadua aff. lynnclarkiae on strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. We evaluated the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). Only the leaves of G. aff. lynnclarkiae showed a bactericidal effect for all tested strains with MBC ranging from 1.55 mg ml-1 to 25 mg ml-1. The culms had bacteriostatic action with MIC ranging from 1.55 mg ml-1 to 6.25 mg ml-1, and bactericidal action at the concentration of 6.25 mg ml-1 only for S. aureus. This study provides bases for the use of this Amazonian native bamboo in bioprospecting.

The Effects of Ginger (Zingiber Officinale Roscoe) on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Double-Blinded Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a prominent etiological factor for liver cirrhosis worldwide. It is frequently associated with obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and hypertension. The objective of this study is to assess the efficacy and safety of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) supplementation in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) who have NAFLD. In a two-arm, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, seventy-six patients diagnosed with both T2DM and NAFLD were randomly assigned to receive either ginger powder capsules (1000 mg, twice daily) or placebo capsules (administered in the same manner) for a period of three months. Anthropometric measurements, blood pressure readings, biochemical profiles, and imaging parameters were assessed before and after the intervention. Safety measures were also evaluated. In both the ginger and placebo groups, there was a significant reduction in mean body mass index (BMI), waist and hip circumferences, as well as liver transaminase levels. Moreover, significant improvements in mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures were observed in the ginger group (p = 0.02 and < 0.0001, respectively). Within the ginger group, there was a decrease in serum insulin levels and insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (p = 0.002 and 0.004, respectively). Furthermore, the ginger group exhibited an improvement in serum HDL-cholesterol level (p = 0.01). However, there were no significant changes in the assessed inflammatory markers or the indices obtained from fibroscan imaging, including steatosis percent and controlled attenuation parameter. This study demonstrates that ginger supplementation can significantly improve mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures. However, it does not have a significant impact on inflammatory markers or fibroscan imaging indices. Nonetheless, the three-month use of ginger improves serum insulin level, insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and HDL-cholesterol level compared to baseline values. Further investigations with longer durations and larger sample sizes are recommended.

A review on plant-based remedies for the treatment of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex autoimmune disease of central nervous system, which is degenerative in nature usually appears between 20-40years of age. The exact cause of MS is still not clearly known. Loss of myelin sheath and axonal damage are the main features of MS that causes induction of inflammatory process and blocks free conduction of impulses. Till date FDA has approved 18 drugs to treat or modify MS symptoms. These medicines are disease-modifying in nature directed to prevent relapses or slow down the progression of disease. The use of the synthetic drug over an extended period causes undesirable effects that prompt us to look at Mother Nature. Complementary and alternative medicine involves the use of medicinal plants as an alternative to the existing modern medical treatment. However, modern drugs cannot be replaced completely with medicinal plants, but the two types of drugs can be used harmoniously with later one can be added as an adjuvant to the existing treatment. These medicinal plants have the potential to prevent progression and improve the symptoms of MS. Various plants such like Nigella sativa, ginger, saffron, pomegranate, curcumin, resveratrol, ginsenoside have been tested as therapeutics for many neurodegenerative diseases. The purpose of this write-up is to make information available about medicinal plants in their potential to treat or modify the symptoms of MS. Chronically ill patients tend to seek medicinal plants as they are easily available and there is a general perception about these medicines of having fewer undesirable effects.

Anti-Inflammatory Study and Phytochemical Characterization of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Citrus limon L. Juices and Their Formulation

Zingiber officinale and Citrus limon, well known as ginger and lemon, are two vegetals widely used in traditional medicine and the culinary field. The juices of the two vegetals were evaluated based on their inflammation, both in vivo and in vitro. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to characterize different juices from Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Citrus limon. After the application of the HPLC method, different compounds were identified, such as 6-gingerol and 6-gingediol from the ginger juice and isorhamnetin and hesperidin from the lemon juice. In addition, the two juices and their formulation were assessed for their anti-inflammatory activity, in vitro by utilizing the BSA denaturation test, in vivo using the carrageenan-induced inflammation test, and the vascular permeability test. Important and statistically significant anti-inflammatory activities were observed for all juices, especially the formulation. The results of our work showed clearly that the Zingiber officinale and Citrus limon juices protect in vivo the development of the rat paw edema, especially the formulation F composed of the Zingiber officinale and Citrus limon juices, which shows an anti-inflammatory activity equal to -35.95% and -44.05% using 10 and 20 mg/kg of the dose, respectively. Our work also showed that the formulation was the most effective tested extract since it inhibits the vascular permeability by -37% and -44% at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, respectively, and in vitro via the inhibition of the denaturation of BSA by giving a synergetic effect with the highest IC50 equal to 684.61 ± 7.62 μg/mL corresponding to the formulation F. This work aims to develop nutraceutical preparations in the future and furnishes the support for a new investigation into the activities of the various compounds found in Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Citrus limon.

Green synthesis and characterization of zirconium nanoparticlefor dental implant applications

Green synthesis is a promising and cost-effective technique to synthesize nanoparticles from plant extract. The present study shows the green synthesis of zirconium nanoparticles using the extract of ginger, garlic, and zirconium nitride. The obtained nanoparticles were studied for potential dental implant applications. The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX), X-Ray diffraction analysis (XRD), and antibacterial analysis. FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of various organic compounds in the synthesized nanoparticles. The synthesized nanoparticles were spherical, triangular, and irregular, with varying sizes confirmed by FESEM analysis. The nanoparticles synthesized from the combination of garlic and ginger, and zirconium exhibited potent antibacterial activity against S. aureus. Anti-biofilm, anti-microbial activity, biointegration formation, and cell mechanism survival are also mentioned. Thus, the synthesized nanoparticles can be a good candidate for a dental implant because of their excellent antimicrobial properties.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Gyeji-tang in a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease mouse model induced by cigarette smoke and lipopolysaccharide

CONTEXT

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease associated with respiratory symptoms and narrowing of airways. Gyeji-tang (GJT) is a traditional Asian medicine that has been used to relieve early-stage cold symptoms, headache, and chills.

OBJECTIVE

We examined the effect and potential molecular action mechanism of GJT in a mouse model of COPD induced by cigarette smoke (CS) plus lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

COPD was induced in C57BL/6J mice via daily exposure to CS for 1 h for 8 weeks and intranasal administration of LPS on weeks 1, 3, 5, and 7. GJT (100 or 200 mg/kg) or roflumilast (5 mg/kg) was administrated daily for the final 4 weeks of COPD induction.

RESULTS

Administration of GJT significantly suppressed the CS/LPS-induced increases in: the numbers of total cells and macrophages in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid; the expression levels of tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and IL-8; the activities (phosphorylation) of nuclear factor kappa B and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; and the expression levels of the structural remodelling markers, transforming growth factor beta, matrix metallopeptidase (MMP)-7, and MMP-9.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that GJT prevents the lung inflammation and airway remodelling induced by CS plus LPS exposure in mice, suggesting that GJT may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of COPD.

Ginger Could Improve Gestational Diabetes by Targeting Genes Involved in Nutrient Metabolism, Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and the WNT/β-Catenin/GSK3β Signaling Pathway

This study aimed to evaluate the effect in female rats of 6 weeks of ginger consumption on gestational diabetes by assessing glucose and lipid metabolism, oxidative damage, inflammation, and the WNT/β-catenin/glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK3β) signaling pathway. In this study, 40 adult female rats were divided into 4 equal groups as follows: pregnant rats, pregnant rats with diabetes, pregnant rats consuming ginger, and pregnant rats with diabetes consuming ginger. Induction of diabetes on day 0 of pregnancy was induced by streptozotocin (STZ) injection. Insulin, glucose, and lipid profiles as metabolic factors were measured along with the hepatic expression of glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4), mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORc1), sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPAR-α), β-catenin, GSK3β, PPAR-g, nuclear factor-κB (NF-kB), and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). The levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and oxidative parameters were measured in the liver. The level of metabolic factors was significantly impaired in diabetic pregnant rats compared to the control group. However, ginger improved these parameters in the diabetic pregnant—ginger group compared to the diabetic pregnant group. The hepatic expression of genes involved in metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammation, and the wingless and int-1 (WNT) signaling pathway was significantly impaired in diabetic pregnant rats, while ginger improved them in the hepatic tissue of diabetic pregnant rats. It can be concluded that ginger could improve gestational diabetes by genes involved in metabolism, the WNT signaling pathway, oxidative stress, and inflammation. These results suggest that ginger can be an adjunct drug during pregnancy as a metabolic modulator.

Plant Bioactives in the Treatment of Inflammation of Skeletal Muscles: A Molecular Perspective

Skeletal muscle mass responds rapidly to growth stimuli, precipitating hypertrophies (increased protein synthesis) and hyperplasia (activation of the myogenic program). For ages, muscle degeneration has been attributed to changes in the intracellular myofiber pathways. These pathways are tightly regulated by hormones and lymphokines that ultimately pave the way to decreased anabolism and accelerated protein breakdown. Despite the lacunae in our understanding of specific pathways, growing bodies of evidence suggest that the changes in the myogenic/regenerative program are the major contributing factor in the development and progression of muscle wasting. In addition, inflammation plays a key role in the pathophysiology of diseases linked to the failure of skeletal muscles. Chronic inflammation with elevated levels of inflammatory mediators has been observed in a spectrum of diseases, such as inflammatory myopathies and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Although the pathophysiology of these diseases varies greatly, they all demonstrate sarcopenia and dysregulated skeletal muscle physiology as common symptoms. Medicinal plants harbor potential novel chemical moieties for a plenitude of illnesses, and inflammation is no exception. However, despite the vast number of potential antiinflammatory compounds found in plant extracts and isolated components, the research on medicinal plants is highly daunting. This review aims to explore the various phytoconstituents employed in the treatment of inflammatory responses in skeletal muscles, while providing an in-depth molecular insight into the latter.

LOW PREVALENCE OF COVID-19 IN LAOS AND CAMBODIA: DOES DIET PLAY A ROLE?

The study aims to review the involvement of different dietary habits in Laotian, Cambodian, and Vietnamese populations in reducing COVID19 impact. Materials and Methods. The methods of collection, systematization, analysis and generalization of information data have been used. The analysis of literature in scientific databases and analytical platforms by the listed keywords has been performed; all relevant references in the found sources have also been reviewed. Results and Discussion. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak is an ongoing pandemic caused by a highly pathogenic human coronavirus known as SARS-CoV2. Current epidemiology reported that more than 500 million cases of COVID-19 occurred in more than 180 countries worldwide. When the upper respiratory tract gets infected by low pathogenetic HCoVs, it typically triggers a mild respiratory disease. In contrast, when the lower airways get infected by highly pathogenic HCoVs, such as SARS-CoV2, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) may occur and even fatal pneumonia. Such a situation causes the need for an urgent search of effective treatment measures. A very low incidence of SARS-CoV-2 in Laos and Cambodia, as well as low mortality rate due to COVID-19 in Vietnam and Laos, are extremely interesting, especially because of their early exposure to the virus, continuing ties to China, relative poverty, and high population density. The use of several spices and aromatic herbs as natural treatments for several illnesses, including viral infections, has been reported since a long time ago. The research reviewed three integral elements of Laotian, Cambodian, and Vietnamese diets, such as special culinary spices and herbs, coconut oil, and palm oil-rich for saturated fatty acids as well as fermented shrimp paste. Environmental and population genetic causes may be forwarded but moreover local dietary habits may have even a role in this evidence. Therefore, all these items highlight the possibility of a significant contribution of local cuisine and diet into the impact on appropriate anti-inflammatory and immune-resistant mechanisms of the human population. Conclusions. The review on Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos inhabitants' diet helped to suggest the dietary factors having the contributing potential of reducing the severity of SARS-CoV-2 symptoms.

Dietary supplementation of gingerols- and shogaols-enriched ginger root extract attenuate pain-associated behaviors while modulating gut microbiota and metabolites in rats with spinal nerve ligation

Neuroinflammation is a central factor in neuropathic pain (NP). Ginger is a promising bioactive compound in NP management due to its anti-inflammatory property. Emerging evidence suggests that gut microbiome and gut-derived metabolites play a key role in NP. We evaluated the effects of two ginger root extracts rich in gingerols (GEG) and shogaols (SEG) on pain sensitivity, anxiety-like behaviors, circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA (ccf-mtDNA), gut microbiome composition, and fecal metabolites in rats with NP. Sixteen male rats were divided into four groups: sham, spinal nerve ligation (SNL), SNL+0.75%GEG in diet, and SNL+0.75%SEG in diet groups for 30 days. Compared to SNL group, both SNL+GEG and SNL+SEG groups showed a significant reduction in pain- and anxiety-like behaviors, and ccf-mtDNA level. Relative to the SNL group, both SNL+GEG and SNL+SEG groups increased the relative abundance of Lactococcus, Sellimonas, Blautia, Erysipelatoclostridiaceae, and Anaerovoracaceae, but decreased that of Prevotellaceae UCG-001, Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group, Mucispirillum and Desulfovibrio, Desulfovibrio, Anaerofilum, Eubacterium siraeum group, RF39, UCG-005, Lachnospiraceae NK4A136 group, Acetatifactor, Eubacterium ruminantium group, Clostridia UCG-014, and an uncultured Anaerovoracaceae. GEG and SEG had differential effects on gut-derived metabolites. Compared to SNL group, SNL+GEG group had higher level of 1'-acetoxychavicol acetate, (4E)-1,7-Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one, NP-000629, 7,8-Dimethoxy-3-(2-methyl-3-buten-2-yl)-2H-chromen-2-one, 3-{[4-(2-Pyrimidinyl)piperazino]carbonyl}-2-pyrazinecarboxylic acid, 920863, and (1R,3R,7R,13S)-13-Methyl-6-methylene-4,14,16-trioxatetracyclo[11.2.1.0∼1,10∼.0∼3,7∼]hexadec-9-en-5-one, while SNL+SEG group had higher level for (±)-5-[(tert-Butylamino)-2'-hydroxypropoxy]-1_2_3_4-tetrahydro-1-naphthol and dehydroepiandrosteronesulfate. In conclusion, ginger is a promising functional food in the management of NP, and further investigations are necessary to assess the role of ginger on gut-brain axis in pain management.

The effects of the ginger supplements on inflammatory parameters in type 2 diabetes patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

OBJECTIVES

The effect of ginger supplements on inflammatory biomarkers and oxidative stress in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) has been investigated, but findings are inconsistent. This systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to determine the effects of ginger supplementation on inflammatory parameters (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein [hs-CRP], tumour necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α], and interleukin-6 [IL-6]) in patients with T2DM.

METHODS

We performed a systematic search using PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Web of Science for randomised controlled trials (RCTs), published until March 17, 2021. The quality assessment was carried out using the Cochrane Collaboration risk of bias tool. The Q-test and I 2 tests were used for the determination of heterogeneity of the included studies. Data were pooled using a random-effects model, and weighted mean difference (WMD) was used for the overall effect size.

RESULTS

Pooled findings of the five RCTs demonstrated that ginger supplementations had significantly reduced hs-CRP (WMD -0.42 mg/L; 95% CI, -0.78, -0.05, P = 0.03), TNF-α (-2.13 pg/mL; 95% CI: -3.41, -0.86, P = 0.001), and IL-6 (WMD: -0.61 pg/mL; 95% CI: -0.92, -0.30, P = 0.001) levels in patients with T2DM. The quality assessment of the studies showed that all of the included studies were at high risk of bias.

CONCLUSIONS

The meta-analysis shows that ginger supplementations reduced inflammatory parameters in patients with T2DM. Nonetheless, the reduction is relatively small, and its meaningful clinical effects are unknown. Future high-quality RCTs are needed to confirm the beneficial effects of ginger supplementation in patients with T2DM.

Anti-inflammatory effects of three withanolides isolated from Physalis angulata L. in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells through blocking NF-κB signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Physalis angulata L. is commonly used in many countries as popular medicine for the treatment of a variety of diseases such as malaria, hepatitis, dermatitis and rheumatism. But the anti-inflammatory active constituents of this medicinal plant and their molecular mechanism are still not elucidated clearly.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to isolate and identify a series of compounds from the ethanolic extract of Physalis angulata L., and to investigate the anti-inflammatory activities in vitro and the molecular mechanism of physagulin A, physagulin C, and physagulin H.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to further understand the anti-inflammatory mechanism of the three compounds, their potential anti-inflammatory activities were investigated in vitro in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells by Griess assay, ELISA, Western blot and immunofluorescence methods in the present study.

RESULTS

Physagulin A, physagulin C, and physagulin H could not only inhibit the release of NO, PGE₂, IL-6 and TNF-α, but also could down-regulate the expression of iNOS and COX-2 proteins. Furthermore, physagulin A, physagulin C, and physagulin H could remarkably block the degradation of IκB-α and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB/p65 in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells. However, none of them could inhibit the phosphorylation of MAPKs family proteins ERK, JNK and p38. Thus, the anti-inflammatory actions of physagulin A, physagulin C, and physagulin H were mainly due to the significant inhibition of NF-κB signaling pathway rather than MAPKs signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

All the results clearly showed that physagulin A, physagulin C, and physagulin H demonstrated potent anti-inflammatory activity and can be used as novel NF-κB inhibitors. They are potential to be developed as an alternative or complementary agents for inflammatory diseases.

Attenuation of Spatial Memory in 5xFAD Mice by Halting Cholinesterases, Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation Using a Cyclopentanone Derivative

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible and chronic neurological disorder that gradually destroys memory and thinking skills. The research study was designed to investigate the underlying molecular signaling involved in the neuroprotective effects of cyclopentanone derivative i.e., 2-(hydroxyl-(3-nitrophenyl)methyl)cyclopentanone (3NCP) as a therapeutic agent for AD. In this study, In vivo studies were carried out on a well-known 5xFAD mice model using different behavioural test models such as open field, rotarod, Morris water maze (MWM), and Y-maze tests. Furthermore, in vitro cholinesterase inhibition activity assays were carried out. The frontal cortex (FC) and hippocampus (HC) homogenates were tested for the levels/activities of cholinesterases, glutathione (GSH), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and catalase. Furthermore, the hippocampal expression of inflammatory cytokines was observed via RT-PCR and western blot. The results of in vivo studies show an enhancement in the learning behavior. The 3NCP treatment reduced latency time in MWM and Y-maze tests, also increase spontaneous alternation indicate significant effect of 3NCP on memory. Furthermore, open field and rotarod studies revealed that 3NCP does not cause motor coordination deficit. The results of the in vitro studies revealed that the IC50 values of the 3NCP against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) were 16.17 and 20.51 µg/mL, respectively. This decline in AChE and BChE was further supported by ex vivo studies. Further, the 3NCP mitigates the GSH level, GST, and catalase activities in HC and FC. The mRNA and protein expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) markedly declined in RT-PCR and western blotting. The results of the current study conclusively demonstrate that 3NCP reduces oxidative stress and mitigates neuroinflammation in 5xFAD mice, implying that 3NCP may be a potential therapeutic candidate for AD treatment in the future.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Li-Zhong-Tang accelerates the healing of indomethacin-induced gastric ulcers in rats by affecting TLR-2/MyD88 signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Li-Zhong-Tang (LZT) is a well-known Chinese herbal formulation first described in one of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) scriptures, Treatise on Febrile Diseases. LZT has been commonly prescribed for the treatment of various gastrointestinal diseases for over 1800 years, and has demonstrated pronounced therapeutic effects on patients with gastric ulcers.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to scientifically evaluate protective effects of LZT on indomethacin (IND)-induced gastric injury in rats and to elucidate whether LZT exerts its gastro-protective effects via enhancing mucosal immunity by regulating TLR-2/MyD88 signaling pathway.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Gastric ulcers were induced in male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats with a single oral dose of 150 mg/kg IND. Ulcer index (UI) and curative index (CI) were evaluated. Histopathological examinations were performed and microscopic score (MS) was macroscopically calculated. The volume of gastric juice, free acidity, total acidity, and gastric pH was measured. The gastroprotective and inflammatory biomarkers including levels of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined. Expression levels of TLR-2 and MyD88 mRNA were assessed by qRT-PCR. The expression, distribution, and co-localization of TLR-2 and MyD88 protein were determined by Western blot, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence, respectively.

RESULTS

Induction of gastric ulcers in rats resulted in very significantly increased UI and elevated volume and acidity of gastric juice, which were markedly attenuated by LZT treatment. Microscopic examinations of the IND-induced gastric ulcers revealed severe gastric hemorrhagic necrosis, submucosal edema, and destruction of epithelial cells, which were significantly attenuated in LZT-treated rats. Moreover, treatment with LZT remarkably increased gastric mucosal levels of PGE₂ and NO, and lowered highly elevated levels of TNF-α and MDA in gastric ulcerative rats. Mechanistically, LZT inhibited mRNA and protein expression of TLR-2 and MyD88 and enhanced immune function in gastric mucosa. Immunohistochemical analyses and immunofluorescent detection further confirmed a markedly decreased co-localization of TLR-2 and MyD88 protein in the gastric mucosa of LZT-treated rats as compared to that of gastric ulcerative rats.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that LZT alleviates serious gastric mucosal ulcerations induced by IND. Protective effects of LZT on gastric ulcers are believed to be associated with the intensification of the anti-oxidative defense system, mitigation of proinflammatory cytokines, stimulation of the production of cytoprotective mediators, and improvement of the mucosal immunity through TLR-2/MyD88 signaling pathway.

Polyphenols by Generating H2O2, Affect Cell Redox Signaling, Inhibit PTPs and Activate Nrf2 Axis for Adaptation and Cell Surviving: In Vitro, In Vivo and Human Health

Human health benefits from different polyphenols molecules consumption in the diet, derived mainly by their common activities in the gastrointestinal tract and at the level of blood micro-capillary. In the stomach, intestine and colon, polyphenols act as reducing agents preventing lipid peroxidation, generation and absorption of AGEs/ALEs (advanced glycation end products/advanced lipid oxidation end products) and postprandial oxidative stress. The low absorption of polyphenols in blood does not support their activity as antioxidants and their mechanism of activity is not fully understood. The results are from in vitro, animal and human studies, detected by relevant oxidative stress markers. The review carries evidences that polyphenols, by generating H₂O₂ at nM concentration, exogenous to cells and organs, act as activators of signaling factors increasing cell Eustress. When polyphenols attain high concentration in the blood system, they generate H₂O₂ at µM concentration, acting as cytotoxic agents and Distress. Pre-treatment of cells or organisms with polyphenols, by generating H₂O₂ at low levels, inhibits cellular PTPs (protein tyrosine phosphatases), inducing cell signaling through transcription of the Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) axis of adaptation and protection to oxidation stress. Polyphenols ingestion at the right amount and time during the meal acts synergistically at the level of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and blood system, for keeping the redox homeostasis in our organism and better balancing human health.

Antiulcerogenic Activity of Li-Zhong Decoction on Duodenal Ulcers Induced by Indomethacin in Rats: Involvement of TLR-2/MyD88 Signaling Pathway

Background

Administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) often causes small intestinal ulcers in patients, but few effective drugs are currently available to manage such serious adverse events of NSAIDs. Li-Zhong decoction (LZD), a well-known traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, is commonly prescribed for treatment of gastrointestinal diseases. The present study aimed to investigate the anti-ulcerogenic activity of LZD on indomethacin- (IND-) induced duodenal ulcer in rats. Mechanistic studies of action of LZD were focused on involvement of TLR-2/MyD88 signaling pathway.

Methods

Fifty male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly and evenly divided into five groups: normal control, ulcer control (IND, 25 mg/kg), IND + esomeprazole (ESO, 4.17 mg/kg), and IND + low and high doses of LZD (3.75 and 7.50 g/kg). Macroscopic and histopathological examinations were performed for evaluation of ulcer index (UI), curative index (CI), and microscopic score (MS). Levels of duodenal inflammatory biomarkers and cytoprotective mediators including interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α (TNF-

Results

Gross and microscopic examinations of the IND-treated rats revealed severe duodenal hemorrhagic necrosis, inflammatory infiltration, villus destruction, and crypt abscess, while LZD-treated rats manifested these pathological events to a markedly lesser degree. LZD significantly decreased UI and MS, increased CI, preserved the integrity of the villus and crypt, and normalized the tissue architecture of the duodenum of rats. The elevated TNF-α (TNF-

Conclusions

Our data demonstrate that LZD protects the duodenal mucosa from IND-caused lesions, which is at least partially attributable to the interaction of its potential cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory mechanisms together with enhancement of the mucosal immunity through TLR-2/MyD88 signaling pathway.

(3R, 7R)-7-Acetoxyl-9-Oxo-de-O-Methyllasiodiplodin, a Secondary Metabolite of Penicillium Sp., Inhibits LPS-Mediated Inflammation in RAW 264.7 Macrophages through Blocking ERK/MAPKs and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Twelve polyketones were isolated from the fermentation broth of Penicillium sp., including six new compounds (supplementary material). Penicillium sp. is widely used in clinic as a highly effective and low toxic antibiotic. Among these compounds, (3R, 7R)-7-acetoxyl-9-oxo-de-O-methyllasiodiplodin named PS-2 showed significant anti-inflammatory activity. So, the anti-inflammatory mechanism of PS-2 was investigated by using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The results showed that PS-2 can significantly inhibit the overproduction of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), whereas it showed no inhibition on the release of pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Cell-free colorimetric method demonstrated that PS-2 could obviously inhibit the enzymatic activity of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Western blot results indicated that PS-2 could significantly inhibit high expression of iNOS and COX-2 proteins. Further investigations on the anti-inflammatory mechanism showed that PS-2 could suppress the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), but did not exhibit obvious inhibition on the phosphorylation of c-JunN-terminal kinase (JNK) and phosphorylated 38 (p38). In addition, PS-2 inhibited the degradation of inhibitor of kappa-B alpha (IκB-α) and translocation to nucleus of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) p65 in RAW 264.7 macrophages. These results suggested that PS-2 might be an effective intervention against inflammatory diseases.

6-Shogaol protects against ischemic acute kidney injury by modulating NF-κB and heme oxygenase-1 pathways

Acute kidney injury (AKI) due to renal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a major clinical problem without effective therapy. Ginger is one of the most widely consumed spices in the world, and 6-shogaol, a major ginger metabolite, has anti-inflammatory effects in neuronal and epithelial cells. Here, we demonstrate our novel findings that 6-shogaol treatment protected against renal I/R injury with decreased plasma creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, and kidney neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin mRNA synthesis compared with vehicle-treated mice subjected to renal I/R. Additionally, 6-shogaol treatment reduced kidney inflammation (decreased proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine synthesis as well as neutrophil infiltration) and apoptosis (decreased TUNEL-positive renal tubular cells) compared with vehicle-treated mice subjected to renal I/R. In cultured human and mouse kidney proximal tubule cells, 6-shogaol significantly attenuated TNF-α-induced inflammatory cytokine and chemokine mRNA synthesis. Mechanistically, 6-shogaol significantly attenuated TNF-α-induced NF-κB activation in human renal proximal tubule cells by reducing IKKαβ/IκBα phosphorylation. Furthermore, 6-shogaol induced a cytoprotective chaperone heme oxygenase (HO)-1 via p38 MAPK activation in vitro and in vivo. Consistent with these findings, pretreatment with the HO-1 inhibitor zinc protoporphyrin IX completely prevented 6-shogaol-mediated protection against ischemic AKI in mice. Taken together, our study showed that 6-shogaol protects against ischemic AKI by attenuating NF-κB activation and inducing HO-1 expression. 6-Shogaol may provide a potential therapy for ischemic AKI during the perioperative period.

Ginger: Panacea or Consumer’s Hype?

Ginger in its many forms, from juices of the fresh rhizome, to ginger powder and ginger essential oil, is growing in popularity for claimed universal health benefits. Nevertheless, and contrarily to the common notion of the public, ginger is not devoid of side effects, especially interactions with other drugs, and many of the claimed benefits remain to be substantiated. This work presents a comprehensive revision of the current state of the art on ginger pharmacokinetics and bioavailability, interaction with active pharmaceutical ingredients, raising awareness of the risks of uncontrolled ginger consumption. A second section of the work described the verified actions of various extracts of ginger, or of their main active ingredients, gingerols, based mainly on data obtained from controlled clinical trials. Finally, the last section is devoted to innovative technological solutions to improve the bioavailability of gingerols and ginger extracts that are expected to ultimately lead to the development of more consumer-compliant products.

The effect of an oral ginger supplementation on NF-κB concentration in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and anthropomorphic data of patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

INTRODUCTION

The complications of diabetes are extensive which can be caused by excessive oxidative stress, inflammation and impaired insulin system. Plant-sourced bioactive compounds can reduce inflammation and oxidative stress. The aim of present study was to determine the effect of ginger supplementation on diabetic complications.

METHODS

The present study is a randomized double blind clinical trial which is conducted with 48 diabetic patients. The participants were randomly divided into two intervention and placebo groups which were received 2 g ginger powder and 2 g wheat flour respectively for 10 weeks. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) concentration and anthropometric measurements were evaluated at the baseline and at the end of study.

RESULTS

The effect of ginger supplementation on hip circumference was marginal and there was no significant effect on BMI and waist circumference. Mean NF-κB p65 concentrations were reduced in ginger supplementation group, however, the amount was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

Ginger supplementation had significant effects on anthropometric evaluations. Ginger supplementation decreased mean NF-κB concentration in comparison with placebo, however the significance level was marginal. In order to achieve reliable information, more researches should be complemented with uptake of other diagnostic tools.

Lanthanum chloride induces neuron damage by activating the nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway in activated microglia

Lanthanum is a rare earth element which can have adverse effects on the central nervous system (CNS).

Anti-inflammatory abietanes diterpenoids isolated from Tripterygium hypoglaucum

Tripterygium hypoglaucum (H. Lév.) Hutch. has been used to remedy rheumatoid arthritis, however, it shows frequent toxicity to the body. In this study, liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometer (LC-MS) was guided to characterize abietanes diterpenoids with anti-inflammatory activity from the stem of T. hypoglaucum. Thirteen undescribed abietanes diterpenoids were isolated and purified, and their chemical structure was identified using various spectroscopic methods. These compounds belonged to abietanes with splitting C ring, abietanes with benzenoid rings, diterpene quinoids, diterpene quinoids with lactone rings, and abietanes with benzenoid and lactone rings, respectively. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in RAW264.7 macrophages was used to evaluate anti-inflammatory activity of the compounds. The results indicated that hypoglicin B-G and hypoglicin J-M exhibited inhibitory activity of NO production with the IC₅₀ values of 6.01, 25.21, 8.29, 3.63, 0.72, 0.89, 36.91, 0.82, 2.85, 11.92 μM, respectively. Among these compounds, compound hypoglicin L showed high anti-inflammatory activity and low toxicity (SI = 5.02 × 10⁴). Further QPCR analysis revealed that hypoglicin D and hypoglicin L can inhibit the mRNA expression of iNOS in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells at doses of 12.5 and 3.13 μM, respectively. Taken together, ten anti-inflammatory diterpenoids were found from T. hypoglaucum in this study.

Spices: Potential Therapeutics for Alzheimer's Disease

India has traditionally been known to all over the world for spices and medicinal plants. Spices exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities. In contemporary, Indian spices are used to rustle up delicious delicacies. However, the Indian spices are more than just adjuvant which adds aroma and fragrance to foods. A few spices are very widely used and grown commercially in many countries, contain many important chemical constituents in the form of essential oil, oleoresin, oleogum, and resins, which impart flavor, pungency, and color to the prepared dishes, simultaneously exerts diverse therapeutic benefits. Ayurveda, the traditional systems of medicine in India has many evidences for the utilization of spices to cure various diseases. Some of the activities have been scientifically proven. Among various indications central nervous system disorders are of prime importance and it has been evident in traditional books and published reports that spices in fact protect and cure neuronal ailments. Likewise there are many spices found in India used for culinary purpose and have been found to have reported specific activities against brain disorders. About 400 B.C., Hippocrates rightly said "Let food be thy medicine and medicine thy food." This review focuses on the importance of spices in therapeutics and the till date scientific findings of Indian spices in CNS pharmacology and explores the potential of Indian spices to cure CNS disorders.

Ginger rhizome enhances the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of paracetamol in an experimental mouse model of fibromyalgia

BACKGROUND

The dried rhizome of ginger has been widely used for more than 2500 years in folk medicine for the treatment of various diseases that involve inflammation or are caused by oxidative stress.

AIMS

This study was designed to compare the anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effect of dried powdered ginger rhizome (GR) and paracetamol (APAP) on an experimental mouse model of fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) induced by intermittent cold stress (ICS).

METHODS

Forty-eight female C57BL/6 J mice were used for the experiments. The animals were allocated in six groups (n = 8). Each group received one of the following treatments for 8 weeks: healthy control, ICS group, ICS + APAP (40 mg/Kg/day), ICS + GR (0.5%); ICS + GR (1%), and ICS + GR (0.5%) + APAP (40 mg/Kg/day). After treatment, symptoms of FMS were induced by intermittent cold stress (ICS).

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

GR consumption improved mechanical and thermal allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia and improved behavioural changes related to cognitive disturbances, anxiety, and depression. In addition, GR also significantly decreased the inflammatory response of proinflammatory mediators such as NO, PGE2, TXB2, and IL-1β in LPS-stimulated macrophages. The effects of APAP were significantly enhanced by co-administration with GR. These findings provide evidence that the daily consumption of GR enhances the anti-nociceptive effect of APAP in mice, improves other cognitive disturbances associated with chronic pain, and reduces the inflammatory state generated in an experimental FMS model.

Cellular phenotypes as inflammatory mediators in Parkinson's disease: Interventional targets and role of natural products

Pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) is undoubtedly a multifactorial phenomenon, with diverse etiological agents. Pro-inflammatory mediators act as a skew that directs disease progression during neurodegenerative diseases. Understanding the dynamics of inflammation and inflammatory mediators in preventing or reducing disease progression has recently gained much attention. Inflammatory neuro-degeneration is regulated via cytokines, chemokines, lipid mediators and immune cell subsets; however, individual cellular phenotypes in the Central Nervous System (CNS) acts in diverse ways whose persistent activation leads to unresolving inflammation often causing unfavorable outcomes in neurodegenerative disease like PD. Specifically, activation of cellular phenotypes like astrocytes, microglia, activation of peripheral immune cells requires different activation signals and agents like (cytokines, misfolded protein aggregates, infectious agents, pesticides like organophosphates, etc.,). However, what is unknown is how the different cellular phenotypes respond uniquely and the role of the factors they secrete alters the signal cascades in the complex neuron-microglial connections in the CNS. Hence, understanding the role of cellular phenotypes and the inflammatory mediators, the cross talk among the signals and their receptors can help us to identify the potential therapeutic target using natural products. In this review we have tried to put together the role of cellular phenotypes as a skew that favors PD progression and we have also discussed how the lack of experimental approaches and challenges that affects understanding the cellular targets that can be used against natural derivatives in alleviating PD pathophysiology. Together, this review will provide the better insights into the role of cellular phenotypes of neuroinflammation, inflammatory mediators and the orchestrating factors of inflammation and how they can be targeted in a more specific way that can be used in the clinical management of PD.

Molecular evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of phenolic lipid extracted from cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL)

BACKGROUND

Anacardium occidentale L phenolic lipid (LDT11) is used in traditional medicine as anti-inflammatory, astringent, antidiarrheal, anti-asthmatic and depurative. Phenolic derivatives, such as anacardic acid, extracted from cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) have demonstrated biological and pharmacological properties, and its profile makes it a candidate for the development of new anti-inflammatory agents. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory profile of a derivative, synthesized from LDT11, on an in vitro cellular model.

METHODS

Organic synthesis of the phenolic derivative of CNSL that results in the hemi-synthetic compound LDT11. The cytotoxicity of the planned compound, LDT11, was analyzed in murine macrophages cell line, RAW264.7. The cells were previously treated with LDT11, and then, the inflammation was stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), in intervals of 6 h and 24 h. The analysis of the gene expression of inflammatory markers (TNFα, iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB, IL-1β and IL-6), nitric oxide (NO) dosage, and cytokine IL-6 were realized.

RESULTS

The results showed that the phenolic derivative, LDT11, influenced the modulatory gene expression. The relative gene transcripts quantification demonstrated that the LDT11 disclosed an immunoprotective effect against inflammation by decreasing genes expression when compared with cells stimulated with LPS in the control group. The NO and IL-6 dosages confirmed the results found in gene expression.

DISCUSSION

The present study evaluated the immunoprotective effect of LDT11. In addition to a significant reduction in the expression of inflammatory genes, LDT11 also had a faster and superior anti-inflammatory action than the commercial products, and its response was already evident in the test carried out six hours after the treatment of the cells.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated LDT11 is potentially valuable as a rapid immunoprotective anti-inflammatory agent. Treatment with LDT11 decreased the gene expression of inflammatory markers, and the NO, and IL-6 production. When compared to commercial drugs, LDT11 showed a superior anti-inflammatory action.

Pharmacotherapeutic potential of ginger and its compounds in age-related neurological disorders

Age-related neurological disorders (ANDs), including neurodegenerative diseases, are multifactorial disorders with a risk that increases with aging. ANDs are generally characterized by common neuropathological conditions of the central nervous system, such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and protein misfolding. Recently, efforts have been made to overcome ANDs because of the increase in age-dependent prevalence. Ginger, the rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe, is a popular food spice and has a long history of use in traditional medicine for treating various disease symptoms. The structure-activity relationships of ginger phytochemicals show that ginger can be used to treat ANDs by targeting different ligand sites. This review shows that ginger and its constituents, such as 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 6-paradol, zingerone, and dehydrozingerone, are effective for ameliorating the neurological symptoms and pathological conditions of ANDs through by modulating cell death or cell survival signaling molecules. From this review, we conclude that the active ingredients in ginger have therapeutic potential in ANDs.

Rescue effects of ginger extract on dose dependent radiation-induced histological and biochemical changes in the kidneys of male Wistar rats

Radiation is an essential modality in the management of cancer therapy, but its acute and chronic side effects on the normal organs limit the helpfulness of radiotherapy. The deleterious effects of radiation begin with oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction to radiolytic hydrolysis and formation of free radicals. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of dose dependent whole body radiation exposure on histological and biochemical alterations in rat kidney. It was also planned to find out whether ginger extract mitigated the deleterious effects of different doses of radiation in rat kidney. Male Wistar rats were exposed to three doses (2, 4, and 8Gy) of γ- ray with or without a 10day pretreatment with ginger extract. After 10days of whole body γ- ray exposure, the results revealed proliferation of glomerular and tubular cells, fibrosis in glomerular and peritubular and a significant increase in 8-OHdG, CRP, cystatin C (in 8Gy), plasma urea and creatinine levels, as well as a significant decrease in total antioxidant capacity of radiation groups compared to those of the control group. Ginger extract administration once daily for 10 consecutive days before exposure to 2-4-8Gy radiotherapy, which ameliorated histological and biochemical alterations in kidneys of the rats entirely or partially compared to those in the ethanol group rats. These findings indicate that whole body exposure to radiation induces kidney damage through oxidative DNA damage and inflammatory reactions, and that these effects can be alleviated using ginger pretreatment as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent.

Drug-Herb Interactions in the Elderly Patient with IBD: a Growing Concern

OPINION STATEMENT

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes conditions such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, is becoming more prevalent with the elderly being the fastest growing group. Parallel to this, there is an increasing interest in the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). Nearly half of patients with IBD have used CAM at one time. The elderly patients, however, are burdened by comorbid conditions, polypharmacy, and altered functional status. With increasing use of complementary and alternative medicine in our elderly patients with IBD, it is vital for the provider to provide counsel on drug-herb potential interactions. CAM includes herbal products, diet, dietary supplements, acupuncture, and prayer. In this paper, we will review common CAM, specifically herbs, that are used in patients with IBD including the herb background, suggested use, evidence in IBD, and most importantly, potential interactions with IBD medications used in elderly patients. Most important evidence-based adverse events and drug-herb interactions are summarized. The herbs discussed include Triticum aestivum (wheat grass), Andrographis paniculata (chiretta), Boswellia serrata, tormentil, bilberry, curcumin (turmeric), Plantago ovata (blond psyllium), Oenothera biennis (evening primrose oil), germinated barley foodstuff, an herbal preparation of myrrh, chamomile and coffee extract, chios mastic gum, wormwood (absinthe, thujone), Cannabis sativa (marijuana, THC), tripterygium wilfordii (thunder god vine), Ulmus rubra (slippery elm bark), trigonella foenugraecum (fenugreek), Dioscorea mexicana (wild yam), Harpagophytum procumbens (devil's claw), ginger, cinnamon, licorice, and peppermint.

A novel pleiotropic effect of aspirin: Beneficial regulation of pro- and anti-inflammatory mechanisms in microglial cells

Aspirin, one of the most widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, has extensively studied effects on the cardiovascular system. To reveal further pleiotropic, beneficial effects of aspirin on a number of pro- and anti-inflammatory microglial mechanisms, we performed morphometric and functional studies relating to phagocytosis, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine production (IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-10, respectively) and analyzed the expression of a number of inflammation-related genes, including those related to the above functions, in pure microglial cells. We examined the effects of aspirin (0.1mM and 1mM) in unchallenged (control) and bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged secondary microglial cultures. Aspirin affected microglial morphology and functions in a dose-dependent manner as it inhibited LPS-elicited microglial activation by promoting ramification and the inhibition of phagocytosis in both concentrations. Remarkably, aspirin strongly reduced the pro-inflammatory IL-1β and TNF-α production, while it increased the anti-inflammatory IL-10 level in LPS-challenged cells. Moreover, aspirin differentially regulated the expression of a number of inflammation-related genes as it downregulated such pro-inflammatory genes as Nos2, Kng1, IL1β, Ptgs2 or Ccr1, while it upregulated some anti-inflammatory genes such as IL10, Csf2, Cxcl1, Ccl5 or Tgfb1. Thus, the use of aspirin could be beneficial for the prophylaxis of certain neurodegenerative disorders as it effectively ameliorates inflammation in the brain.

Bioassay-Guided Isolation of Anti-Inflammatory Components from the Bulbs of Lilium brownii var. viridulum and Identifying the Underlying Mechanism through Acting on the NF-κB/MAPKs Pathway

The bulbs of Lilium brownii var. viridulum (LB) are commonly used as both traditional Chinese medicines and popular functional food for many centuries in China. Previous studies reported that the extract of lily bulbs exhibited anti-inflammatory activity both in vivo and in vitro, but its active components and associated molecular mechanisms remain elusive. In the present study, using bioassay-guided isolation method, two phenylpropenoid acylglycerols, 1-O-feruloyl-2-O-p-coumaroylglycerol (1) and 1,3-O-diferuloylglycerol (2), were obtained and identified from the chloroform fraction of LB. Both compounds 1 and 2 significantly decreased the production of nitrite oxide (NO) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values of 9.12 ± 0.72 μM and 12.01 ± 1.07 μM, respectively. They also inhibited the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and several other pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Furthermore, compounds 1 and 2 downregulated the protein levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). They also inhibited the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 subunit and suppressed mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) pathway. Taken these data together, compounds 1 and 2 exhibited anti-inflammatory activities through acting on the NF-κB and MAPKs pathway. This research provides the first evidence on the major bioactive constituents and related molecular mechanisms of LB as an anti-inflammatory agent. Our findings also advanced the understanding of LB as a traditional herbal medicine for the prevention and treatment of inflammation.

Bioassay-guided fractionation of ethyl acetate extract from Armillaria mellea attenuates inflammatory response in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated BV-2 microglia

BACKGROUND

Armillaria mellea (A. mellea) is a traditional Chinese medicinal and edible mushroom, which is proved to possess a lot of biological activities, including anti-oxidation, immunopotentiation, anti-vertigo and anti-aging activities. However, little information is available in regard to its neuroprotection activity in inflammation-mediated neurodegenerative diseases.

PURPOSE

We have found that A. mellea has an anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells in our previous study. The objective of this study is to investigate the anti-neuroinflammatory mechanism of a bioassay-guided fractionation (Fr.2) and its active components/compounds.

METHODS

Compounds were isolated by preparative high performance liquid chromatography (pre-HPLC) and their structures were established by mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic analyses. The anti-neuroinflammatory effect of Fr.2 and each compounds were investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine microglia cell lineBV-2.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that Fr.2 significantly decreased the production of inflammation mediator nitric oxide (NO) and inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) in a dose-dependent manner (10, 30, 100µg/ml). In addition, Fr.2 markedly down-regulated the phosphorylation levels of nuclear factor kappa B p65 (NF-κB p65), inhibitory κB-α (IκB-α) and c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) pathways. Sevens compounds were isolated from Fr.2, among them, three compounds, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (CP1), vanillic acid (CP4) and syringate (CP5) were reported for the first time in A. mellea. NO and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β) secretion indicated that daidzein (CP6) and genistein (CP7) showed a more outstanding anti-inflammation potential at non-toxic concentrations (10, 30, 100µM) than the other five compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, Fr.2 may have therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases by inhibiting inflammatory mediators and suppress inflammation pathway in activated microglia. Daidzein and genistein may serve as the effective anti-inflammation compounds of Fr.2.

Possible Role of Common Spices as a Preventive and Therapeutic Agent for Alzheimer's Disease

For centuries, spices have been consumed as food additives or medicinal agents. However, there is increasing evidence indicating the plant-based foods in regular diet may lower the risk of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer disease. Spices, as one of the most commonly used plant-based food additives may provide more than just flavors, but as agents that may prevent or even halt neurodegenerative processes associated with aging. In this article, we review the role and application of five commonly used dietary spices including saffron turmeric, pepper family, zingiber, and cinnamon. Besides suppressing inflammatory pathways, these spices may act as antioxidant and inhibit acetyl cholinesterase and amyloid β aggregation. We summarized how spice-derived nutraceuticals mediate such different effects and what their molecular targets might be. Finally, some directions for future research are briefly discussed.

Effect of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate on anti-inflammatory response via heme oxygenase-1 induction during adipocyte-macrophage interactions

In this study, we examined the effects of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) on anti-inflammatory responses through the induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in cocultured macrophages and adipocytes. EGCG significantly decreased the secretion of nitric oxide (NO) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in the coculture of RAW 264.7 macrophages and differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In addition, EGCG inhibited the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in cocultured macrophages and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma in cocultured adipocytes. Furthermore, the HO-1 expression showed an approximately 4-fold increase in cocultured adipocytes and an approximately 6-fold increase in cocultured macrophages. Lastly, HO-1 silencing induced NO generation in cocultured cells regardless of EGCG treatment. These results indicate that EGCG inhibited inflammatory responses by suppressing the production of proinflammatory cytokines through HO-1 induction during adipocyte-macrophage interaction.

Anti-inflammatory and Anti-oxidative Activities of Paeonol and Its Metabolites Through Blocking MAPK/ERK/p38 Signaling Pathway

The possible protective and curative effects of paeonol on carrageenan-induced acute hind paw edema in rats and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice have been evaluated. After oral administration, paeonol (20 and 40 mg/kg) reduced the edema increase in paw volumes and also the development of DSS-induced murine colitis. Furthermore, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities of paeonol (1) together with its 10 metabolites (M2~M11) were investigated by using in vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant assays. M3 and M11 exhibited significant 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activities (with EC50 values of 93.44 and 23.24 μM, respectively). All the metabolites except M8 showed hydroxyl radical scavenging activities, and M3 and M11 were the most potent agents (with EC50 values of 336.02 and 124.05 μM, respectively). Inhibitory effects of paeonol, M2~M11 on the overproduction of nitric oxide (NO), and the release of TNF-α were also tested. M3 and M11 potently inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced overproduction of NO in macrophage RAW 264.7. Western blot results demonstrated that paeonol, M3, and M11 downregulated the high expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and COX-2 proteins, and the effects of M3 and M11 were more potent when compared with paeonol. These findings indicated that paeonol may play anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant roles by changing to its active metabolites after absorption. In addition, further investigations on the mechanism showed that paeonol, M3, and M11 blocked the phosphorylation of MAPK/ERK 1/2 and p38, whereas they showed no effect on the phosphorylation of JNK. The above results suggested that pre-treatment with paeonol might be an effective therapeutic intervention against inflammatory diseases including colitis.

Gyeji-tang water extract exerts anti-inflammatory activity through inhibition of ERK and NF-κB pathways in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

Background

Gyeji-tang (GJT, Guizhi Tang in Chinese, Keishi-to in Japanese) is a traditional herbal decoction composed of 5 medicinal herbs. GJT has been used to treat the common cold, headaches, and fever in Asian countries including Korea, China, and Japan. In the present study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of a water extract of GJT on inflammatory response using the murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7.

Methods

RAW 264.7 macrophages were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to upregulate inflammatory genes. Cells were pretreated with various concentrations of GJT for 4 h and stimulated with LPS for an additional 20 h. Productions of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Protein expressions of heme oxygenase (HO)-1, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) were analyzed by immunoblotting.

Results

Treatment with the GJT extract enhanced expression of HO-1 in macrophages without cytotoxicity. GJT extract significantly inhibited proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS-stimulated cells. GJT suppressed LPS-induced COX-2 expression, leading to a decrease in COX-2-derived PGE₂ level. In addition, GJT extract prevented phosphorylation of ERK and NF-κB translocalization to the nucleus in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 cells.

Conclusion

These data suggest that GJT has anti-inflammatory possibly through blocking ERK and NF-κB signaling pathways.

Effect of Ginger Supplementation on Proinflammatory Cytokines in Older Patients with Osteoarthritis: Outcomes of a Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial

There is limited evidence that ginger powder consumption can relieve pain and inflammation due to specific anti-inflammatory phytochemical constitutents. This study investigates the effect of ginger supplementation on proinflammatory factors in participants (n = 120) of a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled 3-month clinical trial investigating knee osteoarthritis. Patients were randomly assigned to one of two groups: the ginger group (GG) or the placebo group (PG). Administered daily for 3 months, participants in the GG intervention received capsules containing 500 mg of ginger powder, while PG participants received capsules filled with 500 mg starch. Serum samples collected at baseline and 3 months were analyzed for serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). At baseline, proinflammatory cytokine concentrations did not differ by group. However, at 3 months, both cytokines decreased in the GG relative to the PG. The results of this study indicate that ginger supplementation may have a promising benefits for knee osteoarthritis and may, therefore, may warrant further study.

Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect of ginger in tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) has reemerged to become the world's leading cause of death from a single infectious agent. Inflammatory cytokines play an important role during the course of the disease and may be responsible for tissue damage by lipid peroxidation. The study was aimed to explore the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect of ginger in pulmonary TB patients.

METHODS

A total of 69 pulmonary TB patients participated in a randomized and placebo-controlled study. The intervention group received 3 g of ginger extract daily for 1 month and placebo group was supplemented with starch capsule. Participants of both groups were taking standard antitubercular treatment during the study. The concentrations of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha, ferritin and malondialdehyde (MDA) in blood samples were analyzed before and after the intervention by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for TNF alpha and ferritin and spectrophotometry for MDA.

RESULTS

Ginger supplementation significantly reduced the levels of TNF alpha, ferritin and MDA in ginger supplemented group in comparison to baseline. Ginger supplementation with antitubercular treatment significantly lowered TNF alpha, ferritin and MDA concentrations in comparison to control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Ginger was found to be effective as an anti-inflammatory and antioxidant supplement along with anti-TB therapy as it possesses strong free radical scavenging property.

Action of Chlorhexidine, Zingiber officinale, and Calcium Hydroxide on Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and Endotoxin in the Root Canals

AIM

The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of 2% chlorhexidine gel (CHX) as auxiliary chemical substance and intracanal medications on Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and their endotoxins in the root canals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted on 48 single-rooted human teeth divided into four groups (n = 12), according to intracanal medications used: (1) Calcium hydroxide + apyrogenic saline solution (Ca(OH)2 + SS), (2) 20% ginger glycolic extract (GEN), (3) calcium hydroxide + 20% ginger glycolic extract (Ca(OH)2 + GEN), (4) apyrogenic SS (control). Collections were made from the root canal content before preparation (baseline-S1), immediately after instrumentation (S2), 7 days after instrumentation (S3), after 14 days the action of intracanal medication (S4), and 7 days after removal of the intracanal medication (S5). The antimicrobial activity and endotoxin content were analyzed for all collections. The results were statistically analyzed by the Kruskal-Wallis and Dunn tests at a significance level of 5%.

RESULTS

After instrumentation with CHX, there was complete elimination of E. coli and C. albicans, except for E. faecalis, which was significantly reduced and then completely eliminated after intracanal medication. There was significant reduction of endotoxin after instrumentation. Comparison of collection after instrumentation and intracanal medication revealed reduction of endotoxins in all groups; this reduction was greater in group Ca(OH)2 followed by the group GEN.

CONCLUSION

It was concluded that the instrumentation using CHX and intracanal medication used were able to eliminate the microorganisms from the root canal; the endotoxins were reduced, yet not completely eliminated.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This study is important and relevant for searching alternatives during endodontic therapy, since it aims to study the effect of Zingiber officinale on microorganisms and endotoxins present in root canals.