Metabolite identification of crude extract from Ganoderma lucidum in rats using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

UPLC-Q-TOF/MS-based study on chemical composition, in vivo metabolites, and tissue distribution of ethanol extract of Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum), a medicinal fungus, exhibits diverse pharmacological effects against many diseases. Studies have shown that the ethanol extract of G. lucidum (GLEE), which is rich in triterpenoids, possesses significant anti-carcinogenic effects. Early research focused solely on the pharmacokinetics and metabolism of individual triterpenoids in normal rodents. However, no research has examined the distribution of prototype compounds and metabolites of GLEE in multiple tissues, plasma, or tumor tissue. In this study, ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS), combined with the Global Natural Products Social Molecular Networking (GNPS) platform and UNIFI software, was employed to identify and quantify the chemical composition of GLEE. A total of 105 compounds were identified, including 100 triterpenoids and 5 fatty acids, with 18 high-content monomers quantitatively analyzed. Following six weeks of GLEE administration in tumor-bearing nude mice, 42 prototype compounds and 24 metabolites were identified across plasma, tumors, and eight tissues, including small intestine, stomach, liver, heart, lung, kidney, spleen, and colon. Notably, ganoderic acids A, B, C1, F, and H were the most widely distributed compounds across these tissues. The metabolism of GLEE involves both phase I and phase II reactions. This study is the first to provide a comprehensive profile of GLEE's chemical composition, distribution, and metabolism, revealing the potential active triterpenoids responsible for its anti-cancer effects. Our findings provide a foundation for future studies focused on the pharmacological mechanisms of these compounds, offering new insights into the therapeutic potential of G. lucidum in cancer treatment.

Characterization of metabolites of ganoderic acids extract from Ganoderma lucidum in rats using UHPLC-MS/MS

Ganoderic acids, the primary active compound cluster in Ganoderma lucidum (Chinese name: Lingzhi), one of the most reputed herbal medicines, play a crucial role in its immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. To reveal the existence forms of this chemical cluster in rat, we characterized the herb-derived compounds following the oral administration of the ganoderic acids extract (GAE). Moreover, we conducted metabolite characterization for both ganoderic acid A (GAA) and ganoderic acid B (GAB) in parallel to explore the metabolic pathways for ganoderic acids. The biological samples, including bile, plasma, urine, and feces, were analyzed by UHPLC-MS/MS. After carefully summarizing the mass fragmentation rules of ganoderic acids, a total of thirteen and eleven were identified after oral administration of GAA and GAB, respectively, through converting MS/MS spectra into chemical structures. Oxidation, reduction, hydroxylation, glucuronidation and sulfation were proposed as the primary biotransformation routes, and thereof, hydroxylation accounted for more metabolite generation. Through applying mass fragmentation rules and the metabolic knowledge, 107 metabolites, in total, were identified as GAE-derived components in rat. The obtained results provided important information towards the therapeutical forms of GAE in vivo, and moreover, offered guidelines for metabolite characterization of, but not limited to, triterpenoids.

Pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution analysis of sporoderm-removed Ganoderma lucidum spore powder in rats

Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi), a medicinal mushroom, is recognized for its broad pharmacological activities, including potential health and longevity benefits. Notably, several triterpenoids derived from its spores and fruiting body have demonstrated anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and immunomodulatory effects. Despite their therapeutic promise, pharmacokinetic parameters and tissue distribution profiles of these bioactive components are not well characterized, representing a significant knowledge gap. This study aims to elucidate the pharmacokinetic characteristics and tissue distribution patterns of major triterpenoids in sporoderm-removed Ganoderma lucidum spore powder (RGLSP) in rats, thereby laying the groundwork for further optimization of these natural products. We established an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-multiple reaction monitoring-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MRM-MS) method to quantify 12 triterpenoids in rat plasma and tissues following oral administration of RGLSP. The method was validated according to US Food and Drug Administration bioanalytical guidelines and demonstrated good performance. Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed that the mean time to peak concentration for the 12 triterpenoids ranged from 0.25 to 2.33 h, with maximum concentrations varying from 42.52 to 643.13 ng/mL and the area under the concentration-time curve spanning 72.74 to 943.00 ng·h/mL. Tissue distribution results indicated rapid and extensive distribution of the triterpenoids in rat liver, lung, spleen, kidney, heart, and gastrointestinal tract, followed by gradual metabolism. After oral administration, major triterpenoids in RGLSP were rapidly absorbed into the plasma and widely distributed across five major viscera and the gastrointestinal tract, undergoing hepatic and intestinal circulation through metabolic pathways. These findings provide a valuable reference for the clinical application of RGLSP, as well as lead optimization of the triterpenoids.

Lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory effects against FAAH

Ganoderma lucidum is a famous edible and medicinal fungus. Through a bioactive phytochemical investigation of the ethanolic extracts of the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum, twenty-nine triterpenoids, including eleven previously undescribed triterpenoids, were isolated and characterized based on spectroscopic data. The inhibitory effects of all the triterpenes against fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) were found to be in the range of 30-60% at 100 μM. Methyl ganoderate A displayed the strongest inhibitory activity (61%) against FAAH. Furthermore, all compounds displayed no cytotoxicity against LOVO and MCF-7 human cancer cells. Hence, our present study provides information about G. lucidum as a functional food or pharmaceutical supplement for the treatment of neuroinflammation.

Metabolic fingerprinting of Ganoderma spp. using UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS and its chemometric analysis

A UHPLC-QTOF-MS method was developed to separate and identify 70 triterpenes present in each of the 18 strains of Ganoderma spp. Collected from various parts of India. A PCDL MS library was used to retrieve and identify these 70 triterpenes by meticulous analysis of MS/MS fragments. The MS data from these 18 strains were further statistically analysed to arrive at meaningful conclusions. Heatmap analysis suggested that Ganoderma spp. G44, G25 and G36 were the top three strains of Ganoderma mushrooms based on their metabolic concentration in Indian biota. From the PCA loading plot, it was observed that the triterpenes Ganoderic acid A, Ganoderic acid D, Ganoderic acid F, Ganoderic acid J, Ganoderic acid M, Ganoderic acid N, Ganoderenic acid B, Ganoderiol H, 3β,7β-Dihydroxy-11,15,23-trioxo-lanost-8,16-dien-26-oic acid, 3β,7β,15β-trihydroxy-11,23-dioxo-lanost-8,16-dien-26-oic acid and 20 - hydroxy ganoderic acid AM1 were identified as the principal contributors for the discrimination of a particular strain of the mushroom. We have also identified the samples obtained from different regions of India with the highest concentration of metabolites with potent biological activity. The results presented here could be very helpful for both scientific and industrial applications such as quality control of various medicines and food additives containing triterpenes.

Identifying potential anti-COVID-19 pharmacological components of traditional Chinese medicine Lianhuaqingwen capsule based on human exposure and ACE2 biochromatography screening

Lianhuaqingwen (LHQW) capsule, a herb medicine product, has been clinically proved to be effective in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia treatment. However, human exposure to LHQW components and their pharmacological effects remain largely unknown. Hence, this study aimed to determine human exposure to LHQW components and their anti-COVID-19 pharmacological activities. Analysis of LHQW component profiles in human plasma and urine after repeated therapeutic dosing was conducted using a combination of HRMS and an untargeted data-mining approach, leading to detection of 132 LHQW prototype and metabolite components, which were absorbed via the gastrointestinal tract and formed via biotransformation in human, respectively. Together with data from screening by comprehensive 2D angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) biochromatography, 8 components in LHQW that were exposed to human and had potential ACE2 targeting ability were identified for further pharmacodynamic evaluation. Results show that rhein, forsythoside A, forsythoside I, neochlorogenic acid and its isomers exhibited high inhibitory effect on ACE2. For the first time, this study provides chemical and biochemical evidence for exploring molecular mechanisms of therapeutic effects of LHQW capsule for the treatment of COVID-19 patients based on the components exposed to human. It also demonstrates the utility of the human exposure-based approach to identify pharmaceutically active components in Chinese herb medicines.

Nitrate reductase-dependent nitric oxide plays a key role on MeJA-induced ganoderic acid biosynthesis in Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum, which contains numerous biologically active compounds, is known worldwide as a medicinal basidiomycete. Because of its application for the prevention and treatment of various diseases, most of artificially cultivated G. lucidum is output to many countries as food, tea, and dietary supplements for further processing. Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) has been reported as a compound that can induce ganoderic acid (GA) biosynthesis, an important secondary metabolite of G. lucidum. Herein, MeJA was found to increase the intracellular level of nitric oxide (NO). In addition, upregulation of GA biosynthesis in the presence of MeJA was abolished when NO was depleted from the culture. This result demonstrated that MeJA-regulated GA biosynthesis might occur via NO signaling. To elucidate the underlying mechanism, we used gene-silenced strains of nitrate reductase (NR) and the inhibitor of NR to illustrate the role of NO in MeJA induction. The results indicated that the increase in GA biosynthesis induced by MeJA was activated by NR-generated NO. Furthermore, the findings indicated that the reduction of NO could induce GA levels in the control group, but NO could also activate GA biosynthesis upon MeJA treatment. Further results indicated that NR silencing reversed the increased enzymatic activity of NOX to generate ROS due to MeJA induction. Importantly, our results highlight the NR-generated NO functions in signaling crosstalk between reactive oxygen species and MeJA. These results provide a good opportunity to determine the potential pathway linking NO to the ROS signaling pathway in fungi treated with MeJA. KEY POINTS: • MeJA increased the intracellular level of nitric oxide (NO) in G. lucidum. • The increase in GA biosynthesis induced by MeJA is activated by NR-generated NO. • NO acts as a signaling molecule between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and MeJA.

Optimization of antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities and ganoderic acid content of differentially dried Ganoderma lucidum using response surface methodology

The dried Ganoderma lucidum (GL) has been widely used for its pharmacological properties and bioactive ganoderic acids (GAs). Herein, extraction procedures combining ultra-sonication and heating were optimized using response surface methodology based on four variables (antioxidant activity, anti-diabetic activity, total GAs content, and total polysaccharide content) and principal component analysis. The extraction of freeze-dried GL at temperatures between 64.2 and 70 °C for 1.2 h maximized the antioxidant activity and GA content, whereas the polysaccharide content and anti-diabetic activity were maximized by extraction between 66.8 and 70 °C for more than 2.8 h. Heat-dried GL extracted at 50 °C for 3 h provided the greatest anti-inflammatory activity against HaCaT cells by suppressing the response to inflammation related cytokines at mRNA levels. These results suggest that extraction conditions might be a limiting factor for target-oriented investigations, and optimized extraction methods may improve the potential effect and quality of harvested GL products.

Hepatoprotective activity of Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids in alcohol-induced liver injury in mice, an iTRAQ-based proteomic analysis

The hepatoprotective activity of ethanol extract of Ganoderma lucidum (GLE) in alcohol-induced liver injury in mice was investigated. HPLC coupled with photo-diode array detector and electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry was used to analyze the major triterpenoids in GLE. The effects of GLE on hepatoprotection were evaluated through histopathology and biochemical analysis of serum enzymes. We used isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) coupled with tandem mass spectrometry to identify differentially expressed liver proteome in mice. There were more than 4000 differentially expressed proteins; 40 proteins with the most significant changed proteins were applied for further bioinformatics analysis. Expression levels of cytochrome P450 2E1 and alcohol dehydrogenase 1, proteins that are closely associated with these processes, were validated by western blotting. Triterpenoids, major components of GLE, protected alcohol-induced liver injury through inhibiting lipid peroxidation, elevating activity of antioxidant enzymes, and suppressing apoptotic cell death and immune inflammatory response.

Cross Talk between Calcium and Reactive Oxygen Species Regulates Hyphal Branching and Ganoderic Acid Biosynthesis in Ganoderma lucidum under Copper Stress

Ganoderma lucidum is among the best known medicinal basidiomycetes due to its production of many pharmacologically active compounds. To study the regulatory networks involved in its growth and development, we analyzed the relationship between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Ca²⁺ signaling in the regulation of hyphal branching and ganoderic acid (GA) biosynthesis after Cu²⁺ treatment. Our results revealed that Cu²⁺ treatment decreased the distance between hyphal branches and increased the GA content and the intracellular levels of ROS and Ca²⁺ Further research revealed that the Cu²⁺-induced changes in hyphal branch distance, GA content, and cytosolic Ca²⁺ level were dependent on increases in cytosolic ROS. Our results also showed that increased cytosolic Ca²⁺ could reduce cytosolic ROS by activating antioxidases and modulating Cu²⁺ accumulation, resulting in feedback to adjust hyphal growth and GA biosynthesis. These results indicated that cytosolic ROS and Ca²⁺ levels exert important cross talk in the regulation of hyphal growth and GA biosynthesis induced by Cu²⁺ Taken together, our results provide a reference for analyzing the interactions among different signal transduction pathways with regard to the regulation of growth and development in other filamentous fungi.IMPORTANCEGanoderma lucidum, which is known as an important medicinal basidiomycete, is gradually becoming a model organism for studying environmental regulation and metabolism. In this study, we analyzed the relationship between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Ca²⁺ signaling in the regulation of hyphal branching and ganoderic acid (GA) biosynthesis under Cu²⁺ stress. The results revealed that the Cu²⁺-induced changes in the hyphal branch distance, GA content, and cytosolic Ca²⁺ level were dependent on increases in cytosolic ROS. Furthermore, the results indicated that increased cytosolic Ca²⁺ could reduce cytosolic ROS levels by activating antioxidases and modulating Cu²⁺ accumulation. The results in this paper indicate that there was important cross talk between cytosolic ROS and Ca²⁺ levels in the regulation of hyphal growth and GA biosynthesis induced by Cu².

Distinguishing commercially grown Ganoderma lucidum from Ganoderma lingzhi from Europe and East Asia on the basis of morphology, molecular phylogeny, and triterpenic acid profiles

In China and other countries of East Asia, so-called Ling-zhi or Reishi mushrooms are used in traditional medicine since several centuries. Although the common practice to apply the originally European name 'Ganoderma lucidum' to these fungi has been questioned by several taxonomists, this is still generally done in recent publications and with commercially cultivated strains. In the present study, two commercially sold strains of 'G. lucidum', M9720 and M9724 from the company Mycelia bvba (Belgium), are compared for their fruiting body (basidiocarp) morphology combined with molecular phylogenetic analyses, and for their secondary metabolite profile employing an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESIMS) in combination with a high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-ESI-MS). According to basidiocarp morphology, the strain M9720 was identified as G. lucidum s.str. whereas M9724 was determined as Ganoderma lingzhi. In molecular phylogenetic analyses, the M9720 ITS and beta-tubulin sequences grouped with sequences of G. lucidum s.str. from Europe whereas those from M9724 clustered with sequences of G. lingzhi from East Asia. We show that an ethanol extract of ground basidiocarps from G. lucidum (M9720) contains much less triterpenic acids than found in the extract of G. lingzhi (M9724). The high amount of triterpenic acids accounts for the bitter taste of the basidiocarps of G. lingzhi (M9724) and of its ethanol extract. Apparently, triterpenic acids of G. lucidum s.str. are analyzed here for the first time. These results demonstrate the importance of taxonomy for commercial use of fungi.

Recent development in liquid chromatography stationary phases for separation of Traditional Chinese Medicine components

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is an ancient medical practice which has been used to prevent and cure diseases for thousands of years. TCMs are frequently multi-component systems with mainly unidentified constituents. The study of the chemical compositions of TCMs remains a hotspot of research. Different strategies have been developed to manage the significant complexity of TCMs, in an attempt to determine their constituents. Reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) is still the method of choice for the separation of TCMs, but has many problems related to limited selectivity. Recently, enormous efforts have been concentrated on the development of efficient liquid chromatography (LC) methods for TCMs, based on selective stationary phases. This can improve the resolution and peak capacity considerably. In addition, high-efficiency stationary phases have been applied in the analysis of TCMs since the invention of ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC). This review describes the advances in LC methods in TCM research from 2010 to date, and focuses on novel stationary phases. Their potential in the separation of TCMs using relevant applications is also demonstrated.

Ganoderma lucidum for cancer treatment: we are close but still not there

The medicinal fungus Ganoderma lucidum has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for millennia to improve health and promote longevity. The idea of using G. lucidum for cancer treatment is based on numerous laboratory and preclinical studies with cancer and immune cells as well as animal models demonstrating various biological activities in vitro and in vivo. For example, G. lucidum possesses cytotoxic, cytostatic, antimetastatic, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulating activities. Limited clinical studies, including case reports and randomized controlled trials, suggest G. lucidum as an alternative adjunct therapy for stimulating the immune system in cancer patients. To confirm the efficacy of G. lucidum in cancer treatment, systematic translational research programs should be started worldwide. In addition, only standardized preclinically evaluated, biologically active G. lucidum extracts should be used in alternative treatments. This approach will lead to the development of standardized G. lucidum preparations with specific chemical fingerprint-associated anticancer activities.

Ganoderic Acid and Lucidenic Acid (Triterpenoid)

Ganoderma species is known as a functional mushroom used in many Asian countries. Triterpenoids, ganoderic acids, and lucidenic acids have been isolated from Ganoderma species (Ganodermataceae family), such as Ganoderma lucidum. Triterpenoids have been investigated for their biological activities, including antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor, antiosteoclastic differentiation activity, anti-HIV-1, hepatoprotection, antioxidation, antihypertension, cholesterol reduction, and antiaggregation functions. In this chapter, the sources, biosynthesis, biological functions (including cell cytotoxicity, cell apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, anti-invasion, autophagy, anti-inflammation, antiosteoclastogenesis, antiasthma, and antihepatitis B activity), and pharmacokinetics of lucidenic acids and ganoderic acids are considered in detail here. This chapter briefly summarizes the multiple functions of lucidenic acids and ganoderic acids and their potential for fighting against human diseases.