Bioactive components of mushrooms: Processing effects and health benefits

Efficient production, structural characterization and bioactivity of an extracellular polysaccharide from Grifola frondosa endophytic Burkholderia sp

Endophytic bacteria Burkholderia sp. (GFB) was firstly identified and isolated from Grifola frondosa. An exopolysaccharide (GFB-MP) of GFB strain was obtained following fermentation optimization, resulting in a maximum yield of 11.36 g/L in 5 L fed-batch fermentation. GFB-MP (MW 432.05 kDa) comprised mainly galactose, glucose, and mannose with a ratio of 39.52:14.22:46.26, indicating a mannose-enriched polysaccharide. Methylation and NMR analysis revealed that GFB-MP consisted of the main chain that was repeat units →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1 → bonded →6)-β-D-Galp-1 → repeat units and three O-6-linked branched chains. Antibacterial activity suggested that GFB-MP can effectively inhibit food pathogen bacteria Listeria and Escherichia coli with inhibition ratios of 73.4 % and 81.6 %, respectively. In addition, GFB-MP exhibited remarkable growth-promoting activity on probiotics with >50 % increments of cell growth. This study demonstrates that GFB-MP has the potential for health-beneficial food. Knowledge of endophyte polysaccharides in G. frondosa is important to understand their physiological activities and symbiotic interactions.

The prospect of mushroom as an alterative protein: From acquisition routes to nutritional quality, biological activity, application and beyond

There is a need for new protein sources to sustainably feed the world. Mushroom proteins are regarded as a future protein alternative considering their low cost, high nutritional quality, and excellent digestibility, have attracted increasing attention. Proteins with multiple structural characteristics endow mushroom with various bioactivities, which has also broadened application of mushroom in nutrition, food fields, as well as in emerging industries. Therefore, the present review narrates the recent developments in nutritional quality of mushroom proteins, while paying considerable attention to cultivation technologies and preparation strategies of mushroom proteins. Moreover, the types, properties and biological benefits of mushroom proteins were summarized, herein the latest research on applications of mushroom or their proteins was highlighted. Eventually, the challenges confronting their widespread utility, despite their high nutritional content were discussed. This review would provide a new appreciation for the future use of mushroom proteins.

Unravelling the complex relationship between Suillus bovinus and Gomphidius roseus through investigation of their sporocarps in Pinus massoniana forests

BACKGROUND

The co-occurrence of sporocarps has revealed many intimate associations between different ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi species. The co-occurrence of sporocarps of Suillus bovinus and Gomphidius roseus, two edible ECM fungi, is well recognized; however, the interactions between them remain largely unknown. This study investigated the relationship between these two fungi occurring in Pinus massoniana forests through phenological, microbiome, and metabolome analyses.

RESULTS

Gomphidius roseus sporocarps were always found alongside sporocarps of S. bovinus, but not vice versa. The ECM associated with S. bovinus sporocarps exhibited a long-distance exploration type, whereas the ECM associated with G. roseus sporocarps formed a contact exploration type. Both S. bovinus and G. roseus sporocarps and ECM contained the mycelia of both fungi. In contrast, different fungal sporocarps and ECM were dominated by distinct bacterial species. Suillus bovinus sporocarps were recorded in all ages investigated, ranging from 1 to 5 years old to over 30 years old. In contrast, G. roseus sporocarps were mainly found in forests older than 10 years. Previous studies suggested that G. roseus parasitizes S. bovinus; however, the occurrence of G. roseus sporocarps did not significantly affect S. bovinus sporocarp production or P. massoniana growth, challenging this assumption. Despite their intimate interactions, the metabolic profiles of S. bovinus sporocarps more closely resembled those of S. luteus, not G. roseus.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our analyses showed both similarities and dissimilarities in phenology, microbiome, and metabolome features between the two fungi, and the genesis of G. roseus sporocarps is highly dependent on S. bovinus. These results further indicate that while the formation of ECM between G. roseus and the host may rely on ECM formed by S. bovinus and the same host, it is not parasitic.

Advanced insights into mushroom polysaccharides: Extraction methods, structure-activity, prebiotic properties, and health-promoting effects

Mushroom-derived polysaccharides, especially β-glucans, have attracted considerable attention because of their various biological regulatory functions. Advanced extraction technologies, including ultrasonic-assisted, microwave-assisted, enzyme-assisted, ultrasonic-microwave synergistic, subcritical water, and aqueous two-phase extractions, are extensively utilized to optimize the efficient recovery of biologically active compounds from mushrooms, progressively supplanting conventional methods. In addition, mushroom polysaccharides are acknowledged as "important biological response modifiers." Beyond their diverse bioactivities, including anticancer, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antidiabetic, hypocholesterolemia, anti-lipidemic, and antioxidant effects, increasing interest has been directed towards their prebiotic potential, especially regarding their ability to influence gut microbiota. This review presents a comprehensive summary of the extraction and purification methods, biological properties, structure-function relationships, and mechanisms of mushroom polysaccharides, highlighting the latest advancements in the field from 2019 to 2024. Additionally, this review discusses the key findings and limitations associated with the structure-function correlation. While most studies focus on β-glucans or their extracts, α-glucans and chitin have gained increasing attention. The prebiotic potential is associated with α-glucans and chitin, with chitin recognized for its substantial antimicrobial and wound-healing properties. This review systematically identifies current research gaps and proposes avenues for future investigation into the therapeutic potential of mushroom polysaccharides. However, further research is required to comprehensively understand their full therapeutic potential.

The Potential of Cultivated Mushrooms as Salt Substitutes in Meat Products

This study reviews the feasibility of using cultivated mushrooms in the development of salt-reduced meat products. For this purpose, it is important to know the role of salt in meat products in order to develop viable strategies for its substitution. In addition, mushroom types and properties (composition, nutritional value, umami content, etc.) and examples of successful application as salt substitutes in meat products are addressed. Salt has important roles in meat product processing, mainly affecting its technological, antimicrobial, and sensory properties. Therefore, the different strategies that have been studied (meat product reformulation and technological advances) with the aim of reducing its content have to address these effects. The application of mushrooms as a salt substitute shows several advantages mainly related to the fact that mushrooms are a natural ingredient with a very healthy nutritional composition (rich in protein and dietary fiber but low in fat and sodium) and, from an economic and sustainable cultivation perspective, aligns well with current trends in food production and consumption. Salt substitutions of 50% have been achieved, mainly in fresh meat products (hamburgers) and heat-treated meat products (sausages, pâté, roast meat, etc.), with minimal physicochemical and sensory modifications of the final product. The meat industry could benefit from incorporating cultivated mushrooms as a salt-reducing ingredient, especially in the development of reduced salt meat products with a quality comparable to or superior to traditional products. The optimization of processes for their integration in the formulation of meat products should be the trend to ensure their viability.

Effect of ultrasound synergistic pH shift modification treatment on Hericium erinaceus protein structure and its application in 3D printing

This study investigates the effects of ultrasound synergistic pH shift modification on the structural and functional properties of Hericium erinaceus (HE) proteins. The modification resulted in significant changes in the molecular structure of HE proteins, including increased solubility (49.69 % at pH 1.5 and 61.30 % at pH 12.5), enhanced surface hydrophobicity (from 721.00 to 3377.00), and the exposure of free sulfhydryl groups, which rose from 9.3 μmol/g in the control to 19.9 μmol/g at pH 12.5. The modification also led to a reduction in particle size, improving oil-holding capacity and foaming properties, with foaming stability increasing from 10.5 % to 60.3 % at pH 12.5. Furthermore, the emulsification activity was significantly enhanced (187.5 % at pH 12.5). Rheological analysis revealed that ultrasound-modified proteins exhibited improved flow stress and gelation properties, with a shear recovery rate of 65.71 %. In 3D printing applications, the modified HE proteins demonstrated better printability, structural stability, and mechanical integrity, attributed to the enhanced molecular interaction and gelation properties. These findings suggest that ultrasound-assisted pH shift modification effectively alters the structure and functionality of HE proteins, making them suitable for use as a versatile raw material in food applications, particularly in 3D food printing.

Mushrooms as Nutritional Powerhouses: A Review of Their Bioactive Compounds, Health Benefits, and Value-Added Products

Mushrooms are known to be a nutritional powerhouse, offering diverse bioactive compounds that promote and enhance health. Mushrooms provide a distinguishable taste and aroma and are an essential source of vitamin D2, vitamin B complex, hydroxybenzoic acids (HBAs) and hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs), terpenes, sterols, and β-glucans. Edible mushroom varieties such as Hericium erinaceus, Ganoderma sp., and Lentinula edodes are recognized as functional foods due to their remarkable potential for disease prevention and promotion of overall health and well-being. These varieties have antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, cholesterol-lowering, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties, as well as controlling blood pressure, being an immunity booster, and strengthening bone properties. In addition, they contain essential non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDOs) and ergothioneine, a potential substrate for gut microflora. Supplementing our daily meals with those can add value to our food, providing health benefits. Novel edible mushrooms are being investigated to explore their bioactive substances and their therapeutic properties, to benefit human health. The scientific community (mycologists) is currently studying the prospects for unlocking the full health advantages of mushrooms. This review aims to promote knowledge of mushroom culturing conditions, their nutritional potential, and the value-added products of 11 varieties.

Preparation of Morchella esculenta protein and its preventive effect on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in mice

Morchella esculenta is a valuable edible fungus with multidimensional bioactivities; however, research on M. esculenta protein and its beneficial effects on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) have been limited. In this study, M. esculenta protein (MEP) with 80.59% protein content was prepared, isolated, and characterized by the complete amino acid composition. The main molecular weight of the protein ranged from 65 to 120 kDa, with 100 kDa being the most dominant band, and it exhibited an alpha helix structure when analyzed by FT-IR and circular dichroism analysis. MEP could regulate body weight, fat accumulation, and alleviate lipid metabolism in adipose tissues in mice with high-fat diet-induced NAFLD. MEP prevented hepatic lipotoxicity, which was reflected in attenuating liver steatosis in vitro and in vivo, thereby regulating the levels of related factors involved in lipid metabolism (e.g., PPARs, HNF-4, SREBP, FASN, ACC-1, and CD36). Furthermore, it inhibited oxidative stress response, which can be attributed to the activation of the MAPK/PGC-1α pathway. Additionally, MEP exhibited probiotic effects, as demonstrated by the altered gut microbiota composition and improved the intestinal barrier integrity. Thus, this study confirmed the preventive effect of MEP against NAFLD by regulating the gut-liver cross-talk, which provided a theoretical basis for the development and utilization of M. esculenta.

Ex Situ Conservation, DNA Barcoding and Enzymatic Potential Evaluation of Macrofungi (Basidiomycota, Ascomycota) from Vietnam

The diversity and resource potential of macroscopic fungi in tropical regions remain understudied. Vietnam, being in a biodiversity hotspot, has a large number of new fungal species that are of interest for biotechnology and medicine. The presence of a large number of protected areas in Vietnam creates favorable opportunities for the study and ex situ conservation of tropical biodiversity. From 2012 to 2023, 785 strains of macrofungi from National Parks of Vietnam were preserved in the LE-BIN collection, 327 of which were barcoded with the sequences deposited in the NCBI GenBank. A taxonomic analysis demonstrated that many of the preserved isolates are potentially new or poorly studied species, representing a useful resource for taxonomical studies and a search for new medicinal mushrooms. More than 180 strains were studied for the first time for growth rate and enzymatic activities. Of these, 53 strains showed high growth rate, 43-high cellulolytic activity, 73-high oxidative enzymes activity, and 27 showed high proteolytic activity, making them promising candidates for biotechnological and medical applications and opening new opportunities for sustainable biomass management, discovery of new enzymes and bioactive substances, development of new drugs and efficient plant waste treatment technologies. The results confirm the importance of the ex situ conservation of fungal diversity in tropical regions as a valuable source for scientific and commercial applications and suggest certain new active strains for biotechnological study.

Supercritical Extraction and Compound Profiling of Diverse Edible Mushroom Species

Mushrooms are a raw material rich in many nutritional compounds, and that is why a number of them are widely known as functional food. They contain fatty acids, carbohydrates, lycopene, sterols, lovastatin, trace elements, and other valuable compounds that show a wide range of properties, such as hepatoprotective, anticancer, antiviral, etc. For more efficient utilisation of mushrooms' biologically active substances, widespread supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (Sc-CO2) was used as an efficient way to isolate the high-value phytoconstituents from this type of raw material. Using Sc-CO2, the extracts of five types of edible mushrooms-Lycoperdon saccatum, Pleurotus ostreatus, Craterellus cornucopioides, Russula Cyanoxantha and Cantharellus cibarius-were obtained. During the Sc-CO2 process, the extraction time was reduced to 4 h compared to the prolonged process time applied in the typical traditional techniques (6-24 h). The extraction pressure (30 MPa) and temperature (40 °C) were constant. Fatty acids and the compounds of steroid structures were determined in the obtained extracts using GC-MS and GC-FID methods of analysis. The dominant compounds identified in the lipid extracts were fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic) and sterols (ergosterol, 7,22-ergostadienone and 7,22-ergostadienol). For complete insight into the process and to obtain the value of the extracts, chemometric analysis is provided. Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), as well as k-means clustering, showed that Craterellus cornucopioides was distinguished based on the extraction yield results.

Biological Efficiency, Nutritional Composition, and Bioactive Compound Contents of the Lung Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus pulmonarius (Agaricomycetes) Cultivated on Spent Mushroom Substrates

Spent mushroom cultivation substrate is sometimes used to make organic fertilizers, but most of it is discarded. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) as a substitute substrate for cultivating Pleurotus pulmonarius. Seven types of SMS were employed to cultivate P. pulmonarius to assess yield, biological efficiency, nutritional composition, and bioactive compound content in the fruiting bodies. The SMS of Agaricus marmoreus showed the highest yield (253.88 g/bag) and biological efficiency (63.47%). Variations in the nutritional composition of fruiting bodies cultivated on different SMSs were observed. The highest levels of ergothioneine (2.17 mg/g dry matter) and adenosine (7.71 mg/g dry matter) were found in fruiting bodies grown on P. pulmonarius and Hymenopellis radicata SMSs, respectively. These findings present a promising strategy to reduce cultivation costs associated with P. pulmonarius and manage SMSs effectively.

Heavy Metals and Associated Risks of Wild Edible Mushrooms Consumption: Transfer Factor, Carcinogenic Risk, and Health Risk Index

This research aims to investigate the heavy metals (i.e., Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb) in the fruiting bodies of six indigenous wild edible mushrooms including Agaricus bisporus, Agaricus campestris, Armillaria mellea, Boletus edulis, Macrolepiota excoriate, and Macrolepiota procera, correlated with various factors, such as the growth substrate, the sampling site, the species and the morphological part (i.e., cap and stipe), and their possible toxicological implications. Heavy metal concentrations in mushroom (228 samples) and soil (114 samples) were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). In the first part of the study, the soil contamination (index of geo-accumulation, contamination factor, and pollution loading index) and associated risks (chronic daily dose for three exposure pathways-ingestion, dermal, and inhalation; hazard quotient of non-cancer risks and the carcinogenic risks) were calculated, while the phytoremediation capacity of the mushrooms was determined. At the end of these investigations, it was concluded that M. procera accumulates more Cd and Cr (32.528% and 57.906%, respectively), M. excoriata accumulates Cu (24.802%), B. edulis accumulates Ni (22.694%), and A. mellea accumulates Pb (18.574%), in relation to the underlying soils. There were statistically significant differences between the stipe and cap (i.e., in the cap subsamples of M. procera, the accumulation factor for Cd was five times higher than in the stipe subsamples). The daily intake of toxic metals related to the consumption of these mushrooms with negative consequences on human health, especially for children (1.5 times higher than for adults), was determined as well.

Health-Related Messages About Herbs, Spices, and Other Botanicals Appearing in Print Issues and Websites of Legacy Media: Content Analysis and Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Legacy media are publications that existed before the internet. Many of these have migrated to a web format, either replacing or in parallel to their print issues. Readers place an economic value on access to the information presented as they pay for subscriptions and place a higher degree of trust in their content. Much has been written about inaccurate and misleading health information in social media; however, the content and accuracy of information contained in legacy media has not been examined in detail. Discussion of herbs, spices, and other botanicals has been absent from this context.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this study were to (1) identify the health associations of botanical products mentioned in legacy media targeted to a range of demographic groups and (2) evaluate these health associations for accuracy against published scientific studies.

METHODS

In total, 10 popular magazines targeting a range of gender, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation demographic groups were selected for analysis. Relevant content was extracted and coded over 1 year. Associations between specific botanical products and health factors were identified. For the most frequent botanical-health application associations, a PubMed search was conducted to identify reviews corresponding to each item's indicated applications. Where no systematic reviews were available, single research studies were sought.

RESULTS

A total of 237 unique botanical products were identified. There were 128 mentions of these in the print issues and 1215 on the websites. In total, 18 health applications were identified and used to categorize the indicated uses for the various products individually and as general categories. The most frequently mentioned applications were skin care, with 913 mentions, immunity enhancement, with 705 mentions, gastrointestinal health and probiotics, with 184 mentions, and cognitive function (stress and mental health), with 106 mentions. Comparison to published literature evaluating the efficacy of these functions identified positive support for aloe vera, argan oil, chamomile, jojoba oil, lavender, rosemary, and tea tree oil in skin care. Berries, ginger, turmeric, and green tea had the strongest evidence for a role in immunity enhancement. Ginger and oats were supported as having a role in gastrointestinal health. Finally, berries, lavender, ashwagandha, and cannabidiol were supported as having a role in managing stress. Other frequently mentioned items such as aloe vera, ashwagandha, or mushrooms for immunity were less strongly supported.

CONCLUSIONS

Comparison of the most prevalent associations between botanical products and health applications to published literature indicates that, overall, these associations were consistent with current scientific reports about the health applications of botanical products. While some products had a greater degree of research support than others, truly egregious falsehoods were absent. Therefore, legacy media may be considered a credible source of information to readers about these topics.

Polysaccharide fractions extracted from Lactarius quieticolor mushroom exhibit immune stimulatory activities on macrophages

Several beneficial properties have already been observed for mushrooms extracts containing polysaccharides, one of the main components present in these fungi. In order to obtain these extracts and clarify their composition, different extraction and characterization methods can be applied, contributing to understanding its biological effects. In this research, we evaluated three different crude fractions obtained through cold water, hot water, and alkaline solution, from the mushroom Lactarius quieticolor. Each sample was totally characterized by NMR (1H, 13C, HSQC-DEPT, COSY), GC-MS (monosaccharide composition and methylation analysis) and HPSEC (homogeneity and relative Mw). The results showed a mixture of different polysaccharides, including D-galactans and D-glucans in each fraction. All the extracts presented immunostimulant activity in murine RAW 264.7 macrophages, stimulating NO secretion and inducing morphological alterations that were typical of activated cells. These effects were more intense for alkaline fraction (EA), which have higher amounts of mannose and 3,6-di-O-substituted-Glcp units. The results obtained show that crude fractions can potentially stimulate immune cells, which indicates that the consumption of this edible mushroom can bring great benefits to health, being considered an excellent food due to its good biological properties.

Hypoglycemic Properties of Leccinum scabrum Extracts-An In Vitro Study on α-Glucosidase and α-Amylase Inhibition and Metabolic Profile Determination

Type-2 diabetes affects an increasing percentage of the world's population and its control through dietary management, involving the consumption of health-promoting foods or their derived supplements, is a common strategy. Several mushroom species have been demonstrated to be endowed with antidiabetic properties, resulting from their ability in improving insulin sensitivity and production, or inhibiting the carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes α-amylase and α-glucosidase. This study aimed to investigate for the first time the hypoglycemic properties of the edible mushroom Leccinum scabrum (Bull.) Gray. Mushroom extracts were prepared through the microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) technique using green solvents with different polarity degrees. The inhibition activity of all the obtained extracts on both α-glucosidase and α-amylase was evaluated and the highest activity was observed for the EtOAc extract which showed an IC50 value about 60-fold lower than the reference compound 1-deoxynojirimycin (DNJ) on α-glucosidase (0.42 ± 0.02 and 25.4 ± 0.6 µg/mL, respectively). As expected on the basis of the literature data concerning both α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibition, a milder inhibition activity on pancreatic α-amylase was observed. Preliminary in vivo tests on Drosophila melanogaster carried out on the most active obtained extract (EtOAc) confirmed the in vitro observed hypoglycemic activity. Finally, the EtOAc extract metabolic profile was determined through GC-MS and HRMS analyses.

Impact of Dehydration Techniques on the Nutritional and Microbial Profiles of Dried Mushrooms

The global consumption of dried mushrooms has increased worldwide because of their rich nutritional value and culinary versatility. Dehydration methods such as sun drying, hot air drying, freeze drying, and microwave drying are employed to prolong the shelf life of a food product. These methods can also affect the food product's nutritional value and the final product's microbial profile. Each technique affects the retention of essential nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds differently. Additionally, these techniques vary in their effectiveness at reducing microbial load, impacting the dried mushrooms' safety and shelf life. This review addresses the gap in understanding how different dehydration methods influence dried mushrooms' nutritional quality and microbial safety, which is crucial for optimizing their processing and consumption. It targets researchers, food processors, and consumers seeking to improve the quality and safety of dried mushrooms. This review comprehensively examines the impact of major dehydration techniques, including sun drying, hot air drying, microwave drying, and freeze drying, on the nutritional and microbial profiles of dried mushrooms. Each method is evaluated for its effectiveness in preserving essential nutrients and reducing microbial load. Current research indicates that freeze drying is particularly effective in preserving nutritional quality, while hot air and microwave drying significantly reduce microbial load. However, more well-designed studies are needed to fully understand the implications of these methods for safety and nutritional benefits. These findings are valuable for optimizing dehydration methods for high-quality dried mushrooms that are suited for culinary and medicinal use.

Comparative Chemical Analysis and Bioactive Properties of Aqueous and Glucan-Rich Extracts of Three Widely Appreciated Mushrooms: Agaricus bisporus (J.E.Lange) Imbach, Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.) Murill and Agrocybe aegerita (V. Brig.) Vizzini

Herein we describe the antioxidant, antimicrobial, antibiofilm, anti-inflammatory and wound-healing potential of aqueous and polysaccharide extracts from three widely appreciated mushrooms: Agrocybe aegerita, Laetiporus sulphureus and Agaricus bisporus. Moreover, we present their detailed phenolic, polysaccharide and protein profiles and ATR-FTIR spectra. The study found that polysaccharide extracts (PEs) from mushrooms had higher total and β-glucan levels than aqueous extracts (AEs), with A. aegerita showing the highest content. L. sulphureus had a higher total protein content, and A. aegerita AE had the highest phenolic content. Our results indicate that all the tested extracts have high potential regarding their bioactive properties, with A. aegerita being the most promising one. Namely, the antibacterial activity assay showed that the development of the skin-infection-causing agent, Staphylococcus aureus, was inhibited with a minimal inhibitory concentration of 4.00 mg/mL and minimal bactericidal concentration of 8.00 mg/mL, while the results regarding wound healing showed that, over the course of 24 h, the A. aegerita extract actively promoted wound closure in the HaCaT keratinocyte cell line model. The anti-inflammatory activity results clearly showed that when we used S. aureus as an inflammation-inducing agent and the A. aegerita aqueous extract in treatment, IL-6 levels reduced to the level of 4.56 pg/mL. The obtained data suggest that the tested mushroom extracts may serve as a source of bioactive compounds, with potential applications in the cosmeceutical, pharmaceutical and food industries. Furthermore, potential skin preparations carefully crafted with mushroom extract may help restore the skin's barrier function, decrease the probability of staph infections and minimize skin irritation.

Advancements in genetic studies of mushrooms: a comprehensive review

Genetic studies in mushrooms, driven by innovations such as CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing and RNA interference, transform our understanding of these enigmatic fungi and their multifaceted roles in agriculture, medicine, and conservation. This comprehensive review explores the rationale and significance of genetic research in mushrooms, delving into the ethical, regulatory, and ecological dimensions of this field. CRISPR-Cas9 emerges as a game-changing technology, enabling precise genome editing, targeted gene knockouts, and pathway manipulation. RNA interference complements these efforts by downregulating genes for improved crop yield and enhanced pest and disease resistance. Genetic studies also contribute to the conservation of rare species and developing more robust mushroom strains, fostering sustainable cultivation practices. Moreover, they unlock the potential for discovering novel medicinal compounds, offering new horizons in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. As emerging technologies and ethical considerations shape the future of mushroom research, these studies promise to revolutionize our relationship with these fungi, paving the way for a more sustainable and innovative world.

A concise review of the nutritional profiles, microbial dynamics, and health impacts of fermented mushrooms

Mushrooms have garnered significant attention for their nutritional composition and potential health benefits, including antioxidant, antihypertensive, and cholesterol-lowering properties. This review explores the nutritional composition of edible mushrooms, including their high protein content, essential amino acids, low fat, cholesterol levels, and bioactive compounds with medicinal value. Moreover, the study analyzes the microbiology of mushroom fermentation, focusing on the diverse microbial ecosystem involved in the transformation of raw mushrooms and the preservation methods employed to extend their shelf life. Special emphasis is placed on lactic acid fermentation as a cost-effective and efficient preservation technique. It involves controlling the growth of lactic acid bacteria to enhance the microbial stability and nutritional quality of mushrooms. Furthermore, the bioactivities of fermented mushrooms are elucidated, which are antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-glycemic, immune modulatory, and other biological activities. The mechanisms underlying these bioactivities are explored, emphasizing the role of fermented mushrooms in suppressing free radicals, enhancing antioxidant defenses, and modulating immune responses. Overall, this review provides comprehensive insights into the nutritional composition, microbiology, bioactivities, and underlying mechanisms of fermented mushrooms, highlighting their potential as functional foods with significant health-promoting properties.

Submerged cultivation and phytochemical analysis of medicinal mushrooms (Trametes sp.)

Mushrooms are widely available around the world and have various nutritional as well as therapeutic values. Many Asian cultures believe that medicinal mushrooms can prolong life and improve vitality. This study aims to characterize the phytochemical and polysaccharide content, mainly β-glucan content, of mycelial biomass and fruiting bodies collected from the Himalayan region, particularly Uttarakhand. Through molecular analysis of the LSU F/R-rDNA fragment sequence and phylogenetic analysis, the strain was identified as Trametes sp. We performed screening of phytochemicals and polysaccharides in mushroom and biomass extracts using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and a PC-based UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The macrofungal biomass was found to be high in saponin, anthraquinone, total phenolic, flavonoid, and β-glucan content. In biomass extract, we observed a high level of saponin (70.6µg/mL), anthraquinone (14.5µg/mL), total phenolic (12.45 µg/mL), and flavonoid (9.500 µg/mL) content. Furthermore, we examined the contents of alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, and sterols in the biomass and mushroom extracts; the concentration of these compounds in the ethanol extract tested was minimal. We also looked for antioxidant activity, which is determined in terms of the IC50 value. Trametes sp. mushroom extract exhibits higher DPPH radical scavenging activity (62.9% at 0.5 mg/mL) than biomass extract (59.19% at 0.5 mg/mL). We also analyzed β-glucan in Trametes sp. from both mushroom and biomass extracts. The biomass extract showed a higher β-glucan content of 1.713 mg/mL than the mushroom extract, which is 1.671 mg/mL. Furthermore, β-glucan analysis was confirmed by the Megazyme β-glucan assay kit from both biomass and mushroom extract of Trametes sp. β-glucans have a promising future in cancer treatment as adjuncts to conventional medicines. Producing pure β-glucans for the market is challenging because 90-95% of β glucan sold nowadays is thought to be manipulated or counterfeit. The present study supports the recommendation of Trametes sp. as rich in β-glucan, protein, phytochemicals, and antioxidant activities that help individuals with cancer, diabetes, obesity, etc.

A scoping review of the effects of mushroom and fungus extracts in rodent models of depression and tests of antidepressant activity

One of the most important developments in psychopharmacology in the past decade has been the emergence of novel treatments for mood disorders, such as psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. Psilocybin is most commonly found in different species of mushroom; however, the literature on mushroom and fungus extracts with potential antidepressant activity extends well beyond just psilocybin-containing mushrooms, and includes both psychedelic and non-psychedelic species. In the current review, we systematically review the preclinical literature on mushroom and fungus extracts, and their effects of animal models of depression and tests of antidepressant activity. The PICO structure, PRISMA checklist and the Cochrane Handbook for systematic reviews of intervention were used to guide the search strategy. A scoping search was conducted in electronic databases PubMed, CINAHL, Embase and Web of Science. The literature search identified 50 relevant and suitable published studies. These included 19 different species of mushrooms, as well as seven different species of other fungi. Nearly all studies reported antidepressant-like effects of treatment with extracts. Treatments were most commonly delivered orally, in both acute and chronically administered studies to predominantly male rodents. Multiple animal models of depression were used, the most common being unpredictable chronic mild stress, while the tail suspension test and forced swim test were most frequently used as standalone antidepressant screens. Details on each experiment with mushroom and fungus species are discussed in detail, while an evaluation is provided of the strengths and weaknesses of these studies.

Pre- and Postharvest Strategies for Pleurotus ostreatus Mushroom in a Circular Economy Approach

Mushroom cultivation presents a viable solution for utilizing agro-industrial byproducts as substrates for growth. This process enables the transformation of low-economic-value waste into nutritional foods. Enhancing the yield and quality of preharvest edible mushrooms, along with effectively preserving postharvest mushrooms, stands as a significant challenge in advancing the industry. Implementing pre- and postharvest strategies for Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm (oyster mushroom) within a circular economy framework involves optimizing resource use, minimizing waste, and creating a sustainable and environmentally friendly production system. This review aimed to analyze the development and innovation of the different themes and trends by bibliometric analysis with a critical literature review. Furthermore, this review outlines the cultivation techniques for Pleurotus ostreatus, encompassing preharvest steps such as spawn production, substrate preparation, and the entire mushroom growth process, which includes substrate colonization, fruiting, harvesting, and, finally, the postharvest. While novel methodologies are being explored for maintaining quality and extending shelf-life, the evaluation of the environmental impact of the entire mushroom production to identify areas for improvement is needed. By integrating this knowledge, strategies can be developed for a more sustainable and circular approach to Pleurotus ostreatus mushroom cultivation, promoting environmental stewardship and long-term viability in this industry.

Mushroom consumption and cardiometabolic health outcomes in the general population: a systematic review

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Mushroom consumption, rich in diverse nutrients and bioactive compounds, is suggested as a potential significant contributor to preventing cardiometabolic diseases (CMDs). This systematic review aimed to explore the association between mushrooms and cardiometabolic health outcomes, utilizing data from prospective cohort studies and clinical trials focusing on the general population, with mushrooms themselves as a major exposure.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

All original articles, published in English until July 2023, were identified through searches on PubMed, Ovid-Embase, and google scholar. Of 1,328 studies, we finally selected 5 prospective cohort studies and 4 clinical trials.

RESULTS

Existing research is limited, typically consisting of 1 to 2 studies for each CMD and cardiometabolic condition. Examination of articles revealed suggestive associations in some cardiometabolic conditions including blood glucose (both fasting and postprandial), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol related indices, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, and obesity indices (body weight, body mass index, and waist circumference). However, mushroom consumption showed no association with the mortality and morbidity of cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and type 2 diabetes, although there was a potentially beneficial connection with all cause-mortality, hyperuricemia, and metabolic syndrome.

CONCLUSION

Due to the scarcity of available studies, drawing definitive conclusions is premature. Further comprehensive investigations are needed to clarify the precise nature and extent of this relationship before making conclusive recommendations for the general population.

Examination of Primary and Secondary Metabolites Associated with a Plant-Based Diet and Their Impact on Human Health

The consumption of plant-based diets has become a burgeoning trend, and they are increasingly consumed globally owing to their substantial energy intensity and dietetic advantages. Plants possess numerous bioactive components that have been recognized to exhibit manifold health-promoting assets. Comprehension of the synthesis of these primary and secondary metabolites by plants and their method of action against several chronic illnesses is a significant requirement for understanding their benefits to human health and disease prevention. Furthermore, the association of biologically active complexes with plants, humans, disease, medicine, and the underlying mechanisms is unexplored. Therefore, this review portrays various bioactive components derived from plant sources associated with health-promoting traits and their action mechanisms. This review paper predominantly assembles proposed plant-derived bioactive compounds, postulating valuable evidence aimed at perceiving forthcoming approaches, including the selection of potent bioactive components for formulating functional diets that are effective against several human disorders. This meticulous evidence could perhaps provide the basis for the advanced preemptive and therapeutic potential promoting human health. Hence, delivery opens possibilities for purchasers to approach the lucrative practice of plants as a remedy, produce novel products, and access new marketplaces.

Sulfated polysaccharides of Laetiporus sulphureus fruiting bodies exhibit anti-breast cancer activity through cell cycle arrest, apoptosis induction, and inhibiting cell migration

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Laetiporus sulphureus has long been used as an edible and medicinal mushroom in Asia, America, and Europe. Its fruiting bodies are widely used in folk medicine for treating cancer, gastric diseases, cough, and rheumatism. Polysaccharides are an important bioactive component of mushrooms. In nature, sulfated polysaccharides have never been reported in mushrooms. Furthermore, there is no information on differences in physicochemical properties and anti-breast cancer activities between polysaccharides (PS) and sulfated polysaccharides (SPS) of L. sulphureus.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the physicochemical properties of PS and SPS isolated from fruiting bodies of L. sulphureus and examine their anti-proliferative effects and mechanism(s) of action on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells.

METHODS

Polysaccharides (PS) were isolated using hot water and ethanol precipitation methods. Sulfated polysaccharides (SPS) were isolated by the papain-assisted hydrolysis method. Physicochemical properties comprising sugar, protein, uronic acid, and sulfate contents, and molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, and structural conformation were analyzed on PS and SPS. In the anti-cancer study, a triple-negative breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231) and a normal human mammary epithelial cell line (H184B5F5/M10) were used to evaluate the anti-proliferative activity of PS and SPS, and their mechanism(s) of action.

RESULTS

The results showed that SPS, which had higher sulfate and protein contents and diversified monosaccharide composition, exhibited more potent anti-proliferative activity against MDA-MB-231 cells than PS. Furthermore, it had a selective cytotoxic effect on breast cancer cells but not the normal cells. SPS induced cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase via down-regulating CDK4 and cyclin D1 and up-regulating p21 protein expression. Breast cancer cell apoptosis was not observed until 72 h after SPS treatment. In addition, SPS also markedly inhibited breast cancer cell migration.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that SPS exhibited selective cytotoxicity and was more potent than PS in inhibiting MDA-MB-231 cell proliferation. The contents of sulfate and protein, and monosaccharide composition could be the main factors affecting the anti-breast cancer activity of L. sulphureus SPS.

Agaricus bisporus polysaccharides ameliorate ulcerative colitis in mice by modulating gut microbiota and its metabolism

The gut microbiota plays a central role in maintaining human health and has been linked to many gastrointestinal diseases such as ulcerative colitis (UC). Agaricus bisporus is a famous edible mushroom, and Agaricus bisporus polysaccharides (ABPs) and the two purified fractions (ABP-1 and ABP-2) were demonstrated to exhibit immunomodulatory activity in our previous study. Herein, we further found that ABPs, ABP-1, and ABP-2 possessed therapeutic effects against dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in mice. ABPs, ABP-1, and ABP-2 could relieve body weight loss, colon atrophy, and histological injury, increase tight junction proteins, restore gut-barrier function, and inhibit inflammation. ABP-2 with a lower molecular weight (1.76 × 104 Da) showed a superior therapeutic effect than ABP-1 with a higher molecular weight (8.86 × 106 Da). Furthermore, the effects of ABP-1 and ABP-2 were microbiota-dependent, which worked by inducing Norank_f__Muribaculaceae and Akkermansia and inhibiting Escherichia-Shigella and Proteus. In addition, untargeted fecal metabolomic analysis revealed distinct modulation patterns of ABP-1 and ABP-2. ABP-1 mainly enriched steroid hormone biosynthesis, while ABP-2 significantly enriched bile secretion and tryptophan metabolism. In summary, ABPs, especially low-molecular-weight fraction, represent novel prebiotics for treatment of inflammatory gastrointestinal diseases.

Identification of lethal species in amanita section Phalloideae based on nucleotide signature and specific TaqMan-MGB probe and primer

Amanita section Phalloideae consists of lethal toxic mushroom species, causing many fatal poisoning incidents worldwide. Molecular techniques of nucleotide signatures and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) detection could be used to develop a specific method for identifying lethal section (sect.) Phalloideae species. A comparison of 38 sequenced and 228 validated sequences from sect. Phalloideae species showed a 17-base pair nucleotide signature and an SNP site between the lethal and non-lethal species. A specific minor groove binder probe was designed based on them. The results indicated that this method exhibited excellent specificity for the lethal subgroup, good detection in samples subjected to simulated gastric digestion (60 min boiling and 120 min digestion), and a 10 pg./μL detection limit. This method enables accurate detection of target species in samples under complex conditions and can provide evidence for poisoning incidents caused by lethal sect. Phalloideae species to assist in targeted treatment strategies.

A prospective association between dietary mushroom intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study-Cardiovascular Disease Association Study

OBJECTIVES

Mushrooms, known for their nutritious and functional components, are considered healthy and medicinal. This study investigated the prospective association between dietary mushroom consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes among Korean adults aged ≥40 years.

METHODS

In total, 16,666 participants who were not taking anti-diabetic medication or insulin and had normal fasting blood glucose (FBG; <126 mg/dL) were included. We used the cumulative average dietary consumption of mushrooms as an exposure metric, calculated from food frequency questionnaires at every follow-up, along with covariates collected during a baseline survey. To estimate incidence rate ratios (IRRs) for type 2 diabetes, a modified Poisson regression model with a robust error estimator was applied.

RESULTS

In multivariable models, dietary mushroom consumption was inversely associated with type 2 diabetes incidence in both genders (men: IRR, 0.65; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.47 to 0.90; plinearity=0.043 in the highest quartile (Q4) vs. the lowest quartile (Q1); women: IRR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.54 to 0.93; plinearity=0.114 in Q4 vs. Q1). The inverse association remained after adjustment for dietary factors instead of dietary quality index, the baseline FBG, and the exclusion of incidence within the first year. Additionally, no significant interaction was found regarding the risk of type 2 diabetes between dietary mushroom consumption and participants' gender or other factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary mushroom consumption was inversely linked with the risk of type 2 diabetes incidence in both genders, indicating the beneficial role of mushrooms in preventing the disease.

Biological Activities of the Golden Chantarelle Mushroom Cantharellus cibarius (Agaricomycetes) Extracts Obtained as a Result of Single and Multi-Objective Optimization Studies

In our study, the biological activities of the wild edible mushroom Cantharellus cibarius were determined. First of all, 64 different experiments were performed in the Soxhlet device at 40-70°C extraction temperatures, 4, 6, 8, and 10 h of extraction time and 0.25, 0.50, 1, and 2 mg/mL extract concentrations, and total antioxidant (TAS) and total oxidant values (TOS) were determined, and both single-purpose and multi-objective optimization studies were performed. The extraction conditions were optimized so that the objective function of the single-purpose optimization would be the maximum TAS value, and the objective function of the multi-objective optimization would be the maximum TAS and minimum TOS values. The data obtained from the experimental study were modeled with artificial neural networks from artificial intelligence methods, and optimization was performed with a genetic algorithm. After the single-objective optimization process, the optimum extraction conditions were found as 46.622°C, 5.110 h and 1.973 mg/mL and the multi-objective optimum extraction conditions were found as 50.927°C, 6.094 h and 1.439 mg/mL. The TAS values of the extracts obtained as a result of single-objective and multi-objective optimization were measured as 5.511 and 5.359, respectively, and the TOS values were measured as 7.289 and 6.061. The anti-AChE value of the extracts was calculated as 16.12, 20.31 and anti-BChE value as 36.92, 40.28. In addition, it was determined that the single-objective optimization extract had stronger antiproliferative activity than the multi-objective extract. As a result, it was determined that the biological activities of the extracts of C. cibarius obtained under suitable conditions were high.

Submerged Culture of Edible and Medicinal Mushroom Mycelia and Their Applications in Food Products: A Review

Edible mushrooms have rich nutrition (e.g., proteins, dietary fibers, polysaccharides) and they can be potential sources of important ingredients in food processing. However, the cultivation of mushroom fruiting bodies needs a relatively long time, and they can be easily polluted during the growth process. At the same time, a lot of labor and larger planting areas are also required. As we all know, submerged fermentation is a good way to produce edible mushroom mycelia with less environmental pollution and small footprint, which are also rich in nutrition and bioactive components that are used as dietary supplements or health care products in the food industry. Therefore, it can be considered that the replacement of edible mushroom fruiting bodies with edible mushroom mycelia produced through submerged fermentation has great application potential in food production. At present, most of the research about edible mushroom mycelia focuses on the production of bioactive metabolites in fermentation liquid, but there are few reports that concentrate on their applications in food. This paper reviews the research progress of submerged culture of edible mushroom mycelia and their applications in food products.

Potential Antiviral Effect of Korean Forest Wild Mushrooms against Feline Coronavirus (FCoV)

Coronaviruses (CoV) are among the major viruses that cause common cold in humans. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a high-risk human pathogen that derived from bat coronaviruses, although several other animals serve as CoV hosts, contributing to human infection. As the human activity area expanded, viruses previously prevalent only in animals mutated and became threats to humans as well, leading to worldwide epidemics. Therefore, controlling CoV infections in animals is essential to prevent CoV-related human infections. Feline coronavirus (FCoV) could be reportedly used as an alternative model for SARS-CoV-2. Traditionally, mushrooms are not only foods but are also consumed to prevent diseases. Importantly, certain edible and medicinal mushrooms display antibacterial and antiviral effects against respiratory pathogens; therefore, they could be tested as potential coronavirus treatment agents. In this study, we investigated if wild forest mushrooms with various reported physiological activities could exhibit an antiviral activity against CoV, using FCoV as a SARS-CoV-2 model infecting Crandell Rees feline kidney cells. We measured the antiviral activity of 11 wild mushrooms overall and our results demonstrated that Pleurotus ostreatus and Phallus luteus displayed the highest antiviral efficacy of 55.33%, followed by Tricholoma bakamatsutake at 43.77%. Grifola frondosa, Morchella esculenta, and Sarcodon imbricatus exhibited mild efficacy of 29.21%. We also tested Amanita caesareoides, Marasmius siccus, Pachyma hoelen, Phallus rubrovolvata, and Sparassis latifolia but could not detect any antiviral activity in their case. Our study confirms that wild forest mushrooms could be used as potential functional foods or pharmacological materials against coronavirus.

Biochemical Properties and Antithrombotic Effect of a Serine Protease Isolated from the Medicinal Mushroom Pycnoporus coccineus (Agaricomycetes)

The purification of a fibrinolytic enzyme from the fruiting bodies of wild-growing medicinal mushroom, Pycnoporus coccineus was achieved through a two-step procedure, resulting in its homogeneity. This purification process yielded a significant 4.13-fold increase in specific activity and an 8.0% recovery rate. The molecular weight of P. coccineus fibrinolytic enzyme (PCFE) was estimated to be 23 kDa using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis. PCFE demonstrated its optimal activity at a temperature of 40 °C and pH 8. Notably, the enzymatic activity was inhibited by the presence of zinc or copper metal ions, as well as serine protease inhibitors, such as phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and 4-amidinophenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride. PCFE exhibited remarkable specificity towards a synthetic chromogenic substrate for thrombin. The enzyme demonstrated the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km), maximal velocity (V ), and catalytic rate constant (Kcat) values of 3.01 mM, 0.33 mM min-1 μg-1, and 764.1 s-1, respectively. In vitro assays showed PCFE's ability to effectively degrade fibrin and blood clots. The enzyme induced alterations in the density and structural characteristics of fibrin clots. PCFE exhibited significant effects on various clotting parameters, including recalcification time, activated partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time, serotonin secretion from thrombin-activated platelets, and thrombin-induced acute thromboembolism. These findings suggest that P. coccineus holds potential as an antithrombotic biomaterials and resources for cardiovascular research.

The Conservation and Study of Macromycetes in the Komarov Botanical Institute Basidiomycetes Culture Collection-Their Taxonomical Diversity and Biotechnological Prospects

Culture collections (CCs) play an important role in the ex situ conservation of biological material and maintaining species and strains, which can be used for scientific and practical purposes. The Komarov Botanical Institute Basidiomycetes Culture Collection (LE-BIN) preserves a large number of original dikaryon strains of various taxonomical and ecological groups of fungi from different geographical regions. Started in the late 1950s for the investigation of Basidiomycetes' biological activity, today, in Russia, it has become a unique specialized macromycetes collection, preserving 3680 strains from 776 species of fungi. The Collection's development is aimed at ex situ conservation of fungal diversity, with an emphasis on preserving rare and endangered species, ectomycorrhizal fungi, and strains useful for biotechnology and medicine. The main methods applied in the collection for maintaining and working with cultures are described, and the results are presented. Some problems for the isolation and cultivation of species are discussed. The taxonomical structure and variety of the strains in the collection fund are analyzed, and they show that the taxonomical diversity of fungi in the LE-BIN is commensurable with the largest CCs in the world. The achievements from the ex situ conservation of the diversity of macromycetes and the main results from the screening and investigation of the collection's strains demonstrate that a number of strains can be prospective producers of enzymes (oxidoreductases and proteases), lipids, and biologically active compounds (terpenoids, phthalides, etc.) for biotechnology and medicine.

Review of postharvest processing of edible wild-grown mushrooms

Edible wild-grown mushrooms, plentiful in resources, have excellent organoleptic properties, flavor, nutrition, and bioactive substances. However, fresh mushrooms, which have high water and enzymatic activity, are not protected by cuticles and are easily attacked by microorganisms. And wild-grown mushroom harvesting is seasonal the harvest of edible wild-grown mushrooms is subject to seasonality, so their market availability is challenging. Many processing methods have been used for postharvest mushroom processing, including sun drying, freezing, packaging, electron beam radiation, edible coating, ozone, and cooking, whose effects on the parameters and composition of the mushrooms are not entirely positive. This paper reviews the effect of processing methods on the quality of wild and some cultivated edible mushrooms. Drying and cooking, as thermal processes, reduce hardness, texture, and color browning, with the parallel that drying reduces the content of proteins, polysaccharides, and phenolics while cooking increases the chemical composition. Freezing, which allows mushrooms to retain better hardness, color, and higher chemical content, is a better processing method. Water washing and ozone help maintain color by inhibiting enzymatic browning. Edible coating facilitates the maintenance of hardness and total sugar content. Electrolytic water (EW) maintains total phenol levels and soluble protein content. Pulsed electric field and ultrasound (US) inhibit microbial growth. Frying maintains carbohydrates, lipids, phenolics, and proteins. And the mushrooms processed by these methods are safe. They are the focus of future research that combines different methods or develops new processing methods, molecular mechanisms of chemical composition changes, and exploring the application areas of wild mushrooms.

Shiitake polysaccharides acted as a non-competitive inhibitor to α-glucosidase and inhibited glucose transport of digested starch from Caco-2 cells monolayer

The inhibition mechanism of shitake mushroom polysaccharides (Lentinula edodes polysaccharides, LEP) against α-glucosidase was studied by enzyme kinetic assay, fluorescence quenching and molecular docking. The effect of LEP on glucose transport of digested starch was investigated via an in vitro digestion/Caco-2 transwell model. LEP exhibited a stronger inhibiting effect (IC50 = 0.66 mg/mL) than acarbose and presented a non-competitive inhibition mechanism. The interaction between LEP and α-glucosidase primarily involved electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonding. Molecular docking modelling showed that the four structures of LEP were bound to the allosteric tunnel or adjacent pocket of α-glucosidase via electrostatic force and hydrogen bonds. The (1 → 6)-linkages in LEP structures favoured its binding affinity to the α-glucosidase. The α-glucosidase inhibiting activity of LEP was also found to emanate from the reduction in glucose transport of digested starch as deducted from the in vitro digestion/Caco-2 transwell data. The release of glucose from digested starch cooked with LEP was significantly reduced (33.7%) compared to the digested starch without LEP. The findings from the current study suggest that LEP could be a promising ingredient to inhibit α-glucosidase activity as well as control the level of postprandial blood glucose when incorporated into starchy foods.

Whole genome sequencing and annotation of Scleroderma yunnanense, the only edible Scleroderma species

Scleroderma yunnanense, an ectomycorrhizal fungus, is a popular edible mushroom within the Yunnan Province of Southwest China that holds great ecological and economic implications. However, despite its significance, there remains limited information about this species. Therefore, we sequenced S. yunnanense genome to identify the functional genes of S. yunnanense involved in secondary metabolite and carbohydrate production pathways. First, we present the 40.43 Mb high-quality reference genome for S. yunnanense, distributed across 35 contigs; moreover, the N50 contig size was found to reach 3.31 Mb and contained 8877 functional genes. Finally, genome annotation was conducted to compare the functional genes of S. yunnanense with protein sequences from different publicly available databases. Taken together, we identified 12 biosynthetic gene clusters across 10 contigs; among these were 13 key mevalonate (MVA) pathway enzymes, a key tyrosinase enzyme in the 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) pathway that is responsible for producing DOPA melanins, and 16 enzymes involved in uridine diphosphate glucose biosynthesis. Overall, this study presents the first genome assembly and annotation of S. yunnanense; ultimately, this information will be important in the elucidation of the biological activities and artificial domestication of this fungus.

Nature's Own Pharmacy: Mushroom-Based Chemical Scaffolds and Their Therapeutic Implications

Mushrooms are new potential sources of valuable medicines, long neglected because of difficulties experienced in their cultivation. There is a large variety of medicinal mushrooms which possess significant therapeutic properties and are used as medications for various diseases because they contain several novel highly bioactive components. Medicinal mushrooms can be identified based on their morphology, size, mass, and the color of the stalk, cap and spore, and attachment to the stalk. Medicinal mushrooms possess a variety of important biological activities and are used as antioxidants, hepatoprotectors, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiaging, antiviral, antiparasitic, and antimicrobial agents, among others. This review provides a basic overview of the chemical scaffolds present in mushrooms and their therapeutic implications in the human body.

Comparative Analysis of Anticancer and Antibacterial Activities among Seven Trametes Species

Species in the genus Trametes (Basidiomycota, Polyporales) have been used in natural medicine for a long time. Many studies reported that mycelia or fruiting bodies of Trametes spp. exhibited effects of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities. However, comparative analysis in this genus is scarce due to limitation of morphological identification and the sample number. In this study, the 19 strains of seven Trametes species were chosen to generate a five-gene-based phylogeny with the 31 global references. In addition, 39 culture extracts were prepared for 13 strains to test for anticancer and antibacterial activities. Strong anticancer activities were found in several extracts from T. hirsuta and T. suaveolens. Anticancer activities of T. suaveolens, T. cf. junipericola and T. trogii were first described here. The antibacterial ability of T. versicolor and T. hirsuta extracts has been confirmed. The antibacterial activities of T. suaveolens have been reported at the first time in this study. These results suggest an efficient application of the genus Trametes as the drug resources especially for anticancer agents.

Transcriptome analysis provides insight into gamma irradiation delaying quality deterioration of postharvest Lentinula edodes during cold storage

To better determine how gamma irradiation (GI) improves abiotic stress resistance, a transcriptome analysis of postharvest L. edodes in response to 1.0 kGy GI was conducted, and further the underlying mechanism of GI in delaying quality deterioration over 20 d of cold storage was explored. The results suggested that GI was involved in multiple metabolic processes in irradiated postharvest L. edodes. In comparison with the control group, the GI group contained 430 differentially expressed genes, including 151 upregulated genes and 279 downregulated genes, which unveiled characteristic expression profiles and pathways. The genes involved in the pentose phosphate pathway were mainly upregulated and the expression level of the gene encoding deoxy-D-gluconate 3-dehydrogenase was 9.151-fold higher. In contrast, the genes related to other energy metabolism pathways were downregulated. Concurrently, GI inhibited the expression of genes associated with delta 9-fatty acid desaturase, ribosomes, and HSP20; thus, GI helped postpone the degradation of lipid components, suppress transcriptional metabolism and regulate the stress response. Additionally, the metabolic behavior of DNA repair induced by GI intensified by noticeable upregulation. These regulatory effects could play a potential and nonnegligible role in delaying the deterioration of L. edodes quality. The results provide new information on the regulatory mechanism of postharvest L. edodes when subjected to 1.0 kGy GI during cold storage.

Pressurized Liquid (PLE) Truffle Extracts Have Inhibitory Activity on Key Enzymes Related to Type 2 Diabetes (α-Glucosidase and α-Amylase)

An optimized PLE method was applied to several truffle species using three different solvent mixtures to obtain bioactive enriched fractions. The pressurized water extracts contained mainly (1 → 3),(1 → 6)-β-D-glucans, chitins, and heteropolymers with galactose and mannose in their structures. The ethanol extracts included fatty acids and fungal sterols and others such as brassicasterol and stigmasterol, depending on the species. They also showed a different fatty acid lipid profile depending on the solvent utilized and species considered. Ethanol:water extracts showed interesting lipids and many phenolic compounds; however, no synergic extraction of compounds was noticed. Some of the truffle extracts were able to inhibit enzymes related to type 2 diabetes; pressurized water extracts mainly inhibited the α-amylase enzyme, while ethanolic extracts were more able to inhibit α-glucosidase. Tuber brumale var. moschatum and T. aestivum var. uncinatum extracts showed an IC₅₀ of 29.22 mg/mL towards α-amylase and 7.93 mg/mL towards α-glucosidase. Thus, use of the PLE method allows o bioactive enriched fractions to be obtained from truffles with antidiabetic properties.

Biotechnological Applications of Mushrooms under the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Crucial Aspects and Prospects from Farm to Pharmacy

Mushrooms have always been an important source of food, with high nutritional value and medicinal attributes. With the use of biotechnological applications, mushrooms have gained further attention as a source of healthy food and bioenergy. This review presents different biotechnological applications and explores how these can support global food, energy, and water security. It highlights mushroom's relevance to meet the sustainable development goals of the UN. This review also discusses mushroom farming and its requirements. The biotechnology review includes sections on how to use mushrooms in producing nanoparticles, bioenergy, and bioactive compounds, as well as how to use mushrooms in bioremediation. The different applications are discussed under the water, energy, and food (WEF) nexus. As far as we know, this is the first report on mushroom biotechnology and its relationships to the WEF nexus. Finally, the review valorizes mushroom biotechnology and suggests different possibilities for mushroom farming integration.

Nutritional Quality and Biological Application of Mushroom Protein as a Novel Protein Alternative

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Global concerns about population growth, economic, and nutritional transitions and health have led to the search for a low-cost protein alternative to animal origins. This review provides an overview of the viability of exploring mushroom protein as a future protein alternative considering the nutritional value, quality, digestibility, and biological benefits.

RECENT FINDINGS

Plant proteins are commonly used as alternatives to animal proteins, but the majority of them are low in quality due to a lack of one or more essential amino acids. Edible mushroom proteins usually have a complete essential amino acid profile, meet dietary requirements, and provide economic advantages over animal and plant sources. Mushroom proteins may provide health advantages by eliciting antioxidant, antitumor, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), inhibitory and antimicrobial properties over animal proteins. Protein concentrates, hydrolysates, and peptides from mushrooms are being used to improve human health. Also, edible mushrooms can be used to fortify traditional food to increase protein value and functional qualities. These characteristics highlight mushroom proteins as inexpensive, high-quality proteins that can be used as a meat alternative, as pharmaceuticals, and as treatments to alleviate malnutrition. Edible mushroom proteins are high in quality, low in cost, widely available, and meet environmental and social requirements, making them suitable as sustainable alternative proteins.

Mushroom-Legume-Based Minced Meat: Physico-Chemical and Sensory Properties

A growing number of health-conscious consumers are looking for animal protein alternatives with similar texture, appearance, and flavor. However, research and development still needs to find alternative non-meat materials. The aim of this study was to develop a mushroom-based minced meat substitute (MMMS) from edible Pleurotus sajor-caju (PSC) mushrooms and optimize the concentration of chickpea flour (CF), beetroot extract, and canola oil. CF was used to improve the textural properties of the MMMS by mixing it with PSC mushrooms in ratios of 0:50, 12.5:37.5, 25:25, 37.5:12.5, and 50:0. Textural and sensory attributes suggest that PSC mushrooms to CF in a ratio of 37.5:12.5 had better textural properties, showing hardness of 2610 N and higher consumer acceptability with protein content up to 47%. Sensory analysis suggests that 5% (w/w) canola oil showed the most acceptable consumer acceptability compared to other concentrations. Color parameters indicate that 0.2% beetroot extract shows higher whiteness, less redness, and higher yellowness for both fresh and cooked MMMS. This research suggests that MMMS containing PSC, CF, canola oil, and beetroot extract could be a suitable alternative and sustainable food product which may lead to higher consumer adoption as a meat substitute.

Antioxidant Compounds from Edible Mushrooms as Potential Candidates for Treating Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases

The last century has seen an increase in our life expectancy. As a result, various age-related diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), have emerged, representing new challenges to society. Oxidative stress (OS), a condition of redox imbalance resulting from excessive production of reactive oxygen species, represents a common feature that characterizes the brains of elderly people, thus contributing to NDs. Consequently, antioxidant supplementation or dietary intake of antioxidant-containing foods could represent an effective preventive and therapeutic intervention to maintain the integrity and survival of neurons and to counteract the neurodegenerative pathologies associated with aging. Food contains numerous bioactive molecules with beneficial actions for human health. To this purpose, a wide range of edible mushrooms have been reported to produce different antioxidant compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids, polysaccharides, vitamins, carotenoids, ergothioneine, and others, which might be used for dietary supplementation to enhance antioxidant defenses and, consequently, the prevention of age-related neurological diseases. In this review, we summarized the role of oxidative stress in age-related NDs, focusing on the current knowledge of the antioxidant compounds present in edible mushrooms, and highlighting their potential to preserve healthy aging by counteracting age-associated NDs.

Nutritional qualities and antioxidant activity of Pleurotus floridanus grown on composted peach sawdust substrate with different composting time

Recently, composting cultivation method is widely used in oyster mushroom production. In this study, we focused on the effects of composting processes on nutritional qualities and antioxidant activity of Pleurotus floridanus mushroom fruiting bodies. Three treatments of different composting time (2, 4, and 5 days) were performed with an atmospheric sterilization treatment as the control. The results showed that the pH value, total carbon content, and total nitrogen content of substrate were critical parameters which would significantly affect mushroom qualities and bioactivities. Fruiting bodies of the control demonstrated significantly higher crude protein content, total amino acid content, and essential amino acid content than that of composting treatments. Moreover, fruiting bodies of treatment D4 and D5 manifested significantly higher crude polysaccharide contents. Crude polysaccharide of treatment D4 represented the highest scavenging ability toward both radical 3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS·⁺ ) and Hydroxyl radical (OH·). It suggests that composting processes is suitable for oyster mushroom cultivation based on nutritional and antioxidant qualities of fruiting bodies.

Advances in Mechanism and Application of Molecular Breeding of Medicinal Mushrooms: A Review

With the development of molecular biology and genomics technology, mushroom breeding methods have changed from single traditional breeding to molecular breeding. Compared with traditional breeding methods, molecular breeding has the advantages of short time and high efficiency. It breaks through the restrictive factors of conventional breeding and improves the accuracy of breeding. Molecular breeding technology is gradually applied to mushroom breeding. This paper summarizes the concept of molecular breeding and the application progress of various molecular breeding technologies in mushroom breeding, in order to provide reference for future research on mushroom breeding.

Anti-Aging and Neuroprotective Properties of Grifola frondosa and Hericium erinaceus Extracts

Nutrition has relevant consequences for human health and increasing pieces of evidence indicate that medicinal mushrooms have several beneficial effects. One of the main issues in Western countries is represented by the challenges of aging and age-related diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders. Among these, Parkinson’s disease (PD) affects 10 million people worldwide and is associated with α-synuclein misfolding, also found in other pathologies collectively called synucleinopathies. Here, we show that aqueous extracts of two edible mushrooms, Grifola frondosa and Hericium erinaceus, represent a valuable source of β-glucans and exert anti-aging effects in yeast. Their beneficial effects are mediated through the inhibition of the Ras/PKA pathway, with increased expression of heat shock proteins, along with a consistent increase of both mean and maximal lifespans. These fungal extracts also reduce the toxicity of α-synuclein heterologously expressed in yeast cells, resulting in reduced ROS levels, lower α-synuclein membrane localization, and protein aggregation. The neuroprotective activity of G. frondosa extract was also confirmed in a PD model of Drosophila melanogaster. Taken together, our data suggest the use of G. frondosa and H. erinaceus as functional food to prevent aging and age-related disorders, further supporting the neuro-healthy properties of these medicinal mushroom extracts.

Flammulina velutipes Mycorrhizae Attenuate High Fat Diet-Induced Lipid Disorder, Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in the Liver and Perirenal Adipose Tissue of Mice

Flammulina velutipes (FV) is edible mushroom that has nutritional and medicinal values. FV mycorrhizae, the by-products of FV, are an abundant source and receive less attention. The objective of this study was to investigate the composition of FV mycorrhizae, and its effects on high fat diet (HFD)-induced lipid disorder, oxidative stress, and inflammatory cytokines, both in the liver and perirenal adipose tissue (PAT) of mice. The results showed that FV mycorrhizae contain abundant trace elements, polysaccharide, amino acids and derivatives, and organic compounds. It was found that 4% FV mycorrhizae (HFDFV) supplementation decreased HFD-induced liver weight and triglyceride (TG) in the plasma, liver and PAT, altered plasma and hepatic fatty acids profiles, promoted gene expression involved in lipid hydrolysis, fatty acid transportation and β-oxidation in the liver and reduced lipid synthesis in the liver and PAT. HFDFV attenuated HFD-induced oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine by increasing GSH/GSSG, and decreasing levels of MDA and IL6 both in the liver and PAT, while it differentially regulated gene expression of IL1β, IL6, and CCL₂ in liver and PAT. The results indicated that FV mycorrhizae are effective to attenuate HFD-induced lipid disorder, oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver and PAT, indicating their promising constituents for functional foods and herbal medicine.